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33-670: In order to rebuild the Republic, the Admirable Campaign took Bolívar very rapidly in just a few months to Caracas on August 6, 1813. However, the whole enterprise came to an end in 1814, when the royalist troops of José Tomás Boves finally defeated the patriot forces and forced Bolívar to retreat, with the additional consequence of being proscribed by José Félix Ribas and Manuel Piar . After this defeat in 1814, Bolívar fled Venezuela with his authority lost and disputed by his own officers. The Second Republic of Venezuela

66-494: A Jamaican merchant of English origin, it is clear that its fundamental objective was to gain the attention of the most powerful liberal nation of the 19th century, Britain, with the aim that it would decide to involve itself in American independence. However, when Britain finally responded to Bolívar's call, he preferred the help of Haiti . Admirable Campaign The Admirable Campaign ( Spanish : Campaña Admirable )

99-680: A new discussion. Treaties for arbitration of disputes and adjustment of tariffs were adopted, and the Commercial Bureau of the American Republics , which later became the Pan-American Union , was established. Subsequent meetings were held in various South American cities. In the 20th century, US President Franklin Roosevelt embraced a robust formulation of Pan-Americanism during World War II through

132-870: A series of areas, such as health ( Pan-American Health Organization , established 1902), geography and history ( Pan-American Institute of Geography and History , 1928), child protection and children's rights (International American Institute for the Protection of Children, 1927), rights of the woman ( Inter-American Commission of Women , 1928), indigenous policies (Inter-American Indigenist Institute, 1940), agriculture (Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences), collective continental defense ( Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance , 1947), economic aid ( Inter-American Development Bank , 1959), infrastructure works ( Pan-American Highway ) and peacekeeping (the Inter-American Peace Force after

165-631: The Roosevelt Corollary . Under this new interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine, opposition to European expansion continued, but in the event of "bad behavior" on the part of Latin American countries, "is was [now] the obligation of the United States to intervene in order to prevent European action." Meanwhile, U.S. diplomats were also pursuing a contrasting policy of Pan-Americanism—a political movement that sought to promote

198-549: The independence of the United States of America in 1776 and the independence of Haiti in 1804, the struggle for independence after 1810 by the nations of Hispanic America evoked a sense of unity, especially in South America , where, under Simón Bolívar in the north and José de San Martín in the south, there were co-operative efforts. Francisco Morazán briefly headed a Federal Republic of Central America . Early South American Pan-Americanists were also inspired by

231-564: The invasion of the Dominican Republic , 1965), and human rights ( Inter-American Court of Human Rights , 1979). The American states also adopted a series of diplomatic and political rules, which were not always respected or fulfilled, governing relations between the countries like arbitration of disputes, peaceful resolution of conflicts, military non-intervention, equality among the member states of each organism, and in their mutual relations, decisions through resolutions approved by

264-537: The 1800s, United States President James Monroe announced in 1823 the establishment of the Monroe Doctrine , which implied that any further imperial actions into the Western Hemisphere by European countries would be unilaterally opposed by the United States. Subjugation under former imperial and colonial rule was a shared experience for most American nations, and this formed an important pillar of

297-716: The 19th century, South American military nationalism came to the fore. Venezuela and Ecuador withdrew in 1830 from Gran Colombia , the Central American Federation collapsed in 1838, Argentina and Brazil fought continually over Uruguay , all three combined in the Paraguayan War (1865–1870) to defeat Paraguay , and Chile defeated Peru and Bolivia in the War of the Pacific (1879–1883). However, during that period, Pan-Americanism existed in

330-540: The American Revolutionary War, in which a suppressed and colonized society struggled, united, and gained independence. In the United States, Henry Clay and Thomas Jefferson set forth the principles of Pan-Americanism in the early 19th century, and soon, the United States declared through the Monroe Doctrine a new policy concerning interference by Europe in the affairs of the Americas . In

363-760: The Corollary and viewed U.S. foreign policy regarding national sovereignty as hypocritical, Washington continued to push back against any formal attempts by countries in Latin America to establish a standard interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine and its Corollary—that is, any attempt to "Pan-Americanize" the Monroe Doctrine and apply national sovereignty rights equally to all countries in the Americas. In 2019, 15.1 and 14.6 percent of all US imports were exchanged with Canada and Mexico, respectively. A significant portion of these imports involved food products. At 76%,

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396-414: The Monroe Doctrine and consequently Pan-Americanism, where there was relatively unified opposition toward further inward imperial conquest by European nations. Although the Monroe Doctrine originally declared U.S. opposition to new European expansion in the Americas, the United States used its increased influence in the region to promote its own strategic interests. Throughout the 1800s, the Monroe Doctrine

429-584: The Spanish America months earlier. In October, Bolívar's economic situation worsened in a point in which he was in despair. According to a letter written to Maxwell Hyslop, Bolívar said that he would end his days " in a violent manner " and that "it is preferable death than a less honourable existence". Prior to those misfortuned words in October 1815, Bolívar wrote the Carta de Jamaica . Months later, he

462-527: The U.S. government countered attempts by Latin Americans to enshrine the principles behind the Monroe Doctrine and Corollary in international law, instead favoring a form of American (United States) exceptionalism that allowed continued intervention by the United States in Latin American affairs to protect U.S. interests. While many Latin American countries and intellectuals immediately criticized

495-558: The army of the United Provinces , which was in the process of fighting with cities that did not recognize its authority. On January 28, 1813, Bolívar captured Ocaña , a city which was on the main roads to Venezuela. The expedition was formed by two divisions, a vanguard led by Colonel Atanasio Girardot and a rear under Colonel José Félix Ribas . At the same time Domingo de Monteverde was moving troops to western Venezuela in preparation for an invasion of New Granada, threatening

528-514: The establishment of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs . Following his Good Neighbor Policy , Roosevelt endeavored to foster the development of peaceful commercial and cultural relations between the American Republics through the skillful use of cultural diplomacy . The intended liberalization of commercial intercourse did not occur, but collaboration was extended to

561-502: The form of a series of Inter-American Conferences— Panama (1826), Lima (1847), Santiago (1856), and Lima (1864). The meetings' main objective was to provide for a common defense. The first modern Pan-American gathering was the or First International Conference of American States held in 1889-90 at Washington D.C ., with the New York Evening Post first using the term in 1882 and creating traction for support of

594-496: The future of the American continent, given the situation of the world's politics. Bolívar did not have in that year any resources to fulfill his projects of emancipation. In 1815, he gained the sympathy of the British, but he was close to poverty with few material possessions, little money and some slaves; Pío, one of them, tried to assassinate him under the orders given by Pablo Morillo , whose fleet began its voyage from Cádiz to

627-427: The historical successes in the struggle for liberty in the Americas. In general terms, it was a balance of force achieved by the patriots in the years from 1810 to 1815. In the middle part of the document are expounded the causes and reasons that justified the " Spanish Americans " in their decision for independence, followed by a call to Europe for it to co-operate in the work to liberate the Latin American peoples. In

660-748: The ideal of Latin American independence means economic profit for England. Therefore, Bolívar made efforts to convince the English gentlemen of his proposals, such as giving to England the Spanish American provinces of Panama and Nicaragua to build waterway later developed as the Panama Canal and the Nicaragua Canal . Bolívar lived in Kingston from May to December 1815 with no military activities, but he dedicated his time to think about

693-507: The independence of America. Americans, count on life, even if guilty." The Decree would remain in force, technically, until the treaty signed with Pablo Morillo at Santa Ana de Trujillo on November 26, 1820, regularized the rules of engagement. The last major engagement of the campaign was the Battle of Los Horcones on July 22. After that the expedition occupied the cities of Valencia and La Victoria in early August. Losing on two fronts,

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726-516: The loyalist armies. Unable to deal with the civil war that confronted the patriot factions and having neither political power nor the acceptance of several New Granadines, Bolívar decided to resign his military investiture and to leave the Spanish American society. Bolívar made his way to Jamaica on May 8, 1815, and he arrived there six days later. He aspired to get the attention of the British Empire in order to obtain its cooperation, in which

759-615: The majority, the recognition of diplomatic asylum, the Private International Law Code ( Bustamante Code , 1928), the inter-American system of human rights ( American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man , 1948; Inter-American Commission on Human Rights , 1959; and the 2001 Inter-American Democratic Charter of the Organization of American States ). Serving as a core principle of U.S. foreign policy in

792-430: The newly independent states there. From Ocaña Bolívar moved against royalist areas of New Granada, taking the border city of Cúcuta in the Battle of Cúcuta on February 28. Here, Bolivar asked United Provinces for aid and permission to enter Venezuela through a document named the " Cartagena Manifesto " ( Spanish : Manifiesto de Cartagena ). The United Provinces regarded his petition favourably taking into consideration

825-731: The numerous actions that he executed for the Neogranadan government. As soon as government authorization was given, the campaign started its march into Venezuela on February 16. The expedition marched through San Cristóbal , La Grita , Mérida and Trujillo . It is from this city that Bolívar issued his " Decree of War to the Death ." In the Decree Bolivar announced that the patriot army will treat Spaniards and Criollos differently: "Spaniards and Canarians , you can expect death, even if uninvolved, if you do not actively work in favor of

858-423: The respect of national sovereignty, continental cooperation and further integration. These conflicting foreign policy objectives launched by the U.S. government created intense discourse among U.S. and Latin American leaders regarding hemispheric anti-interventionist policies and doctrines at future Pan-American Conferences . Despite the push by U.S. diplomats for further integrated and unified American continents,

891-541: The royalist government surrendered on August 4. Bolívar's forces had a triumphal entrance into the city of Caracas on August 6, bringing an end to the campaign and reestablishing the Venezuelan republic . Pan-Americanism Pan-Americanism is a movement that seeks to create, encourage, and organize relationships, an association (a Union), and cooperation among the states of the Americas , through diplomatic, political, economic, and social means. Following

924-534: The term with its continuous usage, leading to other newspapers to use the term after the conference. All countries invited joined the conference, except for the Dominican Republic because a treaty of arbitration and commercial reciprocity between the United States and the Dominican Republic in 1884 was never ratified by the United States, leading the Dominican to state they were not at liberty to enter

957-403: The third and final part, he speculated and debated on the destiny of Mexico , Central America , New Granada , Venezuela, Río de la Plata , Chile, and Peru . Finally, Bolívar ends his reflections with an imprecation that he would repeat until his death: the necessity for the union of the countries of the Americas . Even though the Carta de Jamaica was nominally addressed to Henry Cullen,

990-523: Was a military action led by Simón Bolívar in which the provinces of Mérida, Barinas, Trujillo and Caracas were conquered by the Patriots . Its objective was to free Venezuela from Spanish control, which was accomplished in conjunction with Santiago Mariño 's simultaneous campaign in the east. After the loss of the First Republic of Venezuela , Bolívar had gone to New Granada where he joined

1023-538: Was finally abolished. Bolívar departed to Cartagena on September 8, 1814. He was in New Granada in October 1814 and stayed until April 1815. Nevertheless, Bolívar did not repeat the victorious experience of 1813 because he was a subordinate of the New Granadine authorities, which requested him to fight against the federalist forces (who opposed the centralist dictatorship of Bernardo Álvarez ) rather than

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1056-610: Was invoked multiple times in the Americas, including during the annexation of Texas (1845), the Mexican-U.S. War (1845–1848), and the 1861 Spanish Invasion of Santo Domingo. In almost all cases, U.S. influence increased in the region and the U.S. government's policy toward Latin America became more expansionist in nature. In 1904, President Theodore Roosevelt added a "Corollary" to the Doctrine, which would later become known as

1089-598: Was required by his New Granadian fellows to help their resistance against Morillo's troops, but it was too late because the loyalist Pacificador took the city of Cartagena. This event made Bolívar change his course to Haiti in order to get reinforcements from Alexandre Pétion . On December 24, Bolívar was no longer in Jamaica. The Carta de Jamaica was finished on September 7, 1815, in Kingston. In it, Bolívar began by analyzing what until that time had been considered

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