81-720: The Volunteer Reserve of the Citizens' Militia ( ORMO ; Polish : Ochotnicza Rezerwa Milicji Obywatelskiej ) was a paramilitary reserve organization of the Citizen's Militia (MO), the police force of the Polish People's Republic . ORMO was created in 1946 to help establish communist rule in Poland in the aftermath of World War II . It had approximately 400,000–450,000 people in its reserves (at one time numbered as many as 600,000 civilian volunteers), recruited mostly from
162-499: A / (spelled a ), / ɔ / (spelled o ) and / u / (spelled u and ó as separate letters). The nasal vowels are / ɛ w̃ / (spelled ę ) and / ɔ w̃ / (spelled ą ). Unlike Czech or Slovak, Polish does not retain phonemic vowel length — the letter ó , which formerly represented lengthened /ɔː/ in older forms of the language, is now vestigial and instead corresponds to /u/. The Polish consonant system shows more complexity: its characteristic features include
243-718: A dialect of Polish. Many Silesians consider themselves a separate ethnicity and have been advocating for the recognition of Silesian as a regional language in Poland . The law recognizing it as such was passed by the Sejm and Senate in April 2024, but has been vetoed by President Andrzej Duda in late May of 2024. According to the last official census in Poland in 2011, over half a million people declared Silesian as their native language. Many sociolinguists (e.g. Tomasz Kamusella , Agnieszka Pianka, Alfred F. Majewicz, Tomasz Wicherkiewicz ) assume that extralinguistic criteria decide whether
324-669: A few culturally and linguistically related tribes from the basins of the Vistula and Oder before eventually accepting baptism in 966. With Western Christianity , Poland also adopted the Latin alphabet , which made it possible to write down Polish, which until then had existed only as a spoken language . The closest relatives of Polish are the Elbe and Baltic Sea Lechitic dialects ( Polabian and Pomeranian varieties). All of them, except Kashubian , are extinct. The precursor to modern Polish
405-756: A formally recognized state of war . The Latin term proscription was used for official condemnation of enemies of the state. The term " enemy of the people " in the Soviet Union during the period of Stalinism . Communists were considered as enemies of the state in Indonesia since 1965 . Displaying communist symbols or attempting to propagate the ideology is considered an act of high treason and terrorism punishable by up to 20 years of imprisonment. Jews , Romani people , Jehovah's Witnesses , homosexuals , disabled , communists , social democrats and trade unionists were considered "enemies of
486-520: A large number of branches in all of these areas) offers services available in Polish at all of their cash machines in addition to English and Spanish . According to the 2011 census there are now over 500,000 people in England and Wales who consider Polish to be their "main" language. In Canada , there is a significant Polish Canadian population : There are 242,885 speakers of Polish according to
567-543: A lect is an independent language or a dialect: speakers of the speech variety or/and political decisions, and this is dynamic (i.e. it changes over time). Also, research organizations such as SIL International and resources for the academic field of linguistics such as Ethnologue , Linguist List and others, for example the Ministry of Administration and Digitization recognized the Silesian language. In July 2007,
648-454: A nasal consonant, rather than a nasal vowel. For example, ą in dąb ("oak") is pronounced [ɔm] , and ę in tęcza ("rainbow") is pronounced [ɛn] (the nasal assimilates to the following consonant). When followed by l or ł (for example przyjęli , przyjęły ), ę is pronounced as just e . When ę is at the end of the word it is often pronounced as just [ɛ] . Depending on
729-402: A reversed diacritic hook called an ogonek . Polish is a synthetic and fusional language which has seven grammatical cases . It has fixed penultimate stress and an abundance of palatal consonants . Contemporary Polish developed in the 1700s as the successor to the medieval Old Polish (10th–16th centuries) and Middle Polish (16th–18th centuries). Among the major languages, it
810-491: A single word. This applies in particular to many combinations of preposition plus a personal pronoun, such as do niej ('to her'), na nas ('on us'), prze ze mnie ('because of me'), all stressed on the bolded syllable. The Polish alphabet derives from the Latin script but includes certain additional letters formed using diacritics . The Polish alphabet was one of three major forms of Latin-based orthography developed for Western and some South Slavic languages,
891-405: A verse by Jan Brzechwa ) is W Szczebrzeszynie chrząszcz brzmi w trzcinie [fʂt͡ʂɛbʐɛˈʂɨɲɛ ˈxʂɔw̃ʂt͡ʂ ˈbʐmi fˈtʂt͡ɕiɲɛ] ('In Szczebrzeszyn a beetle buzzes in the reed'). Unlike languages such as Czech, Polish does not have syllabic consonants – the nucleus of a syllable is always a vowel. The consonant /j/ is restricted to positions adjacent to a vowel. It also cannot precede
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#1732780393727972-478: A vowel when it precedes another vowel (it represents /j/ , palatalization of the preceding consonant, or both depending on analysis). Also the letters u and i sometimes represent only semivowels when they follow another vowel, as in autor /ˈawtɔr/ ('author'), mostly in loanwords (so not in native nauka /naˈu.ka/ 'science, the act of learning', for example, nor in nativized Mateusz /maˈte.uʂ/ 'Matthew'). Some loanwords , particularly from
1053-711: Is a West Slavic language of the Lechitic group within the Indo-European language family written in the Latin script . It is primarily spoken in Poland and serves as the official language of the country, as well as the language of the Polish diaspora around the world. In 2024, there were over 39.7 million Polish native speakers. It ranks as the sixth most-spoken among languages of the European Union . Polish
1134-552: Is accused of treason during her personal quest in Mass Effect 2 . In the NCIS: New Orleans episode "Breaking Brig," the team hunt down a suspect known as "Matt S. O'Feeney", which was an anagram for eneMy OF State . The suspect was a dangerous man wanted by NCIS and Interpol for illegal arms dealing and other criminal activities. The protagonists of Avatar: The Last Airbender are declared enemies of
1215-419: Is also spoken as a second language in eastern Germany , northern Czech Republic and Slovakia , western parts of Belarus and Ukraine as well as in southeast Lithuania and Latvia . Because of the emigration from Poland during different time periods, most notably after World War II , millions of Polish speakers can also be found in countries such as Canada , Argentina , Brazil , Israel , Australia ,
1296-427: Is most closely related to Slovak and Czech but differs in terms of pronunciation and general grammar. Additionally, Polish was profoundly influenced by Latin and other Romance languages like Italian and French as well as Germanic languages (most notably German ), which contributed to a large number of loanwords and similar grammatical structures. Extensive usage of nonstandard dialects has also shaped
1377-447: Is possible to say ko goście zoba czy li? – here kogo retains its usual stress (first syllable) in spite of the attachment of the clitic. Reanalysis of the endings as inflections when attached to verbs causes the different colloquial stress patterns. These stress patterns are considered part of a "usable" norm of standard Polish - in contrast to the "model" ("high") norm. Some common word combinations are stressed as if they were
1458-595: Is subdivided into regional dialects and maintains strict T–V distinction pronouns, honorifics , and various forms of formalities when addressing individuals. The traditional 32-letter Polish alphabet has nine additions ( ą , ć , ę , ł , ń , ó , ś , ź , ż ) to the letters of the basic 26-letter Latin alphabet , while removing three (x, q, v). Those three letters are at times included in an extended 35-letter alphabet. The traditional set comprises 23 consonants and 9 written vowels , including two nasal vowels ( ę , ą ) defined by
1539-524: Is the Old Polish language . Ultimately, Polish descends from the unattested Proto-Slavic language. The Book of Henryków (Polish: Księga henrykowska , Latin : Liber fundationis claustri Sanctae Mariae Virginis in Heinrichau ), contains the earliest known sentence written in the Polish language: Day, ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai (in modern orthography: Daj, uć ja pobrusza, a ti pocziwaj ;
1620-529: Is the most widely-used minority language in Lithuania's Vilnius County , by 26% of the population, according to the 2001 census results, as Vilnius was part of Poland from 1922 until 1939. Polish is found elsewhere in southeastern Lithuania. In Ukraine, it is most common in the western parts of Lviv and Volyn Oblasts , while in West Belarus it is used by the significant Polish minority, especially in
1701-430: The kropka (superior dot) over the letter ż , and the ogonek ("little tail") under the letters ą, ę . The letters q, v, x are used only in foreign words and names. Polish orthography is largely phonemic —there is a consistent correspondence between letters (or digraphs and trigraphs ) and phonemes (for exceptions see below). The letters of the alphabet and their normal phonemic values are listed in
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#17327803937271782-401: The ś in święty ("holy") all represent the sound / ɕ / . The exceptions to the above rule are certain loanwords from Latin, Italian, French, Russian or English—where s before i is pronounced as s , e.g. sinus , sinologia , do re mi fa sol la si do , Saint-Simon i saint-simoniści , Sierioża , Siergiej , Singapur , singiel . In other loanwords
1863-441: The 1947 Polish legislative elections , when they drove opposition candidates out of towns by using intimidation and violence. In total, almost 100,000 functionaries across the country were deployed to secure a communist landslide victory in that year. After 1947, when communist authority in Poland had been consolidated, the activities of ORMO became more general and covert, shifting from repressing political opponents to monitoring
1944-596: The Brest and Grodno regions and in areas along the Lithuanian border. There are significant numbers of Polish speakers among Polish emigrants and their descendants in many other countries. In the United States , Polish Americans number more than 11 million but most of them cannot speak Polish fluently. According to the 2000 United States Census , 667,414 Americans of age five years and over reported Polish as
2025-517: The Marxist-Leninist ideology of the PZPR and feared by the general population. ORMO played a major role in the rigging of the 1946 Polish people's referendum , also known as the "3 times yes" referendum, the first election in post-war Poland. Armed ORMO men guarded the entrances to all polling stations and, as ordered, expelled official observers . They did it again a year later, during
2106-435: The Ministry of Public Security led by Stanisław Radkiewicz . The new units were considerably small, made up of 30–300 men armed with rifles and submachine guns . Membership of ORMO was open to those aged between 18 and 45 years old with Polish citizenship. Most recruits were from left-wing backgrounds, mainly members of the ruling Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR) and, to a lesser extent, its satellite parties
2187-666: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 's influence gave Polish the status of lingua franca in Central and Eastern Europe . The process of standardization began in the 14th century and solidified in the 16th century during the Middle Polish era. Standard Polish was based on various dialectal features, with the Greater Poland dialect group serving as the base. After World War II , Standard Polish became
2268-522: The United Kingdom and the United States . Polish began to emerge as a distinct language around the 10th century, the process largely triggered by the establishment and development of the Polish state. At the time, it was a collection of dialect groups with some mutual features, but much regional variation was present. Mieszko I , ruler of the Polans tribe from the Greater Poland region, united
2349-496: The United People's Party and Democratic Party . ORMO men did not receive monthly salaries, but were showered with regular monetary bonuses and state privileges. They were given new apartments, vouchers for cars, exclusive vacations and access to police health clinics, as well as better job placements. These attracted opportunists who had little interest in politics to join. ORMO members were often thoroughly indoctrinated by
2430-527: The Wayback Machine (Indonesian) ^ "Enemies of the State" . Holocaust Encyclopedia . 16 December 2008 . Retrieved 4 August 2021 . ^ Dorling, Philip (27 September 2012). "US calls Assange 'enemy of state' " . The Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved 29 July 2021 . ^ Tate, Julie; Londoño, Ernesto (29 July 2013). "Judge finds Manning not guilty of aiding
2511-474: The classical languages , have the stress on the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable. For example, fizyka ( /ˈfizɨka/ ) ('physics') is stressed on the first syllable. This may lead to a rare phenomenon of minimal pairs differing only in stress placement, for example muzyka /ˈmuzɨka/ 'music' vs. muzyka /muˈzɨka/ – genitive singular of muzyk 'musician'. When additional syllables are added to such words through inflection or suffixation ,
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2592-578: The flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50) , as well as the expulsion of Ukrainians and Operation Vistula , the 1947 migration of Ukrainian minorities in the Recovered Territories in the west of the country, contributed to the country's linguistic homogeneity. The inhabitants of different regions of Poland still speak Polish somewhat differently, although the differences between modern-day vernacular varieties and standard Polish ( język ogólnopolski ) appear relatively slight. Most of
2673-404: The standard language ; considerable colloquialisms and expressions were directly borrowed from German or Yiddish and subsequently adopted into the vernacular of Polish which is in everyday use. Historically, Polish was a lingua franca , important both diplomatically and academically in Central and part of Eastern Europe . In addition to being the official language of Poland, Polish
2754-456: The working-age population of Poland. In this case, the ORMO formations were not used against striking workers because many of its volunteers had become demoralized by public resentment, with membership dropping dramatically. Show of force operations were confined only to major urban centres. The crushing of Solidarity by the introduction of martial law in Poland in 1981 was taken over by ZOMO ,
2835-416: The 16th century, which is also regarded as the " Golden Age of Polish literature". The orthography was modified in the 19th century and in 1936. Tomasz Kamusella notes that "Polish is the oldest, non-ecclesiastical, written Slavic language with a continuous tradition of literacy and official use, which has lasted unbroken from the 16th century to this day." Polish evolved into the main sociolect of
2916-486: The 2006 census, with a particular concentration in Toronto (91,810 speakers) and Montreal . The geographical distribution of the Polish language was greatly affected by the territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II and Polish population transfers (1944–46) . Poles settled in the " Recovered Territories " in the west and north, which had previously been mostly German -speaking. Some Poles remained in
2997-701: The Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms" (PDF) . Special Rapporteur on human rights defenders . July 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 March 2016. ^ Cross, Daile; Hondros, Nathan (31 July 2020). " 'I think he's the enemy of Australia': McGowan ramps up war of words with Palmer on WA border battle" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved 12 August 2020 . ^ Raimondo, Justin (2000). An Enemy of
3078-583: The Henryków monastery, noted that "Hoc est in polonico" ("This is in Polish"). The earliest treatise on Polish orthography was written by Jakub Parkosz [ pl ] around 1470. The first printed book in Polish appeared in either 1508 or 1513, while the oldest Polish newspaper was established in 1661. Starting in the 1520s, large numbers of books in the Polish language were published, contributing to increased homogeneity of grammar and orthography. The writing system achieved its overall form in
3159-523: The KRN was installed as the government of Poland with the military backing of the Soviet Union and needed to establish its authority. The main, initial purpose of ORMO was to provide urgently needed reinforcements to People's Army of Poland , the Internal Security Corps and MO special forces during operations against the Polish anti-communist insurgency . It was placed under the control of
3240-455: The ORMO attack on universities in the wake of growing citizen discontent (see Polish 1970 protests ) prompted the Ministry to begin massive expansion of its rank and file. By 1979, ORMO reached over 450,000 members. At the turn of the 1980s, the nascent Solidarity movement took the communists by surprise. By mid-1981, membership of Solidarity had reached 9.5 million, 1 ⁄ 3 of
3321-413: The Polish public at large. Submachine guns were replaced with concealed weapons and informants were placed everywhere within the nationalized industry to monitor for signs of dissent. ORMO infiltrated factories and conducted round-ups among shop owners, confiscated grain and meat from independent farmers, and took part in arresting them as the " enemies of the state " alongside the regular police. This formed
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3402-671: The Silesian language was recognized by ISO , and was attributed an ISO code of szl. Some additional characteristic but less widespread regional dialects include: Polish linguistics has been characterized by a strong strive towards promoting prescriptive ideas of language intervention and usage uniformity, along with normatively-oriented notions of language "correctness" (unusual by Western standards). Polish has six oral vowels (seven oral vowels in written form), which are all monophthongs , and two nasal vowels . The oral vowels are / i / (spelled i ), / ɨ / (spelled y and also transcribed as /ɘ/ or /ɪ/), / ɛ / (spelled e ), /
3483-527: The State: The Life of Erwin Knoll . Fictional [ edit ] The fictional character Peter LaNague in the novel An Enemy of the State (The LaNague Federation, Book 1) by F. Paul Wilson . The fictional character Emmanuel Goldstein in the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell . In Resident Evil: Damnation , special agent Leon S. Kennedy is accused of being an enemy of
3564-3059: The State: The Life of Murray N. Rothbard . Prometheus Books . ISBN 1-61592-239-3 . ^ Lueders, Bill (1996). An Enemy of the State: The Life of Erwin Knoll . Common Courage Press . ISBN 1-56751-098-1 . ^ Wilson, F. Paul (2005). An Enemy of the State (The LaNague Federation, Book 1) . Infrapress. ISBN 0-9766544-2-3 . ^ Resident Evil: Damnation (2012) - B.O.W. Lab Attack Scene (6/10) . Movieclips . 7 February 2020. Event occurs at 0:44 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via YouTube . ^ Elizabeth, Stormy (8 October 2014). " 'NCIS: New Orleans' "Breaking Brigg" [ sic ] Recap: Season 1 Episode 3" . Celeb Dirty Laundry . Retrieved 4 August 2021 . v t e Nationalism Development Anthem Colours Flag Flower Epic God Identity Language Music Myth Sport Symbol Treasure By type African Anarchist Blind Bourgeois Business Welfare Civic American French Irish Communist Constitutional patriotism Corporate Cyber- Ecological Economic Ethnic European Expansionist Palingenetic ultranationalism Homo- Integral Left-wing Communist Linguistic Mystic New Pan- Neo- Populist Queer Racial Arab Berber Black Korean White Zionism Religious Christian Catholic Clerico- Mormon Islamic Hindu Hindutva Resource Revolutionary Ethnocacerism National syndicalist Falangism Fascism List of fascist movements Romantic Technological Territorial Terrorism Trans- Ultra- Organizations List of nationalist organizations Nationalist Clubs Related concepts Anarchism and nationalism Anationalism Anti-nationalism Banal nationalism Cultural nationalism Diaspora politics Eliminationism Exceptionalism Gastronationalism Gender and nationalism Historiography and nationalism Internationalism Irredentism Jingoism Nation-building National indifference National question National revival Nation state Nationalism studies Natural border Plurinationalism Principle of nationalities [ fr ] Revanchism State-building v t e Conformity Enforcement Proscription Damnatio memoriae Dissident / Dissenter Exile Homo sacer Ostracism Blacklisting Cancel culture Censorship Deplatforming Outcast Outlaw Civil death Vogelfrei Persona non grata Public enemy Enemy of
3645-589: The autonomy of Warsaw University ), the ORMO "worker-squads" stormed into the buildings armed with batons and performed swarm beatings of students in classrooms, along corridors, and in the university halls. Similar operations followed in Kraków from 14 to 20 March, in Lublin , Gliwice , Wrocław from 14 to 16 March, and in Gdańsk and Poznań against striking students. At least 2,725 people were arrested. The success of
3726-497: The bulk of ORMO activity during the 1950s and early 1960s. In 1967, the duties of ORMO were formalised and expanded, including the power to perform arrests and greater involvement in prosecutions . The next widely known operation by the ORMO took place during the March 1968 events , simultaneously in several major cities across Poland. On 8 March, while the regular police watched students protests passively (partly out of respect for
3807-485: The cases mentioned above, the letter i if followed by another vowel in the same word usually represents / j / , yet a palatalization of the previous consonant is always assumed. The reverse case, where the consonant remains unpalatalized but is followed by a palatalized consonant, is written by using j instead of i : for example, zjeść , "to eat up". The letters ą and ę , when followed by plosives and affricates, represent an oral vowel followed by
3888-595: The communist government. ORMO was disbanded by the Sejm in 1989 during the collapse of the communism in Poland. The Volunteer Reserve of the Citizens' Militia ( Ochotnicza Rezerwa Milicji Obywatelskiej or ORMO) was created on 21 February 1946 by the State National Council (KRN), a communist body under the auspices of the Polish Workers' Party (PPR). In the aftermath of World War II ,
3969-713: The corresponding sentence in modern Polish: Daj, niech ja pomielę, a ty odpoczywaj or Pozwól, że ja będę mełł, a ty odpocznij ; and in English: Come, let me grind, and you take a rest ), written around 1280. The book is exhibited in the Archdiocesal Museum in Wrocław, and as of 2015 has been added to UNESCO 's " Memory of the World " list. The medieval recorder of this phrase, the Cistercian monk Peter of
4050-479: The disappearance of yers . Polish can have word-initial and word-medial clusters of up to four consonants, whereas word-final clusters can have up to five consonants. Examples of such clusters can be found in words such as bezwzględny [bɛzˈvzɡlɛndnɨ] ('absolute' or 'heartless', 'ruthless'), źdźbło [ˈʑd͡ʑbwɔ] ('blade of grass'), wstrząs [ˈfstʂɔw̃s] ('shock'), and krnąbrność [ˈkrnɔmbrnɔɕt͡ɕ] ('disobedience'). A popular Polish tongue-twister (from
4131-430: The distinction between regular penultimate and exceptional antepenultimate stress. Another class of exceptions is verbs with the conditional endings -by, -bym, -byśmy , etc. These endings are not counted in determining the position of the stress; for example, zro biłbym ('I would do') is stressed on the first syllable, and zro bi libyśmy ('we would do') on the second. According to prescriptive authorities ,
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#17327803937274212-531: The eastern parts of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth wrote Polish in the Arabic alphabet. The Cyrillic script is used to a certain extent today by Polish speakers in Western Belarus , especially for religious texts. The diacritics used in the Polish alphabet are the kreska (graphically similar to the acute accent ) over the letters ć, ń, ó, ś, ź and through the letter in ł ;
4293-745: The elite motorized units of the police. Attempts at restructuring ORMO as the PZPR's own self-defence force, carried out by Czesław Kiszczak , failed miserably. In the following years, many regional cells were closed down due to a lack of volunteers. Finally in 1989, after the fall of communism in Poland , ORMO was officially dissolved by the Sejm. Similar formations: [REDACTED] Media related to Ochotnicza Rezerwa Milicji Obywatelskiej at Wikimedia Commons Polish language Polish ( endonym : język polski , [ˈjɛ̃zɘk ˈpɔlskʲi] , polszczyzna [pɔlˈʂt͡ʂɘzna] or simply polski , [ˈpɔlskʲi] )
4374-420: The end of words (where devoicing occurs) and in certain consonant clusters (where assimilation occurs). For details, see Voicing and devoicing in the article on Polish phonology. Most Polish words are paroxytones (that is, the stress falls on the second-to-last syllable of a polysyllabic word), although there are exceptions. Polish permits complex consonant clusters, which historically often arose from
4455-498: The enemy" (identified as al-Qaeda ). Edward Snowden , the American computer specialist who leaked details of top-secret United States and British government mass surveillance programs to the press, has been discussed by opinion writers as being persecuted as an enemy of the state. Human rights defenders working on behalf of communities affected by large-scale development projects are increasingly branded as enemies of
4536-872: The enemy, guilty of espionage" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 29 July 2021 . ^ Gellman, Barton ; Markon, Jerry (9 June 2013). "Edward Snowden says motive behind leaks was to expose 'surveillance state' " . The Washington Post . Retrieved 10 June 2013 . ^ Edwards, Bea (1 August 2013). "American Whistleblowers in Prison and in Exile" . The Huffington Post . Retrieved 29 July 2021 . Vlahos, Kelley Beaucar (8 August 2013). "The Right Rallies To Edward Snowden" . The American Conservative . Retrieved 29 July 2021 . Robinson, Eugene (12 August 2013). "Eugene Robinson: What NSA reforms?" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 29 July 2021 . ^ "Commentary to
4617-476: The entire country. Polish has traditionally been described as consisting of three to five main regional dialects: Silesian and Kashubian , spoken in Upper Silesia and Pomerania respectively, are thought of as either Polish dialects or distinct languages , depending on the criteria used. Kashubian contains a number of features not found elsewhere in Poland, e.g. nine distinct oral vowels (vs.
4698-1896: The flag effect Social construction of gender Social contagion Addiction Behavioral Crime Hysterical Suicide Emotional Social influence Social integration Socialization Spiral of silence Teasing Toxic positivity Untouchability Individual pressure Authoritarian personality Authoritarian leadership style Right-wing authoritarian personality Control freak Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder Conformity Compliance Communal reinforcement Countersignaling Creeping normality Herd behavior Internalization Normalization of deviance Obedience Preference falsification Social proof Social reality Experiments Asch conformity experiments Breaching experiment Milgram experiment Stanford prison experiment Anticonformity Alternative media Anti-authoritarianism Anti-social behaviour Auto-segregation Civil disobedience Cosmopolitanism Counterculture Culture jamming Deviance Devil's advocate Dissent Political Eccentricity Eclecticism Hermit Idiosyncrasy Individualism Insubordination Pueblo clown Rebellion Red team Satire Shock value Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Enemy_of_the_state&oldid=1246651862 " Categories : Political repression Political repression in China Political repression in Cuba Political repression in North Korea Political repression in
4779-467: The following table. The following digraphs and trigraphs are used: Voiced consonant letters frequently come to represent voiceless sounds (as shown in the tables); this occurs at the end of words and in certain clusters, due to the neutralization mentioned in the Phonology section above. Occasionally also voiceless consonant letters can represent voiced sounds in clusters. The spelling rule for
4860-548: The language spoken at home, which is about 1.4% of people who speak languages other than English , 0.25% of the US population, and 6% of the Polish-American population. The largest concentrations of Polish speakers reported in the census (over 50%) were found in three states: Illinois (185,749), New York (111,740), and New Jersey (74,663). Enough people in these areas speak Polish that PNC Financial Services (which has
4941-439: The letter y . The predominant stress pattern in Polish is penultimate stress – in a word of more than one syllable, the next-to-last syllable is stressed. Alternating preceding syllables carry secondary stress, e.g. in a four-syllable word, where the primary stress is on the third syllable, there will be secondary stress on the first. Each vowel represents one syllable, although the letter i normally does not represent
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#17327803937275022-431: The middle aged and young speak vernaculars close to standard Polish, while the traditional dialects are preserved among older people in rural areas. First-language speakers of Polish have no trouble understanding each other, and non-native speakers may have difficulty recognizing the regional and social differences. The modern standard dialect , often termed as "correct Polish", is spoken or at least understood throughout
5103-460: The most widely spoken variant of Polish across the country, and most dialects stopped being the form of Polish spoken in villages. Poland is one of the most linguistically homogeneous European countries; nearly 97% of Poland's citizens declare Polish as their first language . Elsewhere, Poles constitute large minorities in areas which were once administered or occupied by Poland, notably in neighboring Lithuania , Belarus , and Ukraine . Polish
5184-433: The name Tarzan . Enemy of the state Person accused of certain crimes against the state This article is about the political and criminal term. For other uses, see Enemy of the state (disambiguation) . An enemy of the state is a person suspected of political crimes against the state , such as treason . In designating certain persons and organizations as enemies of
5265-649: The nobles in Poland–Lithuania in the 15th century. The history of Polish as a language of state governance begins in the 16th century in the Kingdom of Poland . Over the later centuries, Polish served as the official language in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , Congress Poland , the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria , and as the administrative language in the Russian Empire 's Western Krai . The growth of
5346-673: The others being Czech orthography and Croatian orthography , the last of these being a 19th-century invention trying to make a compromise between the first two. Kashubian uses a Polish-based system, Slovak uses a Czech-based system, and Slovene follows the Croatian one; the Sorbian languages blend the Polish and the Czech ones. Historically, Poland's once diverse and multi-ethnic population utilized many forms of scripture to write Polish. For instance, Lipka Tatars and Muslims inhabiting
5427-401: The palatal sounds / ɕ / , / ʑ / , / tɕ / , / dʑ / and / ɲ / is as follows: before the vowel i the plain letters s, z, c, dz, n are used; before other vowels the combinations si, zi, ci, dzi, ni are used; when not followed by a vowel the diacritic forms ś, ź, ć, dź, ń are used. For example, the s in siwy ("grey-haired"), the si in siarka ("sulfur") and
5508-933: The people Enemy of the state Scapegoating Shunning Governmental pressure Authoritarianism Nationalism Left-wing nationalism National conservatism Totalitarianism Tyranny of the majority Group pressure Bandwagon effect Brainwashing Closure (sociology) Collectivism Consensus reality Culture shock Dogma Echo chamber False consensus effect Fear of missing out Groupthink Hazing Herd mentality Identification (psychology) Indoctrination Invented tradition Memory conformity Mere exposure effect Milieu control Mobbing Normalization Normative social influence Passing (sociology) Patriotism Peer pressure Pluralistic ignorance Propaganda Psychosocial issue Purity spiral Operant conditioning Rally 'round
5589-520: The previously Polish-ruled territories in the east that were annexed by the USSR , resulting in the present-day Polish-speaking communities in Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine, although many Poles were expelled from those areas to areas within Poland's new borders. To the east of Poland, the most significant Polish minority lives in a long strip along either side of the Lithuania - Belarus border. Meanwhile,
5670-416: The ruling Polish United Workers' Party , a large share of members of the United People's Party and Democratic Party , farmers and workers with communist sympathies, and other non-party opportunists . ORMO was often involved in political repression in Poland, including the unlawful arrest and beatings of peaceful protesters, such as during the public demonstrations organized by Solidarity which opposed
5751-540: The same applies to the first and second person plural past tense endings -śmy, -ście , although this rule is often ignored in colloquial speech (so zro bi liśmy 'we did' should be prescriptively stressed on the second syllable, although in practice it is commonly stressed on the third as zrobi li śmy ). These irregular stress patterns are explained by the fact that these endings are detachable clitics rather than true verbal inflections: for example, instead of ko go zoba czy liście? ('whom did you see?') it
5832-410: The series of affricate and palatal consonants that resulted from four Proto-Slavic palatalizations and two further palatalizations that took place in Polish. The full set of consonants, together with their most common spellings, can be presented as follows (although other phonological analyses exist): Neutralization occurs between voiced – voiceless consonant pairs in certain environments, at
5913-506: The six of standard Polish) and (in the northern dialects) phonemic word stress, an archaic feature preserved from Common Slavic times and not found anywhere else among the West Slavic languages . However, it was described by some linguists as lacking most of the linguistic and social determinants of language-hood. Many linguistic sources categorize Silesian as a regional language separate from Polish, while some consider Silesian to be
5994-795: The state by Long Feng , Grand Secretariat of the Earth Kingdom's capital city, in the episode "Lake Laogai." See also [ edit ] Enemy of the people Public enemy Fifth column References [ edit ] ^ Fasolt, Constantin (2004). The Limits of History . University of Chicago Press . p. 168. ISBN 978-0-226-23910-1 . Retrieved 9 July 2013 . ^ Magill, Frank N., ed. (2013). The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography . Vol. 1. Routledge . p. 1209. ISBN 978-1-135-45740-2 . Retrieved 9 July 2013 . ^ Undang Undang no.27/1999, laws on Communism and Marxism-Leninism Archived 30 December 2016 at
6075-569: The state by President of the Eastern Slav Republic Svetlana Belikova who orders her guards to kill him right after she briefly spars in one-on-one combat with him. The six main characters in Final Fantasy XIII are branded as enemies of the state following the destruction of Cocoon; the main events of the game revolve around them trying to survive and hopefully clear their names. Tali'Zorah
6156-482: The state" in Nazi Germany . Carlos Lamarca , a Brazilian Army Captain who deserted to become the leader of a left-wing guerrilla against the military dictatorship ; Lamarca was the only man in the history of Brazil to receive the status of traitor , being considered an "enemy of the state". Leaker of classified U.S. military documents and diplomatic cables Chelsea Manning was charged with "aiding
6237-414: The state, the government can realize the political repression of political opponents, such as dissidents ; thus a government can justify political repression as protecting the national security of the country and the nation. Examples [ edit ] Political [ edit ] In ancient Rome , some parties could be named an enemy of the state through specific public actions resulting in
6318-720: The state. Clive Palmer , an Australian mining magnate, was labelled as such by Mark McGowan , the Premier of Western Australia , when Palmer sued the Western Australian government for not allowing him free entry into the state during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns. Biography [ edit ] Justin Raimondo 's biography of Murray Rothbard , An Enemy of the State: The Life of Murray N. Rothbard . Bill Lueders ' biography of Erwin Knoll , An Enemy of
6399-494: The stress normally becomes regular. For example, uniwersytet ( /uɲiˈvɛrsɨtɛt/ , 'university') has irregular stress on the third (or antepenultimate) syllable, but the genitive uniwersytetu ( /uɲivɛrsɨˈtɛtu/ ) and derived adjective uniwersytecki ( /uɲivɛrsɨˈtɛt͡skʲi/ ) have regular stress on the penultimate syllables. Loanwords generally become nativized to have penultimate stress. In psycholinguistic experiments, speakers of Polish have been demonstrated to be sensitive to
6480-563: The vowel i is changed to y , e.g. Syria , Sybir , synchronizacja , Syrakuzy . The following table shows the correspondence between the sounds and spelling: Digraphs and trigraphs are used: Similar principles apply to / kʲ / , / ɡʲ / , / xʲ / and /lʲ/ , except that these can only occur before vowels, so the spellings are k, g, (c)h, l before i , and ki, gi, (c)hi, li otherwise. Most Polish speakers, however, do not consider palatalization of k, g, (c)h or l as creating new sounds. Except in
6561-443: The word, the phoneme / x / can be spelt h or ch , the phoneme / ʐ / can be spelt ż or rz , and / u / can be spelt u or ó . In several cases it determines the meaning, for example: może ("maybe") and morze ("sea"). In occasional words, letters that normally form a digraph are pronounced separately. For example, rz represents /rz/ , not / ʐ / , in words like zamarzać ("freeze") and in
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