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93-718: Judaeo-Spanish or Judeo-Spanish (autonym djudeoespanyol , Hebrew script : גﬞודﬞיאו־איספאנייול ‎), also known as Ladino , is a Romance language derived from Old Spanish . Originally spoken in Spain, and then after the Edict of Expulsion spreading through the Ottoman Empire (the Balkans , Turkey , West Asia , and North Africa ) as well as France , Italy , the Netherlands , Morocco , and England , it

186-551: A "doubled" letter, making the list BeGeD KePoReT . ( Sefer Yetzirah , 4:1) The following table contains the pronunciation of the Hebrew letters in reconstructed historical forms and dialects using the International Phonetic Alphabet . The apostrophe-looking symbol after some letters is not a yud but a geresh . It is used for loanwords with non-native Hebrew sounds. The dot in the middle of some of

279-968: A "k" sound or at the end of certain words (such as seis , pronounced [seʃ] , for 'six') is shared with Portuguese (as spoken in Portugal, most of Lusophone Asia and Africa, and in a plurality of Brazilian varieties and registers with either partial or total forms of coda |S| palatalization) but not with Spanish. Like other Jewish vernaculars , Judaeo-Spanish incorporates many Hebrew and Aramaic words, mostly for religious concepts and institutions. Examples are haham/ḥaḥam ('rabbi', from Hebrew ḥakham ) and kal, kahal/cal, cahal ('synagogue', from Hebrew qahal ). Some Judeao-Spanish words of Hebrew or Aramaic origins have more poetic connotations than their Spanish origin equivalents. Compare gaava ('pride, arrogance') from Hebrew ga'avá with arrogansya ('arrogance') from Spanish arrogancia . The majority of Judaeo-Spanish speaking people resided in

372-416: A Hebrew text with these letters would require using the spelling in the language from which the transliteration to Hebrew was originally made). The non-standard " ו׳ ‎" and " וו ‎" are sometimes used to represent / w / , which like / d͡ʒ / , / ʒ / and / t͡ʃ / appears in Hebrew slang and loanwords. The Sound / χ / (as "ch" in loch ) is often transcribed "ch", inconsistently with

465-720: A cantillation mark used for Torah recitation, though its visual appearance and function are different in that context. In much of Israel 's general population, especially where Ashkenazic pronunciation is prevalent, many letters have the same pronunciation. They are as follows: * Varyingly Some of the variations in sound mentioned above are due to a systematic feature of Ancient Hebrew. The six consonants /b ɡ d k p t/ were pronounced differently depending on their position. These letters were also called BeGeD KeFeT letters / ˌ b eɪ ɡ ɛ d ˈ k ɛ f ɛ t / . The full details are very complex; this summary omits some points. They were pronounced as plosives [b ɡ d k p t] at

558-641: A central dot called dagesh ( דגש ‎), while the soft sounds lack a dagesh . In modern Hebrew, however, the dagesh only changes the pronunciation of ב ‎ bet , כ ‎ kaf , and פ ‎ pe , and does not affect the name of the letter. The differences are as follows: In other dialects (mainly liturgical) there are variations from this pattern. The sounds [ t͡ʃ ] , [ d͡ʒ ] , [ ʒ ] , written ⟨ צ׳ ‎⟩, ⟨ ג׳ ‎⟩, ⟨ ז׳ ‎⟩, and [ w ] , non-standardly sometimes transliterated ⟨ וו ‎⟩, are often found in slang and loanwords that are part of

651-438: A different final form used at the end of words, the final forms are displayed beneath the regular form. The block (square, or "print" type) and cursive ("handwritten" type) are the only variants in widespread contemporary use. Rashi is also used, for historical reasons, in a handful of standard texts. Following the adoption of Greek Hellenistic alphabetic numeration practice, Hebrew letters started being used to denote numbers in

744-704: A form of the paleo-Hebrew script called the Samaritan alphabet . After the fall of the Persian Empire in 330 BCE, Jews used both scripts before settling on the square Assyrian form. The square Hebrew alphabet was later adapted and used for writing languages of the Jewish diaspora – such as Karaim , the Judeo-Arabic languages , Judaeo-Spanish, and Yiddish. The Hebrew alphabet continued in use for scholarly writing in Hebrew and came again into everyday use with

837-433: A manner reminiscent of Spanish and Portuguese village practice today. (Molho 2021) In the eastern Mediterranean, women musicians specializing in singing and drumming for weddings were known as tanyederas, and they played a central role in wedding events. Some early 20th-century Ottoman-area Jewish schools taught 'ud and mandolin to girls; and some women learned to play the piano. In any case, whether or not instruments are used,

930-527: A new generation of singers arose, many of whom were not themselves Sephardic. Gloria Levy, Pasharos Sefardíes, Flory Jagoda the Parvarim, and Janet & Jak Esim Ensemble are popular Eastern Tradition performers of this period. Gerard Edery, Savina Yannatou , Stefani Valadez, Françoise Atlan , Marlene Samoun Yasmin Levy and Mara Aranda are among the new generation of singers bringing a new interpretation to

1023-419: A non-syllabic /u/ ( [w] ). Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords and morphemes (except those that were borrowed indirectly through other languages) are spelled according to Hebrew orthography . The rest of the language's lexicon is spelled as illustrated in the following table: Notes: This orthography uses an interpunct ⟨·⟩ to distinguish the sequence /s+x/ (written ⟨s·h⟩ ) from

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1116-510: A number of reverse letter orders; such as vav - he , chet - zayin , pe - ayin , etc. A reversal to pe-ayin can be clearly seen in the Book of Lamentations , whose first four chapters are ordered as alphabetical acrostics. In the Masoretic text , the first chapter has the now-usual ayin-pe ordering, and the second, third and fourth chapters exhibit pe-ayin . In

1209-870: A profession) was borrowed into Judaeo-Spanish as the suffix -djí . It can be found in words like halvadjí ('candyman'), derived from halva + -djí . Due to the influence of the Alliance Israélite Universelle in the westernization and modernization of Judeao-Spanish speaking communities, many words of French origin were adopted. Most of these words refer to Western European innovations and introductions. Examples include: abazur ('lampshade'), from French abat-jour , fardate ('apply makeup'), from French se farder , and fusil ('gun') from French fusil . Some French political and cultural elements are present in Judeao-Spanish. For example, ir al Bismark ('to go to

1302-606: A subject–verb–object word order , has a nominative-accusative alignment , and is considered a fusional or inflected language. Two Israeli organizations, the Akademia Nasionala del Ladino and the Autoridad Nasionala del Ladino , jointly regulate Judæo-Spanish orthography. The organizations allow speakers to choose between the Hebrew script , which was historically the most prevalent writing system for

1395-458: A tendency to render Hebrew word order literally ( ha-laylah ha-zeh , meaning 'this night', was rendered la noche la esta instead of the normal Spanish esta noche ). As mentioned above, authorities confine the term Ladino to that style. Following the Expulsion , the process of dialect mixing continued, but Castilian Spanish remained by far the largest contributor. The daily language

1488-424: A vowel instead of a consonant (which would be, respectively, /ʔ/, /ʕ/, /v/ and /j/ ). When they do, ו ‎ and י ‎ are considered to constitute part of the vowel designation in combination with a niqqud symbol – a vowel diacritic (whether or not the diacritic is marked), whereas א ‎ and ע ‎ are considered to be mute, their role being purely indicative of the non-marked vowel. Niqqud

1581-444: Is a threat of assimilation by modern Spanish. It is experiencing, however, a minor revival among Sephardic communities, especially in music . The scholar Joseph Nehama, author of the comprehensive Judeo-Spanish–French dictionary, referred to the language as Judeo-Espagnol . The 1903 Hebrew–Judeo-Spanish Haggadah entitled " Seder Haggadah shel pesaḥ ʿim pitron be-lashon sefaradi " ( סדר הגדה של פסח עם פתרון בלשון ספרדי ), from

1674-637: Is a true alphabet, with all vowels rendered in the spelling, except in the case of inherited Hebrew words, which typically retain their Hebrew consonant-only spellings. The Arabic and Hebrew alphabets have similarities because they are both derived from the Aramaic alphabet, which in turn derives either from paleo-Hebrew or the Phoenician alphabet , both being slight regional variations of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet used in ancient times to write

1767-566: Is by splitting first Haketia , or "Western Judeao-Spanish", from other varieties, collectively referred to as "Eastern Judeao-Spanish". Within Eastern Judeao-Spanish, further division is made based on city of origin. Aldina Quintana split Eastern Ladino into three groups: 1. Grupo noroccidental (Northwest group), centered around Sarajevo (Bosnia). It also includes the dialects of Bitola (Macedonia) and Kastoria (Greece). The most distinct characteristics of this group are:

1860-476: Is called a gershayim and is a punctuation mark used in the Hebrew language to denote acronyms. It is written before the last letter in the acronym, e.g. ר״ת ‎. Gershayim is also the name of a cantillation mark in the reading of the Torah , printed above the accented letter, e.g. א֞ ‎. The following table displays typographic and chirographic variants of each letter. For the five letters that have

1953-463: Is distinguished from other Spanish dialects by the presence of the following features: Regular conjugation for the present tense: Regular conjugation in the preterite: Regular conjugation in the imperfect: Judaeo-Spanish follows Spanish for most of its syntax . (That is not true of the written calque language involving word-for-word translations from Hebrew, which scholars refer to as "Ladino", as described above.) Like Spanish, it generally follows

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2046-551: Is not spoken, rather, it is the product of a word-for-word translation of Hebrew or Aramaic biblical or liturgical texts made by rabbis in the Jewish schools of Spain. In these translations, a specific Hebrew or Aramaic word always corresponded to the same Spanish word, as long as no exegetical considerations prevented this. In short, Ladino is only Hebrew clothed in Spanish, or Spanish with Hebrew syntax. The famous Ladino translation of

2139-519: Is simply pronounced /t/. Likewise, historical /ð/ is simply pronounced /d/. Shin and sin are represented by the same letter, ש ‎, but are two separate phonemes . When vowel diacritics are used, the two phonemes are differentiated with a shin -dot or sin -dot; the shin -dot is above the upper-right side of the letter, and the sin -dot is above the upper-left side of the letter. Historically, left-dot-sin corresponds to Proto-Semitic * ś , which in biblical-Judaic-Hebrew corresponded to

2232-487: Is the system of dots that help determine vowels and consonants. In Hebrew, all forms of niqqud are often omitted in writing, except for children's books, prayer books, poetry, foreign words, and words which would be ambiguous to pronounce. Israeli Hebrew has five vowel phonemes, /i e a o u/ , but many more written symbols for them: Note 1: The circle represents whatever Hebrew letter is used. Note 2: The pronunciation of tsere and sometimes segol – with or without

2325-609: Is today spoken mainly by Sephardic minorities in more than 30 countries, with most speakers residing in Israel . Although it has no official status in any country, it has been acknowledged as a minority language in Bosnia and Herzegovina , Israel, and France. In 2017, it was formally recognised by the Royal Spanish Academy . The core vocabulary of Judaeo-Spanish is Old Spanish , and it has numerous elements from

2418-618: Is used, a loanword from Arabic via Turkish, while the Monastir dialect uses karrose , possibly from Italian. The number of phonemes in Judaeo-Spanish varies by dialect. Its phonemic inventory consists of 24-26 consonants and 5 vowels . Notes: Notes: As exemplified in the Sources section above, much of the phonology of Judaeo-Spanish is similar to that of standard modern Spanish. Here are some exceptions: Judaeo-Spanish

2511-521: The Ktav Ashuri , Jewish script , square script and block script , is an abjad script used in the writing of the Hebrew language and other Jewish languages , most notably Yiddish , Ladino , Judeo-Arabic , and Judeo-Persian . In modern Hebrew, vowels are increasingly introduced. It is also used informally in Israel to write Levantine Arabic , especially among Druze . It is an offshoot of

2604-413: The /ʃ/ phoneme (written ⟨sh⟩ ). It also uses acute accents to mark irregular stress. The regular stress pattern is as follows: Prior to the adoption of the official orthographies, the following systems of writing Judaeo-Spanish had been used or proposed. Hebrew alphabet The Hebrew alphabet ( Hebrew : אָלֶף־בֵּית עִבְרִי , Alefbet ivri ), known variously by scholars as

2697-536: The Dead Sea Scrolls version (4QLam/4Q111), reversed ordering also appears in the first chapter (i.e. in all the first four chapters). The fact that these chapters follows the pre-exilic pe-ayin order is evidence for them being written shortly after the events described, rather than being later, post-exilic compositions. The descriptions that follow are based on the pronunciation of modern standard Israeli Hebrew. pronunciation By analogy with

2790-634: The Imperial Aramaic alphabet , which flourished during the Achaemenid Empire and which itself derives from the Phoenician alphabet . Historically, a different abjad script was used to write Hebrew: the original, old Hebrew script, now known as the paleo-Hebrew alphabet , has been largely preserved in a variant form as the Samaritan alphabet , and is still used by the Samaritans . The present "Jewish script" or "square script", on

2883-579: The Ottoman Empire , although a large minority on the northern Coast of Morocco and Algeria existed. As such, words of Turkish origin were incorporated into the local dialect of the language. Examples include emrenear ('rejoice') from Turkish imrenmek . Some of these words themselves were inherited into Turkish from Arabic or Persian. Examples include bilbiliko ('nightingale'), from Persian (via Turkish) bülbül and gam ('sorrow, anxiety, grief') from Arabic (via Persian then Turkish) ḡamm . The Turkish agentive suffix -ci (denoting

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2976-592: The Proto-Canaanite alphabet , called the paleo-Hebrew alphabet by scholars, began to emerge around 800 BCE. An example is the Siloam inscription ( c.  700 BCE ). The paleo-Hebrew alphabet was used in the ancient kingdoms of Israel and Judah . Following the Babylonian exile of the Kingdom of Judah in the 6th century BCE, Jews began using a form of the Imperial Aramaic alphabet , another offshoot of

3069-867: The Reconquista , where Judaeo-Spanish speakers had no motivation to do so. Some Arabic words were borrowed via Turkish or Persian. Haketia , the variety of Judaeo-Spanish spoken in the Maghreb , has substantial influence from Moroccan and Algerian Arabic , as well as local Amazigh languages . The varieties of Judaeo-Spanish spoken in the Levant and Egypt have some influence from Levantine Arabic and Egyptian Arabic respectively. Judeao-Spanish speaking communities often incorporated words or phrases from surrounding languages. Greek , South Slavic , Italian , and Romanian borrowings can be found in those respective communities. A common way of dividing Judaeo-Spanish

3162-412: The voiceless alveolar lateral fricative /ɬ/ (or /ś/). Historically, the consonants ב ‎ bet , ג ‎ gimmel , ד ‎ daleth , כ ‎ kaf , פ ‎ pe and ת ‎ tav each had two sounds: one hard ( plosive ), and one soft ( fricative ), depending on the position of the letter and other factors. When vowel diacritics are used, the hard sounds are indicated by

3255-571: The 2006 precise transliteration system of the Academy of the Hebrew Language; for " צ ‎" SBL uses "ṣ" (≠ AHL "ẓ"), and for בג״ד כפ״ת with no dagesh, SBL uses the same symbols as for with dagesh (i.e. "b", "g", "d", "k", "f", "t"). In transliterations of modern Israeli Hebrew, initial and final ע ‎ (in regular transliteration), silent or initial א ‎, and silent ה ‎ are not transliterated. To

3348-694: The Arabic maqam mode . The song traditions were studied and transcribed in the early twentieth century by a number of ethnomusicologists and scholars of medieval Hispanic literature. From around 1957 until quite recently, Samuel Armistead (UC Davis) with colleagues Joseph Silverman and Israel Katz collected Judeo-Spanish songs from informants in North America, Turkey, the Balkans, Greece, North Africa, and Israel. The digitized recordings, with transcriptions and information about song type, are available on

3441-652: The Ashkenaz Synagogue on the occasion of Jewish Culture Week), and Hungary (in the Great Budapest Synagogue). Sephardic music, including pan-Sephardic music which may not necessarily be Judeo-Spanish, is primarily vocal. Instruments, when they are used, are played to accompany songs. the choice of Instruments used by Sephardim has generally reflected the instruments used in the host culture: (Greek, Ottoman, Moroccan, etc.) The instruments most commonly played are plucked lutes (fretless: oud ,

3534-628: The Bible, the Biblia de Ferrara (1553), provided inspiration for the translation of numerous Spanish Christian Bibles. The derivation of the name Ladino is complicated. Before the expulsion of Jews from Spain , the word meant "literary Spanish" as opposed to other dialects, or "Romance" in general as distinct from Arabic. One derivation has Ladino as derived from the verb enladinar , meaning "to translate", from when Jews, Christians and Arabs translated works from Hebrew, Greek, and Arabic into Spanish (during

3627-715: The Bismark') was a phrase used in some Judeao-Spanish communities in the late 20th century to mean 'to go to the restroom', referring to the German Chancellor , Otto von Bismarck (an unpopular figure in France), as a euphemism for toilet. Because of the large number of Arabic words in Spanish generally, it is not always clear whether some of these words were introduced before the Expulsion or adopted later; modern Spanish replaced some of these loans with Latinisms after

3720-410: The Hebrew alphabet, and not loanwords . Geresh is also used to denote an abbreviation consisting of a single Hebrew letter, while gershayim (a doubled geresh ) are used to denote acronyms pronounced as a string of letters; geresh and gershayim are also used to denote Hebrew numerals consisting of a single Hebrew letter or of multiple Hebrew letters, respectively. Geresh is also the name of

3813-479: The Ladino/Judeo-Spanish heritage and, in the large case of Levy and Edery, mixing it with Andalusian Flamenco . Opera singer and actor David Serero sings Ladino and Sephardic songs which he often includes in theater classics such as Merchant of Venice and Othello . The Jewish Community of Thessaloniki Choir was founded in 1995 by members of the community. The choir was founded in the hope that

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3906-963: The Middle Eastern lute; and in what is now Turkey fretted saz or sometimes mandolin or the cumbus ),the Assyrian kanun or santur (plucked or hammered Middle Eastern zither), violin and hand drums (frame and goblet). For weddings and other celebrations, musicians might also be hired from the Muslim community, as skilled Jewish musicians are also hired by the Muslim community. Generally, Sephardic men played both local percussion and melody instruments, while women usually sang unaccompanied in domestic contexts, and at weddings, accompanying their singing with tambourines and sometimes other percussion instruments. Molho describes Sephardic women in Salonica using kitchen utensils as improvised percussion, in

3999-763: The Ottoman Empire, it has been traditionally called Yahudice in Turkish , meaning the 'Jewish language.' In Israel, Hebrew speakers usually call the language Ladino , Espanyolit or Spanyolit . Judaeo-Spanish, once the Jewish lingua franca of the Adriatic Sea , the Balkans, and the Middle East, and renowned for its rich literature, especially in Salonika , today is under serious threat of extinction . Most native speakers are elderly, and

4092-624: The Sephardic community of Livorno , Italy, refers to the language used for explanation as the Sefaradi language. The rare Judeo-Spanish-language textbook entitled Nuevo Silibaryo Espanyol , published in Salonica in 1929, referred to the language as Espanyol and lingua Djudeo-Espanyola . The language is also called Judeo-Espanyol , Judeoespañol , Sefardí , Judío , and Espanyol or Español sefardita ; Haketia (from Arabic : حكى , romanized :  ḥakà 'tell') refers to

4185-565: The United States and Spain, the language has come to be referred to as Ladino ( Ladino : לאדינו ), literally meaning 'Latin'. This name for the language was promoted by the Autoridad Nasionala del Ladino , although speakers of the language in Israel referred to their mother tongue as Espanyolit or Spanyolit . Native speakers of the language consider the name Ladino to be incorrect, having for centuries reserved

4278-455: The beginning of a syllable, or when doubled. They were pronounced as fricatives [v ɣ ð x f θ] when preceded by a vowel (commonly indicated with a macron, ḇ ḡ ḏ ḵ p̄ ṯ). The plosive and double pronunciations were indicated by the dagesh . In Modern Hebrew the sounds ḏ and ḡ have reverted to [d] and [ɡ] , respectively, and ṯ has become [t] , so only the remaining three consonants /b k p/ show variation. ר ‎ resh may have also been

4371-477: The contrary, is a stylized form of the Aramaic alphabet and was technically known by Jewish sages as Ashurit (lit. "Assyrian script"), since its origins were known to be from Assyria ( Mesopotamia ). Various "styles" (in current terms, " fonts ") of representation of the Jewish script letters described in this article also exist, including a variety of cursive Hebrew styles. In the remainder of this article,

4464-560: The dialect of North Africa, especially Morocco . Judeo-Spanish has also been referred to as Judesmo (also Judezmo, Djudesmo or Djudezmo ). The dialect of the Oran area of Algeria was called Tetuani after the Moroccan city of Tétouan since many Orani Jews came from there. In Israel, the language is known as Spanyolit or Espanyolit . The names Djidio , Kasteyano Muestro , and Spanyol de mozotros have also been proposed to refer to

4557-547: The eastern/Greek/Turkish traditions. These song traditions spread from Spain to Morocco (the Western Tradition ) and several parts of the Ottoman Empire (the Eastern Tradition ) including Greece, Jerusalem , Armenia , the Balkans and Egypt . Sephardic music adapted to each of these locales, assimilating North African high-pitched, extended ululations; Balkan rhythms, (for instance in 9/8 time); and

4650-425: The everyday Hebrew colloquial vocabulary. The symbol resembling an apostrophe after the Hebrew letter modifies the pronunciation of the letter and is called a geresh . The pronunciation of the following letters can also be modified with the geresh diacritic. The represented sounds are however foreign to Hebrew phonology , i.e., these symbols mainly represent sounds in foreign words or names when transliterated with

4743-459: The eye of readers orientating themselves on Latin (or similar) alphabets, these letters might seem to be transliterated as vowel letters; however, these are in fact transliterations of the vowel diacritics – niqqud (or are representations of the spoken vowels). E.g., in אִם ("if", [ʔim] ), אֵם ("mother", [ʔe̞m] ) and אֹם (" nut ", [ʔo̞m] ), the letter א ‎ always represents the same consonant: [ ʔ ] ( glottal stop ), whereas

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4836-1116: The guidelines specified by the Academy of the Hebrew Language: חם /χam/ → "cham"; סכך /sχaχ/ → "schach". Although the Bible does include a single occurrence of a final pe with a dagesh ( Book of Proverbs 30, 6: " אַל-תּוֹסְףְּ עַל-דְּבָרָיו: פֶּן-יוֹכִיחַ בְּךָ וְנִכְזָבְתָּ. "), in modern Hebrew / p / is always represented by pe in its regular, not final, form " פ ‎", even when in final word position, which occurs with loanwords (e.g. שׁוֹפּ /ʃop/ "shop" ), foreign names (e.g. פִילִיפּ /ˈfilip/ "Philip" ) and some slang (e.g. חָרַפּ /χaˈrap/ "slept deeply" ). Sephardic music Songs which are sung by women are traditionally sung while performing household tasks, without accompaniment or harmony. Tambourines and other percussion instruments are sometimes used, especially in wedding songs. Oud and qanún are also used in some instrumentations of Sephardic music, and more modern performers incorporate countless other imported instruments. Sephardic music has its roots in

4929-421: The historical usage. In the Judaeo-Spanish press of the 19th and 20th centuries the native authors referred to the language almost exclusively as Espanyol , which was also the name that its native speakers spontaneously gave to it for as long as it was their primary spoken language. More rarely, the bookish Judeo-Espanyol has also been used since the late 19th century. In recent decades in Israel, followed by

5022-628: The juxtapositions ת״ק ‎, ת״ר ‎, ת״ש ‎, ת״ת ‎, and תת״ק ‎ respectively. Adding a geresh (" ׳ ‎") to a letter multiplies its value by one thousand, for example, the year 5778 is portrayed as ה׳תשע״ח ‎, where ה׳ ‎ represents 5000, and תשע״ח ‎ represents 778. The following table lists transliterations and transcriptions of Hebrew letters used in Modern Hebrew . Clarifications: Note: SBL's transliteration system, recommended in its Handbook of Style , differs slightly from

5115-891: The language is influenced to a lesser degree by other local languages of the Balkans, such as Greek , Bulgarian , and Serbo-Croatian . Historically, the Rashi script and its cursive form Solitreo have been the main orthographies for writing Judaeo-Spanish. However, today it is mainly written with the Latin alphabet, though some other alphabets such as Hebrew and Cyrillic are still in use. Judaeo-Spanish has been known also by other names, such as: Español ( Espanyol, Spaniol, Spaniolish, Espanioliko ), Judió ( Judyo, Djudyo ) or Jidió ( Jidyo, Djidyo ), Judesmo ( Judezmo, Djudezmo ), Sefaradhí ( Sefaradi ) or Ḥaketía (in North Africa). In Turkey, and formerly in

5208-564: The language is not transmitted to their children or grandchildren for various reasons; consequently, all Judeo-Spanish-speaking communities are undergoing a language shift . In 2018, four native speakers in Bosnia were identified however, two of them have since died, David Kamhi in 2021 and Moris Albahari in late 2022. In some expatriate communities in Spain , Latin America , and elsewhere, there

5301-468: The language to children. The Tiberian system also includes a set of cantillation marks , called trope or te'amim , used to indicate how scriptural passages should be chanted in synagogue recitations of scripture (although these marks do not appear in the scrolls). In everyday writing of modern Hebrew, niqqud are absent; however, patterns of how words are derived from Hebrew roots (called shorashim or "triliterals") allow Hebrew speakers to determine

5394-896: The language, and the Latin script , which gained prominence after the fall of the Ottoman Empire. Printed works in Judæo-Spanish use the Rashi script , whereas the handwritten language uses a cursive form of the Hebrew alphabet called Solitreo . In the Hebrew script, a silent ⟨ א ‎⟩ must precede word-initial vowels. Moreover, it is necessary to separate adjacent vowels with ⟨ א ‎⟩ or ⟨ י ‎⟩ . Whereas ⟨ א ‎⟩ can separate any pair of vowels, ⟨ י ‎⟩ can only separate front vowels ( /i/ and /e/ , both represented by ⟨ י ‎⟩ ) from adjacent vowels. Furthermore, ⟨ י ‎⟩ cannot separate diphthongs that include

5487-477: The language; regional names to refer to the language include kastiyano viejo , sepharadit , ekseris romeka , yahudije , and musevije . An entry in Ethnologue claims, "The name 'Judesmo' is used by Jewish linguists and Turkish Jews and American Jews; 'Judeo-Spanish' by Romance philologists; 'Ladino' by laymen, initially in Israel; 'Haketia' by Moroccan Jews; 'Spanyol' by some others." That does not reflect

5580-544: The late 2nd century BC, and performed this arithmetic function for about a thousand years. Nowadays alphanumeric notation is used only in specific contexts, e.g. denoting dates in the Hebrew calendar , denoting grades of school in Israel, other listings (e.g. שלב א׳ , שלב ב׳ – "phase a, phase b"), commonly in Kabbalah ( Jewish mysticism ) in a practice known as gematria , and often in religious contexts. The numbers 500, 600, 700, 800 and 900 are commonly represented by

5673-489: The letter yod – is sometimes ei in Modern Hebrew. This is not correct in the normative pronunciation and not consistent in the spoken language. Note 3: The dagesh , mappiq , and shuruk have different functions, even though they look the same. Note 4: The letter ו ‎ ( waw/vav ) is used since it can only be represented by that letter. By adding a vertical line (called Meteg ) underneath

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5766-517: The letter and to the left of the vowel point, the vowel is made long. The meteg is only used in Biblical Hebrew , not Modern Hebrew . By adding two vertical dots (called Sh'va ) underneath the letter, the vowel is made very short. When sh'va is placed on the first letter of the word, mostly it is "è" (but in some instances, it makes the first letter silent without a vowel (vowel-less): e.g. וְ wè to "w") The symbol ״ ‎

5859-776: The letter is combined with a previous vowel and becomes silent, or by imitation of such cases in the spelling of other forms. Also, a system of vowel points to indicate vowels (diacritics), called niqqud , was developed. In modern forms of the alphabet, as in the case of Yiddish and to some extent Modern Hebrew , vowels may be indicated. Today, the trend is toward full spelling with the weak letters acting as true vowels. When used to write Yiddish , vowels are indicated, using certain letters, either with niqqud diacritics (e.g. אָ ‎ or יִ ‎) or without (e.g. ע ‎ or י ‎), except for Hebrew words, which in Yiddish are written in their Hebrew spelling. To preserve

5952-408: The letters י ו ה א can also function as matres lectionis , which is when certain consonants are used to indicate vowels. There is a trend in Modern Hebrew towards the use of matres lectionis to indicate vowels that have traditionally gone unwritten, a practice known as " full spelling ". The Yiddish alphabet , a modified version of the Hebrew alphabet used to write Yiddish,

6045-628: The letters, called a " dagesh kal", also modifies the sounds of the letters ב ‎, כ ‎ and פ ‎ in modern Hebrew (in some forms of Hebrew it modifies also the sounds of the letters ג ‎, ד ‎ and/or ת ‎; the "dagesh chazak" – orthographically indistinguishable from the "dagesh kal" – designates gemination , which today is realized only rarely – e.g. in biblical recitations or when using Arabic loanwords ). س ‎ א ‎ alef , ע ‎ ayin , ו ‎ waw/vav and י ‎ yod are letters that can sometimes indicate

6138-415: The main Sephardic cultural hubs of Salonika (Greece) and Istanbul (Turkiye), as well as the remainder of Anatolia, and Eastern Greece. The varieties of this group maintain the gradient in difference between /e : i/ and /o : u/ in the final position, as well as maintaining a difference between /r/ : /ɾ/ . The metathesis of ⟨rd⟩ into ⟨dr⟩ is also present. While unsorted,

6231-540: The musical tradition that their ancestors took with them when they were expelled from the Iberian Peninsula 500 years ago would be preserved and revived. The research of its conductor ' Kostis Papazoglou' on Sepharadic music from the medieval tradition (songs like "Tres Ermanikas") and later as the music evolved resulted to a CD, produced by Minos EMI, with the participation of the Codex Ensemble, under

6324-555: The musical traditions of the Jewish communities in medieval Spain and medieval Portugal. Since then, it has picked up influences from Morocco , Greece , Bulgaria , and the other places that Spanish and Portuguese Jews settled after their expulsion from Spain in 1492 and from Portugal in 1496. Lyrics were preserved by communities formed by the Jews expelled from the Iberian Peninsula . These Sephardic communities share many of

6417-429: The normal form in the following table (letter names are Unicode standard ). Although Hebrew is read and written from right to left, the following table shows the letters in order from left to right: As far back as the 13th century BCE, ancient Hebrew abecedaries indicate a slightly different ordering of the alphabet. The Zayit Stone , Izbet Sartah ostracon , and one inscription from Kuntillet Ajrud each contain

6510-484: The other dotted/dotless pairs, dotless tav, ת ‎, would be expected to be pronounced /θ/ ( voiceless dental fricative ), and dotless dalet ד ‎ as /ð/ ( voiced dental fricative ), but these were lost among most Jews due to these sounds not existing in the countries where they lived (such as in nearly all of Eastern Europe). Yiddish modified /θ/ to /s/ (cf. seseo in Spanish), but in modern Israeli Hebrew, it

6603-470: The other old Romance languages of the Iberian Peninsula : Old Aragonese , Asturleonese , Old Catalan , Galician-Portuguese , and Andalusi Romance . The language has been further enriched by Ottoman Turkish and Semitic vocabulary, such as Hebrew , Aramaic , and Arabic —especially in the domains of religion , law , and spirituality —and most of the vocabulary for new and modern concepts has been adopted through French and Italian . Furthermore,

6696-401: The phonology, and about 60% of the vocabulary of Judaeo-Spanish is essentially Spanish but, in some respects, it resembles the dialects in southern Spain and South America, rather than the dialects of Central Spain. For example, it has yeísmo ("she" is eya / ella [ˈeja] (Judaeo-Spanish), instead of ella ) as well as seseo . In many respects, it reproduces the Spanish of

6789-540: The proper vowel sounds, scholars developed several different sets of vocalization and diacritical symbols called nequdot ( נקודות‎ ‎, literally "points"). One of these, the Tiberian system , eventually prevailed. Aaron ben Moses ben Asher , and his family for several generations, are credited for refining and maintaining the system. These points are normally used only for special purposes, such as Biblical books intended for study, in poetry or when teaching

6882-531: The rebirth of the Hebrew language as a spoken language in the 18th and 19th centuries, especially in Israel . In the traditional form, the Hebrew alphabet is an abjad consisting only of consonants , written from right to left . It has 22 letters, five of which use different forms at the end of a word. In the traditional form, vowels are indicated by the weak consonants Aleph ( א ‎), He ( ה ‎), Waw/Vav ( ו ‎), or Yodh ( י ‎) serving as vowel letters, or matres lectionis :

6975-519: The reduction of /r/ and /ɾ/ into /ɾ/ and the conservation of ⟨rd⟩ as in ⟨gordo⟩ . 2. Grupo nororiental (Northeast group) that includes most of (northern) Bulgaria and Romania including Sofia and Bucharest . It represented an intermediate state between the other varieties: the reduction of /r/ and /ɾ/ into /ɾ/ , but the metathesis of ⟨rd⟩ into ⟨dr⟩ as in ⟨godro⟩ . 3. Grupo suroriental (Southeast group) that included

7068-637: The same family of scripts, which flourished during the Achaemenid Empire . The Samaritans , who remained in the Land of Israel, continued to use the paleo-Hebrew alphabet. During the 3rd century BCE, Jews began to use a stylized, "square" form of the Aramaic alphabet that was used by the Persian Empire (and which in turn had been adopted from the Assyrians ), while the Samaritans continued to use

7161-472: The same lyrics and poems, but the melodies vary considerably. Because so many centuries have passed since the expulsion , a lot of the original melodies have been lost. Instead, Sephardic music has adopted the melodies and rhythms of the various countries where the Sephardim settled in. The Greek and Turkish traditions are fairly close. The Moroccan or “western” Sephardic traditions are not that close to

7254-524: The same way that (among Kurdish Jews) Targum has come to mean Judeo-Aramaic and (among Jews of Arabic-speaking background) sharḥ has come to mean Judeo-Arabic . Judaeo-Spanish Ladino should not be confused with the Ladin language ( Italian : ladino ), spoken in part of Northeastern Italy . Ladin has nothing to do with Jews or with Spanish beyond being a Romance language , a property that it shares with French, Italian, Portuguese and Romanian. At

7347-646: The term "Hebrew alphabet" refers to the square script unless otherwise indicated. The Hebrew alphabet has 22 letters. It does not have case . Five letters have different forms when used at the end of a word. Hebrew is written from right to left . Originally, the alphabet was an abjad consisting only of consonants , but is now considered an " impure abjad ". As with other abjads, such as the Arabic alphabet , during its centuries-long use scribes devised means of indicating vowel sounds by separate vowel points, known in Hebrew as niqqud . In both biblical and rabbinic Hebrew,

7440-496: The term for the "semi-sacred" language used in word-by-word translations from the Bible, which is distinct from the spoken vernacular . According to linguist Paul Wexler , Ladino is a written language that developed in the eighteenth century and is distinct from spoken Judaeo-Spanish. According to the website of the Jewish Museum of Thessaloniki, the cultural center of Sephardic Judaism after the expulsion from Spain, Ladino

7533-426: The text being transliterated), resulting in "im", "em" and "om", respectively. The diacritic geresh – " ׳ ‎" – is used with some other letters as well ( ד׳ ‎, ח׳ ‎, ט׳ ‎, ע׳ ‎, ר׳ ‎, ת׳ ‎), but only to transliterate from other languages to Hebrew – never to spell Hebrew words; therefore they were not included in this table (correctly translating

7626-464: The time of the Expulsion, rather than the modern variety, as it retains some archaic features such as the following: However, the phonology of both the consonants and part of the lexicon is, in some respects, closer to Portuguese and Catalan than to modern Spanish. That is explained by direct influence but also because Portuguese, Old Spanish and Catalan retained some of the characteristics of medieval Ibero-Romance languages that Spanish later lost. There

7719-446: The time of the expulsion from Spain, the day-to-day language of the Jews of different regions of the peninsula was hardly, if at all, different from that of their Christian neighbours, but there may have been some dialect mixing to form a sort of Jewish lingua franca. There was, however, a special style of Spanish used for purposes of study or translation, featuring a more archaic dialect, a large number of Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords and

7812-595: The times of Alfonso X ). (The first European language grammar and dictionary, of Spanish referred to it as ladino or ladina . In the Middle Ages , the word Latin was frequently used to mean simply 'language', particularly one understood: a latiner or latimer meant a translator.) Following the Expulsion, Jews spoke of "the Ladino" to mean the word-for-word translation of the Bible into Old Spanish. By extension, it came to mean that style of Spanish generally in

7905-441: The title " En la mar ay una torre." Today, this choir has 25-30 members of different ages. Its conductor Kostis Papazoglou, is an experienced and distinguished music teacher, soloist, and orchestras conductor, who has given concerts all over Greece as well as in Israel (Tel Aviv), Skopia, Vienna, Salzburg, Bulgaria (Sofia), Russia (St. Petersburg), Egypt (Cairo at the inauguration of the rebuilt Ben Ezra Synagogue),Turkey (Istanbul in

7998-796: The variety of spoken in Judeo-Spanish in Italy ( Venice , Trieste , Ferrera ) and Budapest more closely followed the Northwest group. Egyptian Judeo-Spanish ( Alexandria , Cairo ) followed more the patterns of the Southeast Group. Levantine Judeo-Spanish ( Jerusalem , Jaffa , Hebron ) and Rhodesli Judeo-Spanish represented intermediate states, more similar to the Northeast group. Although Levantine Judeo-Spanish phonology and syntax, especially its usage of [ħ] , [ʕ] , [ʔ] , and [h]

8091-461: The various Canaanite languages (including Hebrew, Moabite, Phoenician, Punic, et cetera). The Canaanite dialects were largely indistinguishable before around 1000 BCE. An example of related early Semitic inscriptions from the area include the tenth-century Gezer calendar over which scholars are divided as to whether its language is Hebrew or Phoenician and whether the script is Proto-Canaanite or paleo-Hebrew . A Hebrew variant of

8184-549: The vowel-structure of a given word from its consonants based on the word's context and part of speech. Unlike the Paleo-Hebrew writing script, the modern Hebrew script has five letters that have special final forms , called sofit ( Hebrew : סופית , meaning in this context "final" or "ending") form, used only at the end of a word, somewhat as in the Greek or in the Arabic and Mandaic alphabets . These are shown below

8277-444: The vowels /i/, /e/ and /o/ respectively represent the spoken vowel, whether it is orthographically denoted by diacritics or not. Since the Academy of the Hebrew Language ascertains that א ‎ in initial position is not transliterated, the symbol for the glottal stop   ʾ   is omitted from the transliteration, and only the subsequent vowels are transliterated (whether or not their corresponding vowel diacritics appeared in

8370-612: The website Folk Literature of the Sephardic Jews , now permanently hosted by the University of Illinois Library. The early 20th century saw some popular commercial recordings of Sephardic music come out of Greece and Turkey, followed by recordings from Jerusalem and other parts of the Eastern Tradition. The first performers were mostly men, including the "Turks" Jack Mayesh, Haim Efendi and Yitzhak Algazi. Later,

8463-903: Was a mutual influence with the Judaeo-Portuguese of the Portuguese Jews . Contrast Judaeo-Spanish daínda ('still') with Portuguese ainda (Galician ainda or aínda , Asturian aína or enaína ) and Spanish aún or the initial consonants in Judaeo-Spanish fija , favla ('daughter,' 'speech'), Portuguese filha , fala Galician filha or filla , fala , Asturian fía , fala , Aragonese filla , fabla , Catalan filla ), Spanish hija , habla . It sometimes varied with dialect, as in Judaeo-Spanish popular songs, both fijo and hijo ('son') are found. The Judaeo-Spanish pronunciation of s as " [ʃ] " before

8556-426: Was increasingly influenced both by the language of study and by the local non-Jewish vernaculars, such as Greek and Turkish. It came to be known as Judesmo and, in that respect, the development is parallel to that of Yiddish . However, many speakers, especially among the community leaders, also had command of a more formal style, castellano , which was nearer to the Spanish at the time of the Expulsion. The grammar,

8649-568: Was unique enough to be defined separately. Differences between varieties usually include phonology and lexicon . The dialect spoken in the Macedonian city of Bitola (traditionally referred to as Monastir) has relatively many lexical differences as compared with other varieties of Judeao-Spanish. An example of this can be seen is the word for 'carriage'. In many dialects, such as those that were spoken in Istanbul and Thessaloniki , araba

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