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83-539: The Odyssean tradition is strongly connected with the Wiccan Church of Canada , a public Wiccan church also founded by the Jameses. The Odyssean Tradition of Wicca was founded by Richard and Tamara James in 1979, along with other members of their coven . The name of the tradition was inspired by Homer 's Odyssey , and is meant to emphasize a belief in life as a "spiritual journey". The tradition grew out of

166-525: A Triple Goddess , thereby being a triadic deity comprising a Maiden goddess, a Mother goddess , and a Crone goddess, each of whom has different associations, namely virginity, fertility, and wisdom. Other Wiccan conceptualisations have portrayed her as a Moon Goddess and as a Menstruating Goddess. According to the anthropologist Susan Greenwood, in Wicca the Goddess is "a symbol of self-transformation - she

249-563: A Wiccan church or other organisation. Churches are often formed from hive covens . Some Wiccan and neopagan witchcraft organisations have chosen to achieve formal legal status by becoming non-profit corporations within their states or provinces, and sometimes they additionally obtain tax-exempt status in the United States under § 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code . This modern paganism -related article

332-540: A deist entity who had created the "Under-Gods", among them the God and Goddess, but who was not otherwise involved in the world; alternately, other Wiccans have interpreted such an entity as a pantheistic being, of whom the God and Goddess are facets. Although Gardner criticised monotheism, citing the Problem of Evil , explicitly monotheistic forms of Wicca developed in the 1960s, when the U.S.-based Church of Wicca developed

415-626: A magic circle . The five elements are air , fire , water , earth , and aether (or spirit), where aether unites the other four elements. Various analogies have been devised to explain the concept of the five elements; for instance, the Wiccan Ann-Marie Gallagher used that of a tree, which is composed of earth (with the soil and plant matter), water (sap and moisture), fire (through photosynthesis ) and air (the formation of oxygen from carbon dioxide ), all of which are believed to be united through spirit. Traditionally in

498-545: A mystery religion . However, given that Wicca also incorporates the practice of magic , several scholars have referred to it as a "magico-religion". Wicca is also a form of Western esotericism , and more specifically a part of the esoteric current known as occultism . Academics like Wouter Hanegraaff and Tanya Luhrmann have categorised Wicca as part of the New Age , although other academics, and many Wiccans themselves, dispute this categorisation. Although recognised as

581-800: A religion by academics, some evangelical Christians have attempted to deny it legal recognition as such, while some Wiccan practitioners themselves eschew the term "religion" – associating the latter purely with organised religion – instead favouring " spirituality " or "way of life". Although Wicca as a religion is distinct from other forms of contemporary paganism, there has been much "cross-fertilization" between these different pagan faiths; accordingly, Wicca has both influenced and been influenced by other pagan religions, thus making clear-cut distinctions between them more difficult for religious studies scholars to make. The terms wizard and warlock are sometimes discouraged altogether. Wizard can represent an emphasis on wisdom and insight-based practices, and it

664-462: A sacred circle , Wiccans cast spells or "workings" intended to bring about real changes in the physical world. Common Wiccan spells include those used for healing , for protection, fertility, or to banish negative influences. Many early Wiccans, such as Alex Sanders , Sybil Leek and Alex Winfield, referred to their own magic as " white magic ", which contrasted with " black magic ", which they associated with evil and Satanism . Sanders also used

747-455: A "realistic view of living in the real world" replete with its many problems and do not claim that the gods "have all the answers" to these. She suggested that Wiccans do not claim to seek perfection but instead "wholeness" or "completeness", which includes an acceptance of traits like anger, weakness, and pain. She contrasted the Wiccan acceptance of an "interplay between light and dark" against

830-786: A Wiccan may regard the Germanic Ēostre , Hindu Kali , and Catholic Virgin Mary each as manifestations of one supreme Goddess and likewise, the Celtic Cernunnos , the ancient Greek Dionysus and the Judeo-Christian Yahweh as aspects of a single, archetypal god. A more strictly polytheistic approach holds the various goddesses and gods to be separate and distinct entities in their own right. The Wiccan writers Janet Farrar and Gavin Bone have postulated that Wicca

913-585: A belief from the Theosophy-inspired Huna movement , Kabbalah , and other sources, that the human being has three souls. Although not accepted by all Wiccans, a belief in reincarnation is the dominant afterlife belief within Wicca, having been originally espoused by Gardner. Understandings of how the cycle of reincarnation operates differ among practitioners; Wiccan Raymond Buckland for instance insisted that human souls would only incarnate into human bodies, whereas other Wiccans believe that

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996-627: A broad term for a religion with denominations that differ on some key points but share core beliefs and practices. Wicca is typically duotheistic , venerating both a Goddess and a God, traditionally conceived as the Triple Goddess and the Horned God , respectively. These deities may be regarded in a henotheistic way, as having many different divine aspects which can be identified with various pagan deities from different historical pantheons. For this reason, they are sometimes referred to as

1079-514: A broomstick known as a besom , a cauldron , candles , incense and a curved blade known as a boline . An altar is usually present in the circle, on which ritual tools are placed and representations of the God and the Goddess may be displayed. Before entering the circle, some traditions fast for the day, and/or ritually bathe. After a ritual has finished, the God, Goddess, and Guardians are thanked,

1162-501: A different deity who were seen as children of the primary Horned God and Goddess. The five elements are symbolised by the five points of the pentagram , the most-used symbol of Wicca. The Wiccan high priestess and journalist Margot Adler stated that Wiccan rituals were not "dry, formalised, repetitive experiences", but performed with the intent of inducing a religious experience in the participants, thereby altering their consciousness. She noted that many Wiccans remain skeptical about

1245-425: A form of modern paganism. Wicca has been cited as the largest, best known, most influential, and most academically studied form of modern paganism. Within the movement, it has been identified as sitting on the eclectic end of the eclectic to reconstructionist spectrum . Several academics have also categorised Wicca as a form of nature religion , a term that is also embraced by many of its practitioners, and as

1328-612: A greater exposure to the ritual style of other Wiccan and Modern Pagan traditions is offered to Odyssean laity, neophytes, and initiates through the Wiccan Church of Canada . Wiccan church Wiccan organisations are groups formed by Wiccans , particularly in North America. While in Europe Wicca is most often organised into independent covens , in the United States some covens choose to combine to form

1411-441: A headlong plunge back into magic" and that it was a reactionary religion which would soon die out. This view was heavily criticised in 1999 by the historian Ronald Hutton who claimed that the evidence displayed the very opposite: that "a large number [of Wiccans] were in jobs at the cutting edge [of scientific culture], such as computer technology". Identification as a witch can[…] provide a link to those persecuted and executed in

1494-472: A human soul can incarnate into any life form. There is also a common Wiccan belief that any Wiccans will come to be reincarnated as future Wiccans, an idea originally expressed by Gardner. Gardner also articulated the view that the human soul rested for a period between bodily death and its incarnation, with this resting place commonly being referred to as " The Summerland " among the Wiccan community. This allows many Wiccans to believe that mediums can contact

1577-543: A majority follow a code known as the Wiccan Rede , which states, "an it harm none, do what ye will". This is usually interpreted as a declaration of the freedom to act, along with the necessity of taking responsibility for what follows from one's actions and minimising harm to oneself and others. Another common element of Wiccan morality is the Law of Threefold Return which holds that whatever benevolent or malevolent actions

1660-459: A necessary presence to balance each other out. This may have derived from Gardner's interpretation of Murray's claim that the ancient witch-cult was a fertility religion. Thus, many practitioners of British Traditional Wicca have argued that gay men and women are not capable of correctly working magic without mixed-sex pairings. Although Gerald Gardner initially demonstrated an aversion to homosexuality , claiming that it brought down "the curse of

1743-552: A number of diverse lineages, sects , and denominations , referred to as traditions , each with its own organisational structure and level of centralisation . Given its broadly decentralised nature, disagreements arise over the boundaries that define Wicca. Some traditions, collectively referred to as British Traditional Wicca (BTW), strictly follow the initiatory lineage of Gardner and consider Wicca specific to similar traditions, excluding newer, eclectic traditions. Other traditions, as well as scholars of religion, apply Wicca as

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1826-529: A person performs will return to that person with triple force, or with equal force on each of the three levels of body, mind, and spirit, similar to the eastern idea of karma . The Wiccan Rede was most likely introduced into Wicca by Gerald Gardner and formalised publicly by Doreen Valiente , one of his High Priestesses. The Threefold Law was an interpretation of Wiccan ideas and ritual, made by Monique Wilson and further popularized by Raymond Buckland , in his books on Wicca. Many Wiccans also seek to cultivate

1909-717: A public Wiccan priesthood providing religious services for a Neopagan laity . In 1987, the James' purchased much of Gerald Gardner 's collection back from Ripleys, this included Ye Bok of Ye Art Magical. It is after this purchase that the James' received valid initiations and elevations into the various traditions and lineages British Traditional Wicca . The Odyssean tradition and the Wiccan Church of Canada reached their apex in 1992—at that time there were four temples (Toronto, Ottawa, Hamilton, and Kitchener-Waterloo) and three proto-temples in Brampton, Oshawa, and Montreal. Currently,

1992-563: A set of eight virtues mentioned in Doreen Valiente 's Charge of the Goddess , these being mirth, reverence, honour, humility, strength, beauty, power, and compassion. In Valiente's poem, they are ordered in pairs of complementary opposites, reflecting a dualism that is common throughout Wiccan philosophy. Some lineaged Wiccans also observe a set of Wiccan Laws , commonly called the Craft Laws or Ardanes , 30 of which exist in

2075-444: A synonym for "Wicca" is "Pagan witchcraft", although there are also other forms of modern paganism—such as types of Heathenry —which also use the term "Pagan witchcraft". From the 1990s onward, various Wiccans began describing themselves as " Traditional Witches ", although this term was also employed by practitioners of other magico-religious traditions like Luciferianism. In some popular culture, such as television programs Buffy

2158-432: A theology rooted in the worship of what they described as "one deity, without gender". In the 1970s, Dianic Wiccan groups developed which were devoted to a singular, monotheistic Goddess; this approach was often criticised by members of British Traditional Wiccan groups, who lambasted such Goddess monotheism as an inverted imitation of Christian theology. As in other forms of Wicca, some Goddess monotheists have expressed

2241-467: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . British Traditional Wicca Wicca ( English: / ˈ w ɪ k ə / ), also known as " The Craft ", is a modern pagan , syncretic , earth-centered religion . Considered a new religious movement by scholars of religion , the path evolved from Western esotericism , developed in England during the first half of the 20th century, and

2324-561: Is based on the worship of the Greek Gods of antiquity. Blue Star Wicca does have a special relationship to the Odyssean tradition, as a "sister" or "cousin" tradition. The Dymond line of Alexandrian Wicca also has a unique relationship with the Odyssean tradition and the Wiccan Church of Canada. Because the Odyssean tradition has been created from the known published material (circa 1979) of Gardnerian Wicca and Alexandrian Wicca

2407-525: Is becoming more polytheistic as it matures, tending to embrace a more traditionally pagan worldview. Some Wiccans conceive of deities not as literal personalities but as metaphorical archetypes or thoughtforms , thereby technically allowing them to be atheists . Such a view is held by the High Priestess Vivianne Crowley , herself a psychologist , who considered the Wiccan deities to be Jungian archetypes that existed within

2490-496: Is seen to be constantly changing and a force for change for those who open themselves up to her". Gardner stated that beyond Wicca's two deities was the "Supreme Deity" or " Prime Mover ", an entity that was too complex for humans to understand. This belief has been endorsed by other practitioners, who have referred to it as "the Cosmic Logos ", "Supreme Cosmic Power", or " Godhead ". Gardner envisioned this Supreme Deity as

2573-466: Is that Wicca's deities are viewed as forms of ancient, pre-Christian divinities by its practitioners. Most early Wiccan groups adhered to the duotheistic worship of a Horned God and a Mother Goddess , with practitioners typically believing that these had been the ancient deities worshipped by the hunter-gatherers of the Old Stone Age , whose veneration had been passed down in secret right to

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2656-543: Is the rescension of Doreen Valiente , who developed it from Gardner's version. Gardner's wording of the original "Charge" added extracts from Aleister Crowley's work, including The Book of the Law , (especially from Ch 1, spoken by Nuit, the Star Goddess) thus linking modern Wicca irrevocably to the principles of Thelema . Valiente rewrote Gardner's version in verse, keeping the material derived from Aradia , but removing

2739-503: Is used by modern feminist witches as an aid in their struggle for freedom from patriarchal oppression. — Religious studies scholar Joanne Pearson Historian Wouter Hanegraaff noted that the Wiccan view of witchcraft was "an outgrowth of Romantic (semi)scholarship", especially the 'witch cult' theory . It proposed that historical alleged witches were actually followers of a surviving pagan religion, and that accusations of infanticide, cannibalism, Satanism, etc., were either made up by

2822-414: Is used by some interchangeably with the term witch for their common roots in the meaning of gaining wisdom and being wise . In Wicca, denominations are referred to as traditions , while non-Wiccans are often termed cowans . When the religion first came to public attention, its followers commonly called it "Witchcraft". Gerald Gardner —the man regarded as the "Father of Wicca"—referred to it as

2905-534: The Inquisition or were misunderstandings of pagan rites. This theory that accused witches were actually pagans has now been disproven using archive records of witch trials. Nevertheless, Gardner and other founders of Wicca believed the theory was true, and saw the witch as a " positive antitype which derives much of its symbolic force from its implicit criticism of dominant Judaeo-Christian and Enlightenment values". Pearson suggested that Wiccans "identify with

2988-880: The Modern English term "Wicca" is borrowed from the Old English wicca [ˈwittʃɑ] and wicce [ˈwittʃe] , the masculine and feminine term for witch , respectively, that was used in Anglo-Saxon England . By adopting it for modern usage, Wiccans were both symbolically linking themselves to the ancient, pre-Christian past, and adopting a self-designation that would be less controversial than "Witchcraft". The scholar of religion and Wiccan priestess Joanne Pearson noted that while "the words 'witch' and 'wicca' are therefore linked etymologically, […] they are used to emphasize different things today". In early sources, "Wicca" referred to

3071-661: The cycles of the Moon , known as Esbats and commonly associated with the Triple Goddess, alongside the cycles of the Sun, seasonally based festivals known as Sabbats and commonly associated with the Horned God. The Wiccan Rede is a popular expression of Wiccan morality, often with respect to the ritual practice of magic . Scholars of religious studies classify Wicca as a new religious movement , and more specifically as

3154-655: The "Craft of the Wise", "Witchcraft", and "the Witch-cult " during the 1950s. Gardner believed in the theory that persecuted witches had actually been followers of a surviving pagan religion, but this theory has now been proven wrong. There is no evidence that he ever called it "Wicca", although he did refer to its community of followers as "the Wica" (with one c ). As a name for the religion, "Wicca" developed in Britain during

3237-537: The "Great Goddess" and the "Great Horned God", with the honorific "great" connoting a personification containing many other deities within their own nature. Some Wiccans refer to the goddess as "Lady" and the god as "Lord" to invoke their divinity . These two deities are sometimes viewed as facets of a universal pantheistic divinity, regarded as an impersonal force rather than a personal deity. Other traditions of Wicca embrace polytheism , pantheism , monism , and Goddess monotheism . Wiccan celebrations encompass both

3320-488: The 1960s. It is not known who first used this name for the religion, although one possibility is that it might have been Gardner's rival Charles Cardell , who was calling it the "Craft of the Wiccens" by 1958. The first recorded use of the name "Wicca" was in 1962, and it had been popularised to the extent that several British practitioners founded a newsletter called The Wiccan in 1968. Although pronounced differently,

3403-709: The 1980s, there were two competing definitions of the word "Wicca" in use among the pagan and esoteric communities, one broad and inclusive, the other narrow and exclusionary. Among scholars of pagan studies , it is the older, broader, inclusive meaning which is preferred. Alongside "Wicca", some practitioners still call the religion "Witchcraft" or "the Craft". Using the word "Witchcraft" in this context can result in confusion with other, non-religious meanings of "witchcraft" as well as other religions—such as Satanism and Luciferianism —whose practitioners also sometimes describe themselves as "Witches". Another term sometimes used as

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3486-456: The Craft's emphasis on individual expression in one's spiritual/magical path. Many rituals within Wicca are used when celebrating the Sabbats , worshipping the deities, and working magic. Often these take place on a full moon , or in some cases a new moon, which is known as an Esbat . In typical rites, the coven or solitary assembles inside a ritually cast and purified magic circle . Casting

3569-553: The Gardnerian Craft, each element has been associated with a cardinal point of the compass; air with east, fire with south, water with west, earth with north, and the spirit with centre. However, some Wiccans, such as Frederic Lamond , have claimed that the set cardinal points are only those applicable to the geography of southern England, where Wicca evolved, and that Wiccans should determine which directions best suit each element in their region. For instance, those living on

3652-571: The Gardnerian tradition and 161 of which are in the Alexandrian tradition. Valiente, one of Gardner's original High Priestesses, argued that the first thirty of these rules were most likely invented by Gerald Gardner himself in mock-archaic language as the by-product of inner conflict within his Bricket Wood coven. In British Traditional Wicca, "sex complementarity is a basic and fundamental working principle", with men and women being seen as

3735-472: The Great Witch Hunt, which can then be remembered as a holocaust against women, a repackaging of history that implies conscious victimization and the appropriation of 'holocaust' as a badge of honour — 'gendercide rather than genocide'. An elective identification with the image of the witch during the time of the persecutions is commonly regarded as part of the reclamation of female power, a myth that

3818-569: The High Priesthood would be autonomous of both the tradition's founders and of the WCC. That meant that they could initiate and/or elevate their students up to the highest degree (3rd Degree) without requiring approval from the other High Priesthood of the tradition. For those initiated after 1987, these initiates would have to retain active status—they must perform a minimal level of religious services (public rituals and public classes) to one of

3901-475: The Horned God, he is most often associated with animals and the natural world, but also with the afterlife, and he is furthermore often viewed as an ideal role model for men. The Mother Goddess has been associated with life, fertility, and the springtime, and has been described as an ideal role model for women. Wicca's duotheism has been compared to the Taoist system of yin and yang . Other Wiccans have adopted

3984-741: The James' creation of the Wiccan Church of Canada , with which the tradition is still very closely associated. While the James’s and their coven members claimed to have had backgrounds in Gardnerian Wicca , Alexandrian Wicca , and Continental Wicca, these claims were never substantiated—the general consensus of the British Traditional Wiccan community in Ontario prior to 1987 was that these claims had no substance whatsoever. Regardless, those traditions were not ideally suited for

4067-526: The New Age focus on "white light". Similarly, the scholar of religion Geoffrey Samuel noted that Wiccans devote "a perhaps surprising amount of attention to darkness and death". Many Wiccans are involved in environmentalist campaigns. Many traditions hold a belief in the five classical elements , although they are seen as symbolic representations of the phases of matter . These five elements are invoked during many magical rituals, notably when consecrating

4150-599: The Threefold Law ye should – three times bad and three times good ... Eight words the Wiccan Rede fulfill – an it harm none, do what ye will. Lady Gwen Thompson Wicca has been characterised as a life-affirming religion. Practitioners typically present themselves as "a positive force against the powers of destruction which threaten the world". There exists no dogmatic moral or ethical code followed universally by Wiccans of all traditions. However,

4233-667: The Vampire Slayer and Charmed , the word "Wicca" has been used as a synonym for witchcraft more generally, including in non-religious and non-pagan forms. Theological views within Wicca are diverse. The religion encompasses theists , atheists , and agnostics , with some viewing the religion's deities as entities with a literal existence and others viewing them as Jungian archetypes or symbols. Even among theistic Wiccans, there are divergent beliefs, and Wicca includes pantheists , monotheists , duotheists , and polytheists . Common to these divergent perspectives, however,

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4316-582: The WCC to follow their path elsewhere. There are more former members of the WCC laity and more retired neophytes and initiates of the Odyssean tradition than there are active initiates. Many of these retired Odysseans have gone on to found their own covens and traditions that are based upon Odyssean practices. Many of the other Wiccan churches that exist in Canada, and to some extent the United States, have drawn upon Odyssean sources and retired Odysseans. Prior to 1987, an Odyssean initiate who had been elevated into

4399-523: The Wiccan Church of Canada has only two temples; the mother temple in Toronto, Ontario and a temple in Hamilton, Ontario . While the influence of the Wiccan Church of Canada has declined over the past decade, the indirect influence of the Odyssean tradition has grown. Because the WCC is a public Modern Pagan church, and because many members of the laity, many neophytes, and many initiates step away from

4482-427: The Wiccan Church of Canada temples, their status will be downgraded to inactive. An Odyssean initiate who has been inactive for more than one year and one day can be reclassified by the High Priesthood of the tradition as retired. A retired Odyssean initiate can only return to active status with the permission of the High Priesthood of the tradition. Therefore, while the Odyssean tradition and the WCC were separate during

4565-403: The beliefs, stating: "it's a religion of ritual rather than theology. The ritual is first; the myth is second". Similarly, Adler stated that Wicca permits "total skepticism about even its own methods, myths and rituals". The anthropologist Susan Greenwood characterised Wiccan rituals as "a form of resistance to mainstream culture". She saw these rituals as "a healing space away from the ills of

4648-425: The body in a manner unimpeded by clothes. Some also note that it removes signs of social rank and differentiation and thus encourages unity among the practitioners. Some Wiccans seek legitimacy for the practice by stating that various ancient societies performed their rituals while nude. One of Wicca's best known liturgical texts is "The Charge of the Goddess ". The most commonly used version used by Wiccans today

4731-435: The circle may involve the invocation of the "Guardians" of the cardinal points, alongside their respective classical elements; air, fire, water, and earth. Once the circle is cast, a seasonal ritual may be performed, prayers to the God and Goddess are said, and spells are sometimes worked; these may include various forms of 'raising energy', including raising a cone of power to send healing or other magic to persons outside of

4814-411: The devotion to a deity (or group of deities) . The Odyssean training system is remarked upon as being notably rigorous , which can be observed in the Wiccan Church of Canada weekly classes. These classes comprise the basic body of knowledge considered necessary by Odysseans, and can span upwards of 150 hours of class time or more. Completion of these classes (which includes the student completing

4897-531: The directions are dismissed and the circle is closed. A central aspect of Wicca (particularly in Gardnerian and Alexandrian Wicca), often sensationalised by the media is the traditional practice of working in the nude, also known as skyclad . Although no longer widely used, this practice seemingly derives from a line in Aradia , Charles Leland 's supposed record of Italian witchcraft. Many Wiccans believe that performing rituals skyclad allows "power" to flow from

4980-478: The east coast of North America should invoke water in the east and not the west because the colossal body of water, the Atlantic Ocean , is to their east. Other Craft groups have associated the elements with different cardinal points, for instance Robert Cochrane 's Clan of Tubal Cain associated earth with south, fire with east, water with west and air with north, and each of which were controlled over by

5063-404: The existence of the supernatural but remain involved in Wicca because of its ritual experiences: she quoted one as saying that "I love myth, dream, visionary art. The Craft is a place where all of these things fit together – beauty, pageantry, music, dance, song, dream". The Wiccan practitioner and historian Aidan Kelly wrote that the practices and experiences within Wicca were more important than

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5146-466: The foundation years of the church, it has been the practice for the past twenty years that the Odyssean tradition and the Wiccan Church of Canada are firmly linked one to the other . Beyond the emphasis on public ministry, the Odyssean tradition is characterized by the following: it is an Eclectic tradition in its origins that has a strong British Traditional Wicca style to its forms of organization and initiation; although it emulates British Traditional

5229-406: The goal of creating a place for public Neopagan worship, nor did any of these reflect the ritual style that the coven (and, by extension, the church) were adopting—with the exception of Pagan Way (an Outer Court system created by Gardnerian initiates) that had a direct influence upon Wiccan Church of Canada liturgy. The Odyssean tradition is a British Traditional-like Eclectic tradition of Wicca—with

5312-779: The goddess", it is now generally accepted in all traditions of Wicca, with groups such as the Minoan Brotherhood openly basing their philosophy upon it. Nonetheless, a variety of viewpoints exist in Wicca around this point, with some covens adhering to a hetero-normative viewpoint. Carly B. Floyd of Illinois Wesleyan University has published an informative white paper on this subject: Mother Goddesses and Subversive Witches: Competing Narratives of Gender Essentialism, Heteronormativity, Feminism, and Queerness in Wiccan Theology and Ritual . The scholar of religion Joanne Pearson noted that in her experience, most Wiccans take

5395-414: The homework exercises assigned) is often considered a minimum requirement by Initiates before they accept a person as a new student. As mentioned above, Odyssean Wicca was inspired at least in part by the Gardnerian, Alexandrian, Continental, and Blue Star traditions. Despite the first part of its name, like all forms of Wicca, Odyssean Wicca has no connection to the modern religion of Hellenismos , which

5478-494: The most of the present life, in all respects, then the next life is more or less certainly going to benefit from the process, and so one may as well concentrate on the present". It is nevertheless a common belief among Wiccans that human beings have a spirit or soul that survives bodily death. Understandings of what this soul constitutes vary among different traditions, with the Feri tradition of witchcraft, for instance, having adopted

5561-443: The natural world, for instance as genius loci , fairies , and elementals . In other cases, such beliefs are more idiosyncratic and atypical; Wiccan Sybil Leek for instance endorsed a belief in angels . Belief in the afterlife varies among Wiccans and does not occupy a central place within the religion. As the historian Ronald Hutton remarked, "the instinctual position of most [Wiccans] ... seems to be that if one makes

5644-738: The original Gardnerian God/Goddess duotheistic structure but have adopted deity forms other than that of the Horned God and Mother Goddess. For instance, the God has been interpreted as the Oak King and the Holly King , as well as the Sun God, Son/Lover God, and Vegetation God. He has also been seen in the roles of the Leader of the Wild Hunt and the Lord of Death. The Goddess is often portrayed as

5727-536: The present. This theology derived from Egyptologist Margaret Murray's claims about the witch-cult in her book The Witch-Cult in Western Europe published by Oxford University Press in 1921; she claimed that this cult had venerated a Horned God at the time of the Early Modern witch trials, but centuries before it had also worshipped a Mother Goddess. This duotheistic Horned God/Mother Goddess structure

5810-502: The sacred space. In constructing his ritual system, Gardner drew upon older forms of ceremonial magic, in particular, those found in the writings of Aleister Crowley. The classical ritual scheme in British Traditional Wicca traditions is: These rites often include a special set of magical tools . These usually include a knife called an athame , a wand , a pentacle and a chalice , but other tools include

5893-578: The similar terminology of " left-hand path " to describe malevolent magic, and " right-hand path " to describe magic performed with good intentions; terminology that had originated with the occultist Helena Blavatsky in the 19th century. Some modern Wiccans, however, have stopped using the white/black magic and left/right-hand-path dichotomies, arguing for instance that the colour black should not necessarily have any associations with evil. Scholars of religion Rodney Stark and William Bainbridge claimed in 1985 that Wicca had "reacted to secularisation by

5976-458: The spirits of the deceased, a belief adopted from Spiritualism . Many Wiccans believe in magic , a manipulative force exercised through the practice of " spellcraft ". Many Wiccans agree with the definition of magic offered by ceremonial magicians , such as Aleister Crowley , who declared that magic was "the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with will", while another ceremonial magician, MacGregor Mathers stated that it

6059-402: The subconscious that could be evoked in ritual. It was for this reason, she said "The Goddess and God manifest to us in dream and vision". Wiccans often believe that the gods are not perfect and can be argued with. Many Wiccans also adopt a more explicitly polytheistic or animistic world-view of the universe as being replete with spirit-beings. In many cases these spirits are associated with

6142-542: The temples of the Wiccan Church of Canada—for them to even bring a student before the Odyssean Priesthood Council. The Odyssean Priesthood Council is open to all initiates who currently have active status and it is only after obtaining the approval of the Council that an initiate may initiate or elevate their student. If an initiate fails to perform the minimum amount of religious services to one of

6225-428: The tradition's approach to ritual is more flexible and may often be less structured than many British Traditional Wiccans would be comfortable with; the tradition rejects the concepts of Neopagan monism and Neopagan monotheism ; the tradition does accept the base-line Wiccan concept of Neopagan duotheism but does encourage students and seekers alike to choose to affiliate with a particular Pagan pantheon and encourages

6308-507: The view that the Goddess is not an entity with a literal existence, but rather a Jungian archetype. As well as pantheism and duotheism , many Wiccans accept the concept of polytheism , thereby believing that there are many different deities . Some accept the view espoused by the occultist Dion Fortune that "all gods are one god, and all goddesses are one goddess" – that is that the gods and goddesses of all cultures are, respectively, aspects of one supernal God and Goddess. With this mindset,

6391-409: The whole of the religion rather than to a specific tradition. In following decades, members of certain traditions – those known as British Traditional Wicca – began claiming that only they should be called "Wiccan", and that other traditions must not use it. From the late 1980s onwards, various books propagating Wicca were published that again used the former, broader definition of the word. Thus, by

6474-402: The wider culture", one in which female practitioners can "redefine and empower themselves". Wiccan rituals usually take place in private. The Reclaiming tradition has utilised its rituals for political purposes. Practice in Wicca (including, as an example, matters such as the varying attributions of the elements to different directions discussed in the preceding section) varies widely due to

6557-447: The witch because she is imagined as powerful - she can make people sleep for one hundred years, she can see the future, she can curse and kill as well as heal   ... and of course, she can turn people into frogs!" Pearson says that Wicca "provides a framework in which the image of oneself as a witch can be explored and brought into a modern context". Identifying as a witch also enables Wiccans to link themselves with those persecuted in

6640-577: The witch trials of the Early Modern period, often referred to by Wiccans as "the Burning Times". Various practitioners have claimed that as many as nine million people were executed as witches in the Early Modern period, thus drawing comparisons with the killing of six million Jews in the Holocaust and presenting themselves, as modern witches, as "persecuted minorities". Bide the Wiccan laws ye must, in perfect love and perfect trust ... Mind

6723-459: Was introduced to the public in 1954 by Gerald Gardner , a retired British civil servant . Wicca draws upon ancient pagan and 20th-century Hermetic motifs for theological and ritual purposes. Doreen Valiente joined Gardner in the 1950s, further building Wicca's liturgical tradition of beliefs, principles, and practices, disseminated through published books. Many variations of the religion have grown and evolved over time, associated with

6806-627: Was "the science of the control of the secret forces of nature". Many Wiccans believe magic to be a law of nature, as yet misunderstood or disregarded by contemporary science, and as such they do not view it as being supernatural , but a part of what Leo Martello calls the "super powers that reside in the natural". Some Wiccans believe that magic is simply making full use of the five senses to achieve surprising results, whilst other Wiccans do not claim to know how magic works, merely believing that it does because they believe they have observed it to be so. During ritual practices, which are often staged in

6889-429: Was embraced by Gardner – who claimed that it had Stone Age roots – and remains the underlying theological basis to his Gardnerian tradition. Gardner claimed that the names of these deities were to be kept secret within the tradition, although in 1964 they were publicly revealed to be Cernunnos and Aradia; the secret Gardnerian deity names were subsequently changed. Although different Wiccans attribute different traits to

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