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141-606: The motto of the organization is the Jewish rabbinic injunction kol yisrael arevim ze laze ( כל ישראל ערבים זה לזה ), translated into French as tous les israélites sont solidaires les uns des autres ( transl.  "all Jews are responsible for one another" ). In 1860, Alliance Israelite Universelle embarked on a " mission civilisatrice " to advance the Jews of the Middle East through French education and culture. It

282-555: A Roman colony under Claudius , who made it the provincial capital of Mauretania Tingitana . Under Diocletian 's 291 reforms , it became the seat of a count ( comes ) and Tingitana's governor ( praeses ). At the same time, the province itself shrank to little more than the ports along the coast and, owing to the Great Persecution , Tingis was also the scene of the martyrdoms by beheading of Saints   Marcellus and Cassian in 298. Tingis remained

423-420: A moreh hora'ah ("a teacher of rulings"). A more advanced form of semikhah is yadin yadin ("He may judge, he may judge" or "May he judge? He may judge."). This enables the recipient to serve as a judge on a rabbinical court and adjudicate cases of monetary law, among other responsibilities. The recipient of this ordination can be formally addressed as a dayan ("judge") and also retain the title of rabbi. Only

564-485: A strait crossing . (Years of studies have, however, made no real progress thus far.) The Marshan is a plateau about 1,189 metres (3,900 ft) long spreading west of downtown along the sea. Tangier has a mediterranean climate ( Köppen Csa ) with heavier rainfall than most parts of North Africa and nearby areas on the Iberian Peninsula owing to its exposed location. The prevailing winds blow from

705-548: A French-Israeli high school established in 2007 as a joint initiative of the Israeli and French governments. When French-medium schools operated by Alliance Israélite Universelle opened in the 1860s, the position of Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) began to weaken in the Ottoman Empire areas. Judaeo-Spanish was not used as a language of instruction in any time in history, and was instead acquired though families; therefore Hebrew

846-454: A Major Atway sometime before 1843. Artisanal trade in the medina ("Old City") specialises mainly in leather working , handicrafts made from wood and silver, traditional clothing, and Moroccan-style shoes. The city has grown quickly due to rural exodus from other smaller cities and villages. The 2014 population is more than three-times larger than 32 years ago (850.000 inhabitants in 2014 vs. 250,000 in 1982). This phenomenon has resulted in

987-543: A congregational rabbi, teacher, chaplain, Hillel director, camp director, social worker or administrator—through the placement office of his or her seminary. Like any modern professional, he or she will negotiate the terms of employment with potential employers and sign a contract specifying duties, duration of service, salary, benefits, pension and the like. A rabbi's salary and benefits today tend to be similar to those of other modern professionals, such as lawyers and accountants, with similar levels of post-graduate education. It

1128-581: A decreasing proportion of working-class Spaniards. At its peak in the 1940s, there were 22,000 Jews in Tangier. Spanish troops occupied Tangier on 14 June 1940, the same day Paris fell to the Germans . Despite calls by Spanish nationalists to annex " Tánger español ", the Franco regime publicly considered the occupation a temporary wartime measure . A diplomatic dispute between Britain and Spain over

1269-477: A full-time occupation. Under these conditions, the Geonim collected taxes and donations at home and abroad to fund their schools ( yeshivot ) and paid salaries to teachers, officials and judges of the Jewish community, whom they appointed. Maimonides (1135–1204), who supported himself as a physician, reasserted the traditional view of offering rabbinic service to the Jewish community without compensation. It remains

1410-507: A key role in connecting maritime regions, as it is in a very critical position on the Strait of Gibraltar, which passes between Europe and Africa. The makeup of the new port is 85% transhipment 15% for domestic import and export activities. The port is distinguished by its size, infrastructure, and efficiency in managing the flow of ships. Tanger-Med has linked Morocco to Europe's freight industry. It has also helped connect Morocco to countries in

1551-441: A modified curriculum, generally focusing on leadership and pastoral roles. These are JSLI , RSI , PRS , and Ateret Tzvi . The Wolkowisk Mesifta is aimed at community professionals with significant knowledge and experience, and provides a tailored curriculum to each candidate. Historically and until the present, recognition of a rabbi relates to a community's perception of the rabbi's competence to interpret Jewish law and act as

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1692-427: A nexus for many cultures. In 1923, it became an international zone managed by colonial powers and became a destination for many European and American diplomats, spies, bohemians, writers and businessmen. That status came to an end with Moroccan independence , in phases between 1956 and 1960. By the early 21st century, Tangier was undergoing rapid development and modernisation. Projects include tourism projects along

1833-505: A number of modern attempts to revive the Sanhedrin have been made. So far, no such attempt has been accepted as valid among the consensus of rabbis, or persisted for longer than about a century. Since the end of classical ordination, other forms of ordination have developed which use much of the same terminology, but have a lesser significance in Jewish law. Nowadays, a rabbinical student is awarded semikhah (rabbinic ordination) after

1974-564: A particular community but may not be accepted as a credible authority on Jewish law. These debates cause great problems for recognition of Jewish marriages, conversions, and other life decisions that are touched by Jewish law. Orthodox rabbis do not recognize conversions by non-Orthodox rabbis. Conservative rabbis recognise all conversions done according to Halakha . Finally, the North American Reform and Reconstructionists recognize patrilineality , under certain circumstances, as

2115-499: A prefix in construct forms. Although the usage rabim "many" (as 1 Kings 18:25, הָרַבִּים ‎) "the majority, the multitude" occurs for the assembly of the community in the Dead Sea Scrolls , there is no evidence to support an association of this use with the later title "rabbi". The root is cognate to Arabic ربّ rabb , meaning "lord" (generally used when talking about God, but also about temporal lords), and to

2256-452: A salary, as if he were relinquishing a salary from secular employment. The size of salaries varied, depending on the size of the community served, with rabbis in large cities being well-compensated while rabbis in small towns might receive a small stipend. Rabbis were able to supplement their rabbinic incomes by engaging in associated functions and accepting fees for them, like serving as the community's scribe, notary and archivist, teaching in

2397-544: A second army "whose beginning is where they are and whose end is where I am," but this army was defeated at Bagdoura the next year. The Barghawata were concentrated further south on the Atlantic coast, and area around Tangier fell into chaos until 785. The Shia Arab refugee Idris arrived at Tangier before moving further south, marrying into local tribes around Moulay Idriss and assembling an army that, among its other conquests , took Tangier c.  790 . During

2538-620: A secondary school for boys was established in Jerusalem. Amin al-Husseini was one of their pupils. The original building on Jaffa Road was demolished after 1967. In 1903, the Zionist group Bnei Moshe was to be given a grant to open a school but the funding was withdrawn due to Beni Moshe's insistence that lessons should be in the Hebrew language . The following year the Alliance donated

2679-833: A small number of students obtain official ordination to become dayanim ("judges") on religious courts , poskim ("decisors" of Jewish law ), as well as teachers in the Hasidic schools. The same is true for the non-Hasidic Litvish yeshivas that are controlled by dynastically transmitted rosh yeshivas and the majority of students will not become rabbis, even after many years of post-graduate kollel study. Some yeshivas, such as Yeshivas Chafetz Chaim and Yeshivas Ner Yisroel in Baltimore , Maryland, may encourage their students to obtain semichah and mostly serve as rabbis who teach in other yeshivas or Hebrew day schools. Other yeshivas, such as Yeshiva Chaim Berlin ( Brooklyn , New York) or

2820-641: A small percentage of rabbis earn the yadin yadin ordination. Although not strictly necessary, many Orthodox rabbis hold that a beth din (court of Jewish law) should be made up of dayanim with this ordination. An Orthodox semikhah requires the successful completion of a program encompassing Jewish law (" Halakha ") and responsa in keeping with longstanding tradition. Orthodox rabbis typically study at yeshivas , "colleges" which provide Torah study generally, and increasingly at dedicated institutions known as kollelim ; both are also referred to as " Talmudical/Rabbinical schools or academies ". In both cases,

2961-585: A somewhat dangerous reputation drove more tourists away. Since 2010, however, King Mohammed   VI has made a point of restoring the city's shipping and tourist facilities and improving its industrial base. Among other improvements, the beach was cleaned and lined with new cafes and clubs; the new commercial port means cruise ships no longer unload beside cargo containers. Seaside resorts have been increasing with projects funded by foreign investments. Real estate and construction companies have been investing heavily in tourist infrastructures. A bay delimiting

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3102-494: A strong background within Jewish law, liturgy, Talmudic study, and attendant languages (e.g., Hebrew , Aramaic and in some cases Yiddish ). Specifically, students are expected to have acquired deep analytic skills , and breadth, in Talmud before commencing their rabbinic studies. At the same time, since rabbinical studies typically flow from other yeshiva studies, those who seek semichah are typically not required to have completed

3243-460: A substitute fee to replace their lost earnings when they had to leave work to perform a rabbinic function ( sekhar battalah ). During the period of the Geonim ( c.  650 –1050 CE), opinions on compensation shifted. It was deemed inappropriate for the leaders of the Jewish community to appear in the marketplace as laborers or vendors of merchandise, and leading a Jewish community was becoming

3384-498: A teacher on central matters within Judaism. More broadly speaking, it is also an issue of being a worthy successor to a sacred legacy. As a result, there have always been greater or lesser disputes about the legitimacy and authority of rabbis. Historical examples include Samaritans and Karaites . The divisions between Jewish denominations may have their most pronounced manifestation on whether rabbis from one denomination recognize

3525-442: A university education. Exceptions exist, such as Yeshiva University , which requires all rabbinical students to complete an undergraduate degree before entering the program, and a Masters or equivalent before ordination. Historically, women could not become Orthodox rabbis. Starting in 2009, some Modern Orthodox institutions began ordaining women with the title of " Maharat ", and later with titles including "Rabbah" and "Rabbi". This

3666-477: A valid claim towards Judaism, whereas Conservative and Orthodox maintain the position expressed in the Talmud and Codes that one can be a Jew only through matrilineality (born of a Jewish mother) or through conversion to Judaism . Tangier Tangier ( / t æ n ˈ dʒ ɪər / tan- JEER ; Arabic : طنجة , romanized :  Ṭanjah , [tˤandʒa] , [tˤanʒa] ) or Tangiers

3807-718: Is a city in northwestern Morocco , on the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean . The city is the capital of the Tanger-Tetouan-Al Hoceima region, as well as the Tangier-Assilah Prefecture of Morocco. Many civilisations and cultures have influenced the history of Tangier, starting from before the 10th century   BCE. Starting as a strategic Phoenician town and trading centre, Tangier has been

3948-488: Is a shortened form of rebbe that can be used by, or applied to, any married Jewish male as the situation applies. Note: A rebbetzin (a Yiddish usage common among Ashkenazim ) or a rabbanit (in Hebrew and used among Sephardim ) is the official "title" used for, or by, the wife of any Orthodox, Haredi, or Hasidic rabbi. Rebbetzin may also be used as the equivalent of Reb and is sometimes abbreviated as such as well. Conservative Judaism confers semikhah after

4089-463: Is also a commandment for teachers and rabbis to honor their students. Rabbis and Torah scholars, in order to ensure discipline within the Jewish community, have the authority to place individuals who insult them under a ban of excommunication. The first recorded examples of ordination are Moses transmitting his authority to Joshua and the 70 elders. Similarly, Elijah transmitted his authority to Elisha . According to Pirkei Avot , ordination

4230-457: Is also possible to engage in the rabbinate part-time, e.g. at a synagogue with a small membership; the rabbi's salary will be proportionate to the services rendered and he or she will likely have additional employment outside the synagogue. The practical basis for rabbinic authority involves the acceptance of the rabbinic individual and their scholarly credentials. In practical terms, Jewish communities and individuals commonly proffer allegiance to

4371-538: Is called in the Bible "Ezra, the priest, the scribe, a scribe of the words of God's commandments and of His statutes unto Israel." "Rabbi" as a title does not appear in the Hebrew Bible, though later rabbinic sources occasionally use it as a title for wise Biblical figures. With the destruction of the two Temples in Jerusalem , the end of the Jewish monarchy, and the decline of the dual institutions of prophets and

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4512-530: Is chiefly famed for tangerines , a kind of mandarin orange hybrid first grown in the orchards then once south of the medina , but it was never commonly exported. As early as 1900, local consumption had already outstripped supply and required imports from Tetuan and elsewhere. Mass farming of tangerines instead began in Florida in the United States , where the first tree was introduced at Palatka by

4653-454: Is currently a contested issue for many Orthodox institutions, leading some to seek alternate clerical titles and roles for women (see Women rabbis and Torah scholars § Orthodox Judaism , Toanot Rabniyot , and Yoetzet Halacha ). While some Haredi (including Hasidic ) yeshivas do grant official ordination to many students wishing to become rabbis, most of the students within the yeshivas engage in learning Torah or Talmud without

4794-402: Is first recorded among Ashkenazim with Meir ben Baruch Halevi (late 14th century), who issued the formal title Moreinu (our teacher) to scholars, though it likely existed somewhat earlier. By the 15th century, this formal ordination (known as semicha ) became necessary in order to be recognized as a rabbi. Initially some Sephardic communities objected to such formal ordination, but over time

4935-604: Is highly dubious. The Greeks knew this town as Tingis and, with some modification , record the Berber legends of its founding. Supposedly Tinjis , daughter of Atlas and widow of Antaeus , slept with Hercules and bore him the son Syphax . After Tinjis' death, Syphax then founded the port and named it in her honour. The gigantic skeleton and tomb of Antaeus were tourist attractions for ancient visitors. The Caves of Hercules , where he supposedly rested on Cape Spartel during his labors , remain one today. Tingis came under

5076-447: Is no hierarchy and no central authority in Judaism that either supervises rabbinic education or records ordinations; each branch of Judaism regulates the ordination of the rabbis affiliated with it. The most common formula used on a certificate of semikhah is Yore yore ("He may teach, he may teach", sometimes rendered as a question and answer, "May he teach? He may teach."). Most Rabbis hold this qualification; they are sometimes called

5217-529: The Tur . Building on this, is the study of those sections of the Shulchan Aruch (codified Jewish law)—together with its main commentaries —that pertain to daily-life questions (such as the laws of keeping kosher , Shabbat , and the laws of family purity ). An element of shimush , or "apprenticeship", is often also required. Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox rabbinical students, such as those at

5358-503: The Hesder yeshivot and Yeshiva University respectively, additionally formally study hashkafa , i.e. the major elements of theology and philosophy and their application to contemporary questions, proceeding systematically through the classical rabbinic works here ; other students will have studied these works independently (see Yeshiva § Ethics, mysticism and philosophy ). The entrance requirements for an Orthodox yeshiva include

5499-725: The Marinids after the fall of the Almohads. Instead, the local chief Yusuf ibn Muhammad pledged himself to the Hafsids in Tunisia and then to the Abbasids in the east before being killed in AH   665 (late 1266 or early 1267). Abu Yusuf Yaqub compelled Tangier's allegiance with a three months' siege in 1274. The next century was an obscure time of rebellions and difficulties for

5640-670: The Mishnaic Hebrew construct רְבִּי ‎ rǝbbī , meaning "Master [Name]"; the standard Hebrew noun is רב ‎ rav "master". רב ‎ rav is also used as a title for rabbis, as are rabbeinu ("our master") and ha-rav ("the master"). See also Rav and Rebbe . The Hebrew root in turn derives from the Semitic root ר-ב-ב ‎ (R-B-B), which in Biblical Aramaic means "great" in many senses, including "revered", but appears primarily as

5781-689: The Roman Empire . The nicknames "Bride of the North" and "Door of Africa" reference its position in far northwestern Africa near the Strait of Gibraltar . Tangier was founded as a Phoenician colony , possibly as early as the 10th century   BCE and almost certainly by the 8th century   BCE. The majority of Berber tombs around Tangier had Punic jewelry by the 6th century   BCE, speaking to abundant trade by that time. The Carthaginians developed it as an important port of their empire by

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5922-608: The Sanhedrin in the first century. Early recipients of the title rabbi include Rabbi Zadok and Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob , beginning in the time of the disciples of Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai . The title "Rabbi" occurs (in Greek transliteration ῥαββί rabbi ) in the books of Matthew , Mark , and John in the New Testament , where it is used in reference to "Scribes and Pharisees " as well as to Jesus . According to some,

6063-661: The State of Israel . Over 60 Alliance schools operated in the Ottoman Middle East, Iran, and North Africa, providing Jewish children from poor families with formal elementary school and vocational training. Many of the teachers were educated at Alliance teacher training schools in Turkey and France. The Alliance founded a free school in Jerusalem in 1868. This was followed by Mikveh Israel near Jaffa in 1870. In 1882

6204-610: The Syriac word ܪܒܝ rabi . Some communities, especially Sephardic and Yemenite Jews , historically pronounced the title רִבִּי ‎ rībbī ; this pronunciation competed with רְבִּי ‎ rǝbbī and רַבִּי rabbī in Ashkenaz until the modern period. Rabbi is not an occupation found in the Hebrew Bible , and ancient generations did not employ related titles such as Rabban , Rabbi , or Rav to describe either

6345-666: The 17th century, it passed with the rest of Portugal's domains into Spanish control as part of the personal union of the crowns but maintained its Portuguese garrison and administration. Iberian rule lasted until 1661, when it was given to England 's King Charles   II as part of the dowry of the Portuguese infanta Catherine of Braganza . A squadron under the admiral and ambassador Edward Montagu arrived in November. English Tangier , fully occupied in January 1662,

6486-699: The 18th century, Tangier served as Morocco's diplomatic headquarters. The United States dedicated its first consulate in Tangier during the George Washington's tenure as president . In 1821, the Legation Building in Tangier became the first piece of property acquired abroad by the U.S. government —a gift to the U.S. from Sultan Moulay Suliman . In 1828, Great Britain blockaded the port in retaliation for piracy. As part of its ongoing conquest of neighbouring Algeria , France declared war over Moroccan tolerance of Abd el-Kader ; Tangier

6627-892: The 5th century   BCE. It was probably involved with the expeditions of Hanno the Navigator along the West African coast. The city long preserved its Phoenician traditions, issuing bronze coins under the Mauretanian kings with Punic script . Under the Romans other coins were issued, bearing Augustus and Agrippa 's heads and Latin script obverse but an image of the Canaanite god Baal reverse . Some editions of Procopius place his Punic stelae in Tingis rather than Tigisis ; in either case, however, their existence

6768-710: The 730s similar treatment from Governor Ubayd Allah and al-Muradi , his deputy at Tangier, provoked the Berber Revolt . Inspired by the egalitarian Kharijite heresy, Barghawata and others under Maysara al-Matghari seized Tangier in the summer of 740. In the Battle of the Nobles on the city's outskirts a few months later, Maysara's replacement Khalid ibn Hamid massacred the cream of Arab nobility in North Africa. An enraged Caliph Hisham ordered an attack from

6909-650: The AIU attempted to secularize the Jewish legal systems in North Africa. Before colonization, Jews in Morocco operated their legal system according to Halakha (Jewish law). In 1913, the AIU appealed to the French government to try the "indigenous [Jewish] inhabitants" in French courts instead of rabbinical tribunals . Along with secularization, the AIU used its power to advocate the political assimilation of Maghrebi Jews into French society. AIU instructors were instrumental in

7050-506: The AIU changed cultural norms for Jewish girls in the Maghreb as well. Primarily, the AIU lobbied to extend the typical marriage age from twelve to fifteen by 1948. This changing role of women led to controversy regarding the secularization of Jewish society through Western-style education. The AIU, and more generally, the French colonization of swaths of North Africa , shifted education from

7191-691: The Alliance Israélite Universelle. The boys' school had originally been the David Sassoon school founded in 1865. Albert Sassoon had given it to the Alliance in 1874. It contained 475 boys. Four languages were taught: Hebrew, Arabic, French and English. There were classes in the Sciences, Geography, and History. All were taught in French except for moral and religious studies which were in Hebrew. The Alliance School for Girls

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7332-597: The Babylonian sages or the sages in Israel. For example, Hillel I and Shammai (the religious leaders of the early first century) had no rabbinic title prefixed to their names. The titles "Rabban" and "Rabbi" are first mentioned in Jewish literature in the Mishnah . Rabban was first used for Rabban Gamaliel the elder , Rabban Simeon his son , and Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai , all of whom were patriarchs or presidents of

7473-609: The Braunschweig Conservative High School in Jerusalem . The network also includes the School for the Deaf in Jerusalem, in which deaf students, Jews, and Arabs, with various mental and physical disabilities, study together. The Mikve Israel Youth Village operates a state high school, a state-religious high school specializing in life and natural sciences, environmental sciences, and biotechnology; and

7614-554: The French and Spanish authorities. In 1951, the National Front was created in Tangier, a pact between Morocco's four nationalist parties to coordinate their campaign to achieve Moroccan independence. In July 1952 the protecting powers met at Rabat to discuss the International Zone's future, agreeing to abolish it. Tangier joined with the rest of Morocco following the restoration of full sovereignty in 1956. At

7755-493: The French language. Additionally, girls received vocational training in fields such as needlework, sewing, bookkeeping, secretarial work, laboratory assistance, and industrial chemistry; this training promoted the economic independence of Jewish women in the region. Many North African women were also educated and trained as AIU teachers in France, returning thereafter to their countries of origin to teach. Along with economic change,

7896-564: The High), which may be a remnant echo of the original meaning, as well as a reference to the high location of Tangier. A similar construction can be found in the name of Tinmel , the first capital of the Almohads , which is composed of "Tin", and "Amlel" meaning "at foot of the mountain" or "at a low location". Tangier was formally known as Colonia Julia Tingi ("The Julian Colony of Tingis") following its elevation to colony status during

8037-706: The Irish Tower ( Bordj al-Naʿam ), York Castle ( Bordj dar al-Barud ), and the Bordj al-Salam . Railway lines connect Tanger-Ville railway station with Rabat , Casablanca and Marrakesh in the south, and with Fes and Oujda in the east. The service is operated by ONCF . In November 2018 Africa's first high-speed train, the Kenitra–Tangier high-speed rail line , was inaugurated, linking Tangier to Casablanca in 2 hours, 10 minutes. By 2020 improvements between Casablanca and Kenitra are planned to further reduce

8178-569: The Jewish community. Hence their functions vary as the needs of the Jewish community vary over time and from place to place. In antiquity those who performed rabbinic functions, such as judging a case or teaching Torah to students, did not receive compensation for their services. Being a rabbi was not a full-time profession and those who served had other occupations to support themselves and their families, such as woodchopper, sandal-maker, carpenter, water-carrier, farmer and tanner. A respected scholar, Rabbi Zadok (1st cent. CE), had said "never to use

8319-661: The Jews. In 1878, representatives of the Alliance laid the condition of the Jews in the Balkan Peninsula before the Congress of Berlin , as a result of which the Treaty of Berlin stipulated that in Romania , Serbia , and Bulgaria no discrimination should be made against any religion in the distribution of civil rights . Over time, the activity of the Alliance became more focused on education and especially on improving

8460-418: The Land of Israel. Sherira Gaon summarized the relationship between these titles as follows: "Rabbi is greater than Rav, Rabban is greater than Rabbi, one's name is greater than Rabban". However, some modern scholars argue that "Rabbi" and "Rav" are the same title, pronounced differently due to variations in dialect. After the suppression of the Patriarchate and Sanhedrin by Theodosius II in 425, there

8601-411: The Mediterranean, Africa, and America. The port has allowed Tangier to become a more globalised city with new international opportunities that will help facilitate economic growth. The construction and operation of the port aimed to create 120,000 new jobs, 20,000 at the port and 100,000 resulting from growing economic activity. Agriculture in the area of Tangier is tertiary and mainly cereal. The city

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8742-480: The Mirrer Yeshiva (in Brooklyn and Jerusalem ), do not have an official "semichah/rabbinical program" to train rabbis, but provide semichah on an "as needed" basis if and when one of their senior students is offered a rabbinical position but only with the approval of their rosh yeshivas . Haredim will often prefer using Hebrew names for rabbinic titles based on older traditions, such as: Rav (denoting "rabbi"), HaRav ("the rabbi"), Moreinu HaRav ("our teacher

8883-471: The Modern Orthodox community, many rabbis still mainly deal with teaching and questions of Jewish law, but many are increasingly dealing with these same pastoral functions. Traditionally, rabbis have never been an intermediary between God and humans. This idea was traditionally considered outside the bounds of Jewish theology . Unlike spiritual leaders in many other faiths, they are not considered to be imbued with special powers or abilities. Rabbis serve

9024-584: The Torah as a spade for digging," and this was understood to mean never to use one's Torah knowledge for an inappropriate purpose, such as earning a fee. Still, as honored members of the community, Torah sages were allowed a series of privileges and exemptions that alleviated their financial burdens somewhat. These included such things as tax exemption from communal levies, marketplace priority (first in, first out regarding their trade), receiving personal services from their students ( shimush talmedei hakhamim ), silent business partnerships with wealthy merchants, and

9165-606: The United States rabbinic activities including sermons , pastoral counseling, and representing the community to the outside, all increased in importance. Within the various Jewish denominations , there are different requirements for rabbinic ordination and differences in opinion regarding who is recognized as a rabbi. Non-Orthodox movements (i.e., the Conservative , Reform , Reconstructionist , and Renewal movements) have chosen to do so for what they view as halakhic reasons (Conservative Judaism) as well as ethical reasons (Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism). The word comes from

9306-550: The Vandals to return to Spain but was instead defeated at Calama in 431. The Vandals lost control of Tingis and the rest of Mauretania in various Berber uprisings. Tingis was reconquered by Belisarius , the general of the Byzantine emperor Justinian   I , in 533 as part of the Vandalic War . The new provincial administration was moved, however, to the more defensible base at Septem (present-day Ceuta ). Byzantine control probably yielded to pressure from Visigoth Spain around 618. Count Julian of Ceuta supposedly led

9447-453: The appearance of peripheral suburban districts, mainly inhabited by poor people, that often lack sufficient infrastructure. In 2023 Tangier hosted the Connect route development forum . The old town is still surrounded by the remains of what was once more than 1,829 metres (6,000 ft) of stone rampart. Most of it dates to the town's Portuguese occupation, with restoration work later undertaken at different times. Three major bastions were

9588-412: The authority of the rabbi they have chosen. Such a rabbinic leader is sometimes called the "Master of the Locale" ( mara d'atra ). Jewish individuals may acknowledge the authority of others but will defer legal decisions to the mara d'atra . The rabbi derives authority from achievements within a meritocratic system. Rabbis' authority is neither nominal nor spiritual—it is based on credentials. Typically

9729-450: The bay, a modern business district called Tangier City Centre, an airport terminal, and a football stadium. Tangier's economy is set to benefit greatly from the Tanger-Med port. The Carthaginian name of the city is variously recorded as TNG ( Punic : 𐤕𐤍𐤂 ), TNGʾ ( 𐤕𐤍𐤂𐤀 ), TYNGʾ ( 𐤕𐤉𐤍𐤂𐤀 ), and TTGʾ ( 𐤕𐤕𐤂𐤀 ); these appear in Greek and Roman sources as Tenga , Tinga , Titga , &c. The old Berber name

9870-499: The beginning of the Muslim invasion of Spain . Uqba ibn Nafi was frequently but erroneously credited with Tangier's conquest by medieval historians, but only owing to Musa's later commission at the hands of Al-Walid I . Under the Umayyads , Tangier served as the capital of the Moroccan district ( Maghreb al-Aqsa or al-Udwa ) of the province of Africa ( Ifriqiya ). The conquest of the Maghreb and Spain had, however, been undertaken principally as raids for slaves and plunder and

10011-421: The caliphate's leadership continued to treat all Berbers as pagans or slaves for tax purposes , even after their wholesale conversion to Islam. In the area around Tangier, these hateful taxes were mostly paid in female slaves or in tender lambskins obtained by beating the ewes to induce premature birth . Governor Yazid was murdered by Berber guards whom he had tattooed as slaves in c.  720 , and in

10152-589: The city centre extends for more than 7 km (4 mi). The years 2007 and 2008 were particularly important for the city because of the completion of large construction projects; these include the Tangier-Mediterranean port (" Tanger-Med ") and its industrial parks, a 45,000-seat sports stadium, an expanded business district, and renovated tourist infrastructure. Tanger-Med, a new port 40 km (25 mi) outside Tangier proper, began construction in 2004 and became functional in 2007. Its site plays

10293-411: The city has four industrial parks of which two have the status of free economic zone (see Tangier Free Zone ). Tangier's economy relies heavily on tourism . In the 1960s and '70s, Tangier formed part of the hippie trail . It became less popular and tourist attractions became run-down as cheap flights made central Moroccan cities like Marrakesh more accessible to European tourists; crime rose and

10434-408: The city on 7 February 1684. Ali ibn Abdallah and his son Ahmed ibn Ali served in turn as the town's governors until 1743, repopulating it with populace from the surrounding countryside. They were powerful enough to oppose Sultan Abdallah through his various reigns, giving support and asylum to his various rivals within and without the royal family. The city was attacked by Spain in 1790. From

10575-637: The city. During this time, the traveler Ibn Battuta was born in Tangier in 1304, leaving home at 20 for the hajj . Piracy from Tangier and Salé began to harass shipping in the strait and North Atlantic in the late 14th   century. A partial plan of the late medieval kasbah was found in a Portuguese document now held by the Military Archives of Sweden in Stockholm. When the Portuguese started their colonial expansion by taking Ceuta in retribution for its piracy in 1415, Tangier

10716-406: The community. However, Hasidic communities do not have a mere rabbi: they have a Rebbe , who plays a similar role but is thought to have a special connection to God. The Rebbes' authority, then, is based on a spiritual connection to God and so they are venerated in a different way from rabbis. According to the Talmud, it is a commandment ( mitzvah ) to honor a rabbi and a Torah scholar, along with

10857-609: The completion of a learning program in a yeshiva or modern rabbinical seminary or under the guidance of an individual rabbi. The exact course of study varies by denomination, but most are in the range of 3–6 years. The programs all include study of Talmud, the codes of Jewish law and responsa to a greater or lesser extent, depending on the branch of Judaism. In addition to rabbinical literature, modern seminaries offer courses in pastoral subjects such as counseling, education, comparative religion and delivering sermons. Most rabbinical students will complete their studies in their mid-20s. There

10998-510: The completion of a program in the codes of Jewish law and responsa in keeping with Jewish tradition. In addition to knowledge and mastery of the study of Talmud and halakhah , Conservative semikhah also requires that its rabbinical students receive intensive training in Tanakh , classical biblical commentaries, biblical criticism , Midrash , Kabbalah and Hasidut , the historical development of Judaism from antiquity to modernity, Jewish ethics,

11139-512: The completion of an undergraduate university degree. In accordance with national collegiate accreditation requirements, Conservative rabbinical students earn a Master of Arts in Rabbinic Literature in addition to receiving ordination. See List of rabbinical schools § Conservative In Reform Judaism rabbinic studies are mandated in pastoral care, the historical development of Judaism, academic biblical criticism, in addition to

11280-651: The control of the Roman ally Mauretania during the Punic Wars . Q. Sertorius , in his war against Sulla 's regime in Rome , took and held Tingis for a number of years in the 70s   BCE. It was subsequently returned to the Mauretanians but established as a republican free city during the reign of Bocchus   III in 38   BCE. Tingis received certain municipal privileges under Augustus and became

11421-468: The course of action adopted by the society for bringing relief to their oppressed brethren in other countries was to secure the intercession of friendly governments on their behalf. Thus, as early as 1867 the governments of France , Italy , Belgium , and the Netherlands made the renewal of existing treaties with Switzerland conditional upon that country's granting full civil and political rights to

11562-458: The difficulties caused by the siege pushed Parliament to write off the effort in 1680. At the time, Tangier's population consisted of only about 700 apart from the thousand-man garrison; Governor Kirke estimated 400 of them had suffered gonorrhea from the same "mighty pretty" sex worker. Forces under Lord Dartmouth (including Samuel Pepys ) methodically destroyed the town and its port facilities for five months prior to Morocco's occupation of

11703-417: The division of the sultanate that occurred on the death of Idris   II , Tangier fell to his son Qasim in 829. It was soon taken by Qasim's brother Umar , who ruled it until his death in 835. Umar's son Ali became sultan (r.   874–883), as did Qasim's son Yahya after him (r.   880–904), but they governed from Fez . The Fatimid caliph Abdullah al-Madhi began interfering in Morocco in

11844-536: The early 10th century, prompting the Umayyad emir of Cordova to proclaim himself caliph and to begin supporting proxies against his rivals. He helped the Maghrawa Berbers overrun Melilla in 927, Ceuta in 931, and Tangier in 949. Tangier's governor was subsequently named chief over Cordova's Moroccan possessions and allies. Ali ibn Hammud , named Cordova's governor for Ceuta in 1013, took advantage of

11985-470: The elderly, as it is written in Leviticus 19:32, "Rise up before the elderly, and honor the aged." One should stand in their presence and address them with respect. Kohanim (priests) are required to honor rabbis and Torah scholars like the general public. However, if one is more learned than the rabbi or the scholar there is no need to stand. The spouse of a Torah scholar must also be shown deference. It

12126-504: The elementary school or yeshivah, publishing books, arbitrating civil litigations, or even serving as a matchmaker. With the formation of rabbinical seminaries starting in the nineteenth century, the rabbinate experienced a degree of professionalization that is still underway. At the present time, an ordained graduate of a rabbinical seminary that is affiliated with one of the modern branches of Judaism, Reform, Conservative, Reconstructionist, or modern Orthodox, will find employment—whether as

12267-527: The eleventh Zionist Congress insisted, amidst the modern revival of the Hebrew language, that it be included in the curriculum. In 1912 the Alliance had 71 schools for boys and 44 for girls, with schools in Baghdad, Jerusalem, Tangier , Istanbul , Beirut , Cairo , Damascus and Salonica . For Jews, it was the chief provider of modern education. A 1930 report found that there were 10 Jewish schools in Baghdad educating 7,182 children. Two of them were run by

12408-567: The emergence of Karaism , Jews who still followed the Talmudic traditions became known as "rabbanites". Initially communities might have a religious judge appointed by the central geonate , often possessing a certification known as pitka dedayanuta or bearing the title chaver (short for chaver besanhedrin hagedolah , used in Israel) or aluf (used in Babylonia). By the 11th century, as

12549-556: The first Moroccan newspaper, Lisan al-Maghrib ("The Voice of Morocco"), was established in Tangiers on the order of Sultan Abdelaziz , partly with the aim of counteracting the views expressed by al-Sa'adah , an Arabic newspaper established in 1904 or 1905 by the French embassy in the city. The newspaper was founded and managed on behalf of the government by two Lebanese journalists, Faraj and Artur Numur. It later became more notorious for publishing reformist ideas and views critical of

12690-465: The geonate weakened it was common for Jewish communities to elect a local spiritual authority. In the 11th–12th century, some local rabbinic authorities in Spain received formal certification known as ketav masmich or ketav minui in preparation for their leadership role. Maimonides ruled that every congregation is obliged to appoint a preacher and scholar to admonish the community and teach Torah, and

12831-427: The goal of becoming rabbis or holding any official positions. The curriculum for obtaining ordination as rabbis for Haredi scholars is the same as described above for all Orthodox students wishing to obtain the official title of "Rabbi" and to be recognized as such. Within the Hasidic world, the positions of spiritual leadership are dynastically transmitted within established families, usually from fathers to sons, while

12972-473: The halakhic methodology of Conservative responsa , classical and modern works of Jewish theology and philosophy, synagogue administration, pastoral care , chaplaincy , non-profit management, and navigating the modern world in a Jewish context. Entrance requirements to Conservative rabbinical study centers include a background within Jewish law and liturgy, familiarity with rabbinic literature , Talmud, etc., ritual observance according to Conservative halakha, and

13113-435: The hands of rabbis and religious leaders to secular, European instructors. In Algeria, this shift resulted in a legal mandate: in 1845, a law required Jews of Algeria to be registered in French schools and to only attend a religious school as a supplement. Although the AIU did teach both secular and religious subjects, such as Hebrew and biblical history, religious leaders still questioned and lamented secularization. Similarly,

13254-406: The ideal. But circumstances had changed. Jewish communities required full-time rabbis, and the rabbis themselves preferred to spend their days studying and teaching Torah rather than working at a secular trade. By the fifteenth century it was the norm for Jewish communities to compensate their rabbis, although the rabbi's contract might well refer to a "suspension fee" ( sekhar battalah ) rather than

13395-411: The increasing size of ships required anchorage to be made further and further from shore. The shape of the gradually-rising underlying terrain creates the effect of the city as an amphitheatre , with the commercial district in the middle. The western hill ( French : La Montagne ) is the site of the city's citadel or kasbah . The eastern hill forms Cape Malabata , sometimes proposed as the point for

13536-897: The large Jewish denominations; these are the Academy for Jewish Religion in New York City, AJR in California , ALEPH Ordination Program, the Jewish Renewal Seminary online, Hebrew College in Boston, and Hebrew Seminary in Illinois . The structure and curricula here are largely as at other non-Orthodox yeshivot. More recently established are several non-traditional, and nondenominational (also called "transdenominational" or "postdenominational") seminaries. These grant semicha with lesser requirements re time, and with

13677-438: The largest settlement in its province in the 4th century and was greatly developed. Probably invited by Count Boniface , who feared war with the empress dowager , tens of thousands of Vandals under Gaiseric crossed into North Africa in 429 CE and occupied Tingis and Mauretania as far east as Calama . When Boniface learned that he and the empress had been manipulated against each other by Aetius , he attempted to compel

13818-633: The last Sultan of independent Morocco, Abdelhafid , to abdicate in exchange for the receipt of a massive pension. Abdelhafid planned to live in Tangier where he used part of his pension to build an opulent mansion west of the old city, the Abdelhafid Palace , completed in 1914. The complex was later purchased by Italian interests and is now also known as the "Palace of Italian Institutions" ( French : palais des institutions italiennes ). The standard-gauge Franco-Spanish Tangier–Fez Railway ( French : Compagnie Franco-Espagnole du Tanger–Fès )

13959-609: The last defences of Tangier against the Muslim invasion of North Africa . Medieval romance made his betrayal of Christendom a personal vendetta against the Visigoth king Roderic over the honour of his daughter, but Tangier at least fell to a siege by the forces of Musa bin Nusayr sometime between 707 and 711. While he moved south through central Morocco, he had his deputy at Tangier Tariq ibn Zayid , Musa's mawla launch

14100-466: The latter's abolition of the city's international institutions in November 1940 led to a further guarantee of British rights and a Spanish promise not to fortify the area. The territory was restored to its pre-war status on October 11, 1945. The Tangier International Zone played an important role in the campaign for Moroccan independence. Because of its legal status as an international zone, activists were able to meet in Tangier, relatively protected from

14241-535: The legitimacy or authority of rabbis in another. As a general rule within Orthodoxy and among some in the Conservative movement, rabbis are reluctant to accept the authority of other rabbis whose Halakhic standards are not as strict as their own. In some cases, this leads to an outright rejection of even the legitimacy of other rabbis; in others, the more lenient rabbi may be recognized as a spiritual leader of

14382-465: The movement of naturalization for educated Moroccan Jews. Rabbi A rabbi ( / ˈ r æ b aɪ / ; Hebrew : רַבִּי ‎ , romanized :  rabbī ) is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism . One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi—known as semikha —following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud . The basic form of

14523-525: The priesthood, the focus of scholarly and spiritual leadership within the Jewish people shifted to the sages of the Men of the Great Assembly ( Anshe Knesset HaGedolah ). This assembly was composed of the earliest group of "rabbis" in the more modern sense of the word, in large part because they began the formulation and explication of what became known as Judaism's " Oral Law " ( Torah SheBe'al Peh ). This

14664-513: The program is effectively post-graduate , comprising two years on average, following at least four years' yeshiva study. In achieving semikhah , rabbinical students work to gain knowledge in specific and relevant Talmudic sugyas , and their development in the Rishonim and Acharonim (early and late medieval commentators), leading to their application in Halakha —particularly as traced by

14805-422: The program of the society included the emancipation of the Jews from oppressive and discriminating laws, political disabilities, and defense of them in those countries where they were subjected to persecution. For the attainment of its objectives, the society proposed to carry on a campaign of education through the press and by the publication of works on the history and life of the Jews. In the beginning, however,

14946-456: The property which later became Neve Tzedek (girls) and Gymnasia Hezliya (boys) schools. In 1906 the Alliance opened a secondary school for girls in Jerusalem. By 1900, Alliance Israelite Universelle was operating 100 schools with a combined student population of 26,000. Its greatest efforts were concentrated in Morocco, Tunisia, and Turkey. After decades of teaching in French exclusively, the schools began teaching Hebrew to their students after

15087-547: The rabbi developed in the Pharisaic (167 BCE–73 CE) and Talmudic (70–640 CE) eras, when learned teachers assembled to codify Judaism's written and oral laws. The title "rabbi" was first used in the first century CE. In more recent centuries, the duties of a rabbi became increasingly influenced by the duties of the Protestant Christian minister , hence the title " pulpit rabbis", and in 19th-century Germany and

15228-476: The rabbi in some respects became increasingly similar to the duties of other clergy, like the Protestant Christian minister , and the title " pulpit rabbis" appeared to describe this phenomenon. Sermons , pastoral counseling, representing the community to the outside, all increased in importance. Non-Orthodox rabbis, on a day-to-day business basis, now spend more time on these functions than they do teaching or answering questions on Jewish law and philosophy. Within

15369-400: The rabbi receives an institutional stamp of approval. It is this authority that allows them to engage in the halakhic process and make legal prescriptions. The same pattern is true within broader communities, ranging from Hasidic communities to rabbinical or congregational organizations: there will be a formal or de facto structure of rabbinic authority that is responsible for the members of

15510-659: The rabbi"), Moreinu ("our teacher"), Moreinu VeRabeinu HaRav ("our teacher and our rabbi/master the rabbi"), Moreinu VeRabeinu ("our teacher and our rabbi/master"), Rosh yeshiva ("[the] head [of the] yeshiva"), Rosh HaYeshiva ("head [of] the yeshiva"), "Mashgiach" (for Mashgiach ruchani ) ("spiritual supervisor/guide"), Mora DeAsra ("teacher/decisor" [of] the/this place"), HaGaon ("the genius"), Rebbe ("[our/my] rabbi"), HaTzadik ("the righteous/saintly"), "ADMOR" ("Adoneinu Moreinu VeRabeinu") ("our master, our teacher and our rabbi/master") or often just plain Reb which

15651-523: The realm's civil wars to conquer Tangier and Málaga before overrunning Cordova itself and proclaiming himself caliph in 1016. His Barghawata ally Rizḳ Allāh was then permitted to rule from Tangier with general autonomy. Yusuf ibn Tashfin captured Tangier for the Almoravids in 1077. It fell to Abd al-Mumin 's Almohads in the 1147 and then flourished under his dynasty, with its port highly active. Like Ceuta, Tangier did not initially acknowledge

15792-513: The respite to improve greatly the Portuguese defences. They also planned to improve the harbour by building a mole , which would have allowed it to play the same role that Gibraltar later played in British naval strategy. Incompetence, waste and outright fraud and embezzlement caused costs to swell; among those enriched was Samuel Pepys . The mole cost £ 340,000 and reached 1,436 ft (438 m) long before its destruction. Although funding

15933-409: The revolutionary Roman Republic . Tangier's geographic location made it a centre of European diplomatic and commercial rivalry in Morocco in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. By the 1870s, it was the site of every foreign embassy and consul in Morocco but only held about 400 foreign residents out of a total population of around 20,000. The city increasingly came under French influence, and it

16074-472: The right or from the left, Jews fleeing Nazi Germany and Moroccan dissidents. With very liberal economic and fiscal laws, Tangier became - in an international environment full of restrictions, prohibitions and monopolies - a tax haven with absolute freedom of trade. The International Zone of Tangier had a 373 km (144 sq mi) area and, by the mid-1930s, a population of about 50,000 inhabitants: 30,000 Muslims; 12,000 Jews; and 8,000-odd Europeans, with

16215-482: The roles and opportunities for women in North Africa. Before the establishment of the AIU, primarily girls from wealthy or rabbinical families received an education. Literacy and skilled training provided an opportunity for upward social mobility, especially to Jewish girls of underprivileged backgrounds who could not attain an education previously. Curricula featured foundational mathematics, such as arithmetic, and exposure to European subjects such as European geography and

16356-545: The sea and have kept the site generally healthy even in earlier times with much poorer sanitation. The summers are relatively hot and sunny and the winters are wet and mild. Frost is rare, although a new low of −4.2 °C (24.4 °F) was recorded in January 2005. The current prefecture is divided administratively into the following: Tangier is Morocco's second most important industrial centre after Casablanca . The industrial sectors are diversified: textile , chemical , mechanical , metallurgical and naval . Currently,

16497-471: The social institution he describes is the germ of the modern congregational rabbinate. Until the Black Death , Ashkenazi communities typically made religious decisions by consensus of scholars on a council, rather than the decision of a single authority. In the 14th century, the concept arose of a single person who served as religious authority for particular area (the mara de'atra ). Formal ordination

16638-405: The status of Italy, an idea put forth by Sir Austen Chamberlain of Great Britain. The European powers' creation of the statute of Tangier promoted the formation of a cosmopolitan society where Muslims, Christians, and Jews lived together with reciprocal respect and tolerance. A town where men and women, with many different political and ideological tendencies, found refuge, including Spaniards from

16779-455: The study of traditional rabbinic texts. Rabbinical students also are required to gain practical rabbinic experience by working at a congregation as a rabbinic intern during each year of study from year one onwards. All Reform seminaries ordain women and openly LGBT people as rabbis and cantors . See List of rabbinical schools § Reform There are several possibilities for receiving rabbinic ordination in addition to seminaries maintained by

16920-605: The sultan. In the years leading up to the First World War , Tangier had a population of about 40,000, about half Muslim, a quarter Jewish , and a quarter European Christians. Of the Europeans, about three-quarters were Spanish artisans and labourers. In 1912, the Treaty of Fes established the French protectorate over most of Morocco and Spanish rule in the country's far south and north, but left Tangier's status for further determination. Hubert Lyautey persuaded

17061-468: The system became adopted by them too. A dramatic change in rabbinic functions occurred with Jewish emancipation . Tasks that were once the primary focus for rabbis, such as settling disputes by presiding over a Jewish court, became less prominent, while other tasks that were secondary, like delivering sermons, increased in importance. In 19th-century Germany and the United States, the duties of

17202-508: The time of the handover, Tangier had a population of around 40,000 Muslims; 31,000 Christians; and 15,000 Jews. Central Tangier lies about 23 km (14 mi) east of Cape Spartel , the southern half of the Strait of Gibraltar . It nestles between two hills at the northwest end of the Bay of Tangier , which historically formed the best natural harbour anywhere on the Moroccan coast before

17343-493: The title "rabbi" or "rabban" was first used after 70 CE to refer to Yochanan ben Zakkai and his students, and references in rabbinic texts and the New Testament to rabbis earlier in the 1st century are anachronisms or retroactive honorifics. Other scholars believe that the term "rabbi" was a well-known informal title by the beginning of the first century CE, and thus that the Jewish and Christian references to rabbis reflect

17484-636: The titles in fact used in this period. The governments of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah were based on a system that included the Jewish kings , the Jewish prophets, the legal authority of the high court of Jerusalem, the Great Sanhedrin , and the ritual authority of the priesthood . Members of the Sanhedrin had to receive their ordination ( semicha ) in an uninterrupted line of transmission from Moses , yet rather than being referred to as rabbis they were called priests or scribes, like Ezra, who

17625-403: The town is Ṭanjah ( طَنجة , ⵟⴰⵏⴵⴰ ). Moroccan historian Ahmed Toufiq considers that the name "Tingi" has the same etymology as Tinghir , and is composed of "Tin", which is a feminine particle that could be translated as "owner" or "she who has", and "gi" which may have originally been "ig", meaning "high location". This corresponds to the popular Moroccan phrase Tanja l-ɛalya (Tangier

17766-631: The town's Jews were driven out owing to fears concerning their loyalty. Meanwhile, the Tangier Regiment were almost constantly under attack by locals who considered themselves mujahideen fighting a holy war . Their principal leader was Khadir Ghaïlan (known to the English as "Gayland" or "Guyland") of the Banu Gurfat, whom the Earl of Peterborough attempted to buy off. Ultimately,

17907-487: The truce lasted only for part of 1663 and 1664; on May 4 of the latter year, the Earl of Teviot and around 470 members of the garrison were killed in an ambush beside Jew's Hill. Lord Belasyse happened to secure a longer-lasting treaty in 1666: Khadir Ghaïlan hoped to support a pretender against the new Alawid sultan Al-Rashid and things subsequently went so badly for him that he was obliged to abide by its terms until his death in 1673. The English took advantage of

18048-690: The welfare of Jews. Two years after the first school was opened in Tétuan, an Alliance school opened in Baghdad in 1864. In 1870, Charles Netter , a founding member of Alliance israélite universelle , received a tract of land from the Ottoman Empire as a gift and opened the Mikveh Israel agricultural school, the first of a network of Jewish schools in Palestine before the establishment of

18189-597: Was Tingi ( ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵉ ), which Ruiz connects to Berber tingis , meaning "marsh". The Greeks later claimed that Tingís ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Τιγγίς ) had been named for Tinjis , a daughter of the Titan Atlas , who was supposed to support the vault of heaven nearby. Latin Tingis then developed into Portuguese Tânger , Spanish Tánger , and French Tanger , which entered English as Tangier and Tangiers . The Arabic and modern Berber name of

18330-618: Was always a major goal. They failed to capture it in 1437 , 1458, and 1464, but occupied it unopposed on 28 August 1471 after its garrison fled upon learning of the conquest of Asilah . As in Ceuta, they converted its chief mosque into the town's cathedral church; it was further embellished by several restorations during the town's occupation. In addition to the cathedral, the Portuguese raised European-style houses and Franciscan and Dominican chapels and monasteries. The Wattasids assaulted Tangier in 1508, 1511, and 1515 but without success. In

18471-456: Was bombarded by a French fleet under the Prince of Joinville on 6 August 1844. What little of its fortifications were damaged were later repaired by English engineers, but French victory at Isly near the disputed border ended the conflict on French terms . Italian revolutionary hero Giuseppe Garibaldi lived in exile at Tangier in late 1849 and the first half of 1850, following the fall of

18612-591: Was constructed from 1919 to 1927. The Tangier International Zone was created under the joint administration of France, Spain and the United Kingdom by an international convention signed in Paris on 18 December 1923. Ratifications were exchanged in Paris on 14 May 1924, and the convention was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on 13 September 1924. It was amended by a protocol of July 1928 to elevate

18753-823: Was established by Elly Kadoorie with 1177 pupils and with a similar syllabus. As a result of the influence of the French-language schools, Judaeo-Spanish acquired many neologisms from French. Alliance israélite universelle continues to operate dozens of schools and educational programs in Israel today. Historic schools include the Alliance High School in Tel Aviv , Alliance israélite universelle High School in Haifa , René Cassin High School, and

18894-579: Was eventually encoded and codified within the Mishnah and Talmud and subsequent rabbinical scholarship, leading to what is known as Rabbinic Judaism . The traditional explanation is that from the 1st to 5th centuries, the title "Rabbi" was given to those sages of the Land of Israel who received formal ordination ( semicha ), while the lesser title "Rav" was given to sages who taught in the Babylonian academies , as ordination could not be performed outside

19035-480: Was found for the fortifications, the garrison's pay was delayed until in December 1677 it was 2 1 ⁄ 4 years in arrears; Governor Fairborne dealt with the ensuing mutiny by seizing one of the soldier's muskets and killing him with it on the spot. A determined siege by Sultan Moulay Ismail of Morocco between 1678 and 1680 was unsuccessful, but longstanding exasperation with the colony's finances and

19176-590: Was founded by Jules Carvallo , Isidore Cahen  [ fr ] , Narcisse Leven (secretary of Adolphe Crémieux ), Élie-Aristide Astruc , and Eugène Manuel May 1860 in Paris , and opened its first school in Tétouan , Morocco in 1862. The original members of the society were Jews, and by far the largest number of its members belong to that faith, but the association has enjoyed the sympathy and cooperation of many prominent Christians. As outlined in its prospectus,

19317-670: Was here in 1905 that Kaiser Wilhelm   II triggered an international crisis that almost led to war between his country and France by pronouncing himself in favour of Morocco's continued independence, with an eye to its future acquisition by the German Empire . The Algeciras Conference which ended the standoff left Tangier's police training and customs collections in international hands but Britain's strong support of its " Entente Cordiale " with France ended German hopes concerning Morocco. Improved harbour facilities were completed in 1907, with an inner and outer mole . In 1905

19458-423: Was no more formal ordination in the strict sense. A recognised scholar could be called Rav or Hacham , like the Babylonian sages. The transmission of learning from master to disciple remained of tremendous importance, but there was no formal rabbinic qualification as such. In the early Middle Ages "rabbi" was not a formal title, but was used as a term of respect for Jews of great scholarship and reputation. After

19599-421: Was perceived as the ethnic instructional language for Jewish people, used for religious reasons, in the empire. In time Judaeo-Spanish became perceived as a low status language, so people avoided learning it. As time progressed, Judaeo-Spanish language and culture declined, and in 2017 writer Melis Alphan described Judaeo-Spanish as "dying in Turkey". The Alliance Israelite Universelle (AIU) changed and shaped

19740-523: Was praised by Charles as "a jewell of immense value in the royal diadem " despite the departing Portuguese taking away everything they could, even—according to the official report—"the very fflowers, the Windowes and the Dores". Tangier received a garrison and a charter which made it equal to other English towns, but the religious orders were expropriated, the Portuguese residents nearly entirely left, and

19881-635: Was transmitted without interruption from Moses to Joshua, to the elders, to the prophets, to the men of the Great Assembly , to the Zugot , to the Tannaim . The chain of semikhah was probably lost in the 4th or 5th century, though possibly as late as the 12th century. According to Maimonides (12th century), if it were possible to gather the greatest sages of the generation, a reconstituted court could confer classic semikhah or ordination. Since then,

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