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138-680: Old North Columbus is bounded to the north by Glen Echo Ravine, to the south by Lane Avenue, to the west by the Olentangy River, and to the east by the Conway Railroad Tracks. This Columbus neighborhood is a smaller subdivision of the University District, which comprises all of the neighborhoods surrounding the Ohio State University campus. Established as North Columbus in 1842, the name of

276-424: A yield rate (the percentage of accepted students who choose to attend the university) of 25.3%. OSU's freshman retention rate is 93.9%, with 88% going on to graduate within six years. Of the 21% of the incoming freshman class who submitted SAT scores; the middle 50 percent Composite scores were 1260–1420. Of the 64% of enrolled freshmen in 2021 who submitted ACT scores, the middle 50 percent Composite score

414-586: A 2007 report released by the National Science Foundation, Ohio State's research expenditures for 2006 were $ 652 million, placing it seventh among public universities and 11th overall, also ranking third among all American universities for private industry-sponsored research. Research expenditures at Ohio State were $ 864 million in 2017. In 2006, Ohio State announced it would designate at least $ 110 million of its research efforts toward what it termed "fundamental concerns" such as research toward

552-469: A 2007 study in the academic journal PS: Political Science & Politics ranked it ninth in the United States. It is a leading producer of Fulbright Scholars . Bloomberg Businessweek ranked the undergraduate business program at Ohio State's Fisher College of Business as the 14th best in the nation in its 2016 rankings. The Ohio State linguistics department was recently ranked among

690-528: A 97% immigrant share. Schools in Oslo are increasingly divided by ethnicity. For instance, in the Groruddalen (Grorud valley), four boroughs which currently have a population of around 165,000 saw the ethnic Norwegian population decrease by 1,500 in 2008, while the immigrant population increased by 1,600. In thirteen years, a total of 18,000 ethnic Norwegians have moved from the borough. In January 2010,

828-670: A book storage depository near campus. In all, the Ohio State library system encompasses 55 branches and specialty collections. Some more significant collections include the Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program, which has the archives of Admiral Richard E. Byrd and other polar research materials; the Hilandar Research Library , which has the world's largest collection of medieval Slavic manuscripts on microform;

966-525: A cure for cancer, renewable energy sources and sustainable drinking water supplies. In 2021, President Kristina M. Johnson announced the university would invest at least $ 750 million over the next 10 years toward research and researchers. This was announced in conjunction with Ohio State's new Innovation District, which will be an interdisciplinary research facility and act as a hub for healthcare and technology research, serving Ohio State faculty and students as well as public and private partners. Construction of

1104-510: A desolate, inhospitable city landscape. White flight contributed to the draining of cities' tax bases when middle-class people left. Abandoned properties attracted criminals and street gangs , contributing to crime. In the 1970s and 1980s, urban decay was associated with Western cities, especially in North America and parts of Europe. In that time, major structural changes in global economies, transportation, and government policy created

1242-500: A greater impact on the decision to migrate among white than black professionals. Between 1982 and 2000 Zimbabwe registered a net loss of 100,000 whites, or an average of 5,000 departures per year. A second wave of white emigration was sparked by President Robert Mugabe 's violent land reform programme after 2000. Popular destinations included South Africa and Australia , which emigrants perceived to be geographically, culturally, or sociopolitically similar to their home country. From

1380-567: A handful of prominent historic building along High Street, which date back to the late 19th century, and are still present. Built by Catherine Volk Ramlow in 1881, the Ramlow building was a drygoods and grocer merchant. The Global Community United Methodist Church, formerly the North Methodist Church, was built on the corner of High Street and Wilcox Street in 1874, but was destroyed by a fire in 1929. Despite economic hardships of

1518-435: A lawsuit against Ohio State for ignoring complaints of "rampant sexual misconduct" by Strauss. U.S. representative Jim Jordan was named in the lawsuit and has since denied the former wrestlers' claims that he knew about the abuse while he was an assistant coach for eight years at the university. In May 2020, the university entered into a settlement and agreed to pay $ 40.9 million to the sexual abuse survivors. The Ohio Union

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1656-416: A long history of restaurants, bars, and music venues, which still holds true today. With the core of commercial district located along High Street, the businesses in the neighborhood range from grocery stores, pharmacies, printing and copy services, laundromats, barber shops and salons, but primarily this has been a popular entertainment district for students at Ohio State. One of the notable popular restaurants

1794-605: A loss. The realtors profited from these en masse sales and the ability to resell to the incoming black families, through arbitrage and the sales commissions from both groups. By such tactics, the racial composition of a neighborhood population was often changed completely in a few years. Urban decay is the sociological process whereby a city, or part of a city, falls into disrepair and decrepitude. Its characteristics are depopulation , economic restructuring , abandoned buildings, high local unemployment (and thus poverty), fragmented families, political disenfranchisement , crime, and

1932-542: A majority group is reluctant to accept a minority influx, they may leave the district, avoid the district, or use tactics to keep the minority out. The minority group in turn react by either dispersing or congregating, avoiding certain districts in turn. Detailed analysis of data from the 1990s onwards indicates that the concentration of immigrants in certain city districts, such as Husby in Stockholm and Rosengård in Malmö ,

2070-617: A manufacturing and agriculture university in central Ohio was initially met in the 1870s with hostility from the state's agricultural interests and competition for resources from Ohio University , which was chartered by the Northwest Ordinance and Miami University . Championed by the Republican governor Rutherford B. Hayes , the Ohio State University was founded in 1870 as a land-grant university under

2208-493: A mass exodus. The establishment of the Republic of Zimbabwe in 1980 sounded the death knell for white political power, and ushered in a new era of black majority rule. White emigration peaked between 1980 and 1982 at 53,000 persons, with the breakdown of law and order, an increase in crime in the rural areas, and the provocative attitude of Zimbabwean officials being cited as the main causes. Political conditions typically had

2346-415: A means to control non-white migration. By subterfuge, real estate agents would facilitate black people buying a house in a white neighborhood, either by buying the house themselves, or via a white proxy buyer, and then re-selling it to the black family. The remaining white inhabitants (alarmed by real estate agents and the local news media), fearing devalued residential property, would quickly sell, usually at

2484-517: A neighborhood as long as the proportion of other ethnic groups is relatively low, but if a critical level of other ethnicities is exceeded, the original residents may make rapid decisions and take action to leave. This tipping point is viewed as simply the end-result of a domino effect originating when the threshold of the majority ethnicity members with the highest sensitivity to sameness is exceeded. If these people leave and are either not replaced or replaced by other ethnicities, then this in turn raises

2622-527: A news feature from Dagsrevyen on the public Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation said, "Oslo has become a racially divided city. In some city districts the racial segregation starts already in kindergarten." Reporters said, "In the last years the brown schools have become browner, and the white schools whiter," a statement which caused a minor controversy. After the Second World War , immigration into Sweden occurred in three phases. The first

2760-695: A preponderantly black African majority. Nevertheless, unlike white South Africans, a significant percentage of white Rhodesians represented recent immigrants from Europe. After World War II , there was a substantial influx of Europeans migrating into the region (formerly known as Southern Rhodesia ), including former residents of India , Pakistan , and other parts of Africa. Also represented were working-class emigrants responding to economic opportunities. In 1969, only 41% of Rhodesia's white community were natural-born citizens, or 93,600 people. The remainder were naturalised European and South African citizens or expatriates, with many holding dual citizenship. During

2898-401: A record at the time for a public university. The "Affirm Thy Friendship Campaign" took place between 1995 and 2000. With an initial goal of raising $ 850 million, the campaign's final tally was $ 1.23 billion, placing Ohio State among the small group of public universities to have successfully conducted a $ 1 billion campaign. At his welcoming ceremony, returning President E. Gordon Gee announced in

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3036-444: A strictly economic point of view, the departure figures were not as significant as the loss of the skills of those leaving. A disproportionate number of white Zimbabwean emigrants were well educated and highly skilled. Among those living in the United States, for example, 53.7% had a bachelor's degree, while only 2% had not completed secondary school. Most (52.4%) had occupied technical or supervisory positions of critical importance to

3174-509: A studied area (Dublin 15). 27% of residents were foreign-born immigrants. The report stated that Dublin was risking creating immigrant-dominated banlieues , on the outskirts of a city, similar to such areas in France. The immigrants in the area included Eastern Europeans (such as those from Poland ), Asians , and Africans (mainly from Nigeria ). White flight in Norway has increased since

3312-413: A study performed at Örebro University , mothers of young children were interviewed to study attitudes on Swedishness, multiculturalism and segregation. It concluded that while many expressed values such as ethnic diversity being an enriching factor, when, in practice, it came to choosing schools or choosing which district to move to, ensuring the children had access to a school with a robust Swedish majority

3450-405: Is also very accessible by bus. The Central Ohio Transit Authority (COTA) has local bus routes traveling along High, Summit, and 4th Streets, one express route traveling along High St., and two cross-town routes traveling along Arcadia Ave. and Hudson St. The residential sector of Old North Columbus has always been a melting pot of significant diversity including the full spectrum of working class to

3588-414: Is in part due to an immigration influx, but primarily caused by white flight. According to researcher Emma Neuman at Linnaeus University , the white flight phenomenon commences when the fraction of non-European immigrants reaches 3-4%, but European immigration shows no such effect. High income earners and the highly educated move out first, so the ethnic segregation also leads to class segregation. In

3726-516: Is rated as 91/99 by The Princeton Review (meaning "highly selective") and "more selective" by U.S. News & World Report ; according to the data, it is the most selective for any public university in the state of Ohio. The New York Times classifies Ohio State as a "highly selective public college". For the Class of 2025 (enrolled fall 2021), Ohio State received 58,180 applications and accepted 33,269 (57.2%). Of those accepted, 8,423 enrolled,

3864-570: Is the Oval, a quad of about 11 acres (4.5 ha). The original campus was laid out in the English country style with University Hall overlooking what would become the Oval. From 1905 to 1913, the Olmsted brothers , who had designed New York City's Central Park , were contracted as architectural consultants. Under their leadership, a more formal landscape plan was created with its center axis through

4002-695: Is where many restaurants, bars, shops, and entertainment destinations are located, and where most of the activity is centered. From these main thoroughfares, arterial streets the run East and West. These arterials include Lane Ave. and Dodridge St., which are the only two streets in the neighborhood which bridge the Olentangy River to the West. Nearly all other streets running east–west can be classified as residential streets, most of which are one-way, in alternating directions. US Route 23 also runs through Old North Columbus using Indianola Ave., Hudson St., Summit St. (southbound), and N. 4th St. (northbound). Old North Columbus

4140-499: The Greater Toronto Area ), and referring to white Canadians , the "loss of more than 23,000 people, or 12 per cent, in a decade when the city's population rose by 60 per cent". The paper reported University of Manitoba sociologist Jason Edgerton's analysis that "After you control for retirement, low birth rate, etc. some of the other (shrinkage) could be white flight — former mainstream communities not comfortable being

4278-745: The James Cancer Hospital , a cancer research institute and one of the National Cancer Institute 's 41 comprehensive cancer centers , along with the Richard M. Ross Heart Hospital , a research institute for cardiovascular disease. The campus is served by the Campus Area Bus Service . The university also operates regional campuses in five areas: Ohio State is considered a selective public university. Undergraduate admissions selectivity to Ohio State

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4416-615: The Kent State shootings , students picketed buildings, but this initially peaceful protest "started to spiral out of control" after Ohio State Highway Patrol troopers arrived in riot gear. When a man was assaulted by three students, tear gas was deployed, in response to which protesters threw rocks at the National Guard. Seven students were struck with a shotgun blast near the Student Union. There were no casualties, and

4554-645: The Morrill Act of 1862 as the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College . The university opened its doors to 24 students on September 17, 1873. In 1878, the first class of six men graduated. The first woman graduated the following year. Also in 1878, the Ohio legislature recognized an expanded scope for the university by changing its name to "the Ohio State University." In 1906, Ohio State segregationist president William Oxley Thompson , along with

4692-586: The Ohio State Cartoon Library & Museum , the world's largest repository of original cartoons; the Lawrence and Lee Theatre Research Institute; and the archives of Senator John Glenn . Anchoring the traditional campus gateway at the eastern end of the Oval is the 1989 Wexner Center for the Arts . Designed by architects Peter Eisenman of New York and Richard Trott of Columbus, the center

4830-514: The Rhodesian Bush War , almost the entire white male population between eighteen and fifty-eight was affected by various military commitments, and individuals spent up to five or six months of the year on combat duty away from their normal occupations in the civil service, commerce, industry, or agriculture. These long periods of service in the field led to an increased emigration of men of military age. In November 1963, state media cited

4968-468: The Supreme Court of the United States ' decision Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. In the 1970s, attempts to achieve effective desegregation (or "integration") by means of busing in some areas led to more families' moving out of former areas. More generally, some historians suggest that white flight occurred in response to population pressures, both from the large migration of blacks from

5106-470: The United States Patent and Trademark Office granted the university a trademark on the word "the" in relation to clothing, such as T-shirts, baseball caps and hats distributed and/or sold through athletic or collegiate channels. Ohio State and its fans, in particular those of its athletics program, frequently emphasize the word "THE" when referring to the school. Michael V. Drake became

5244-981: The undergraduate and graduate levels. It is classified among " R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity ". As of 2024, the university has an endowment of $ 7.9 billion. Its athletic teams compete in NCAA Division I as the Ohio State Buckeyes as a member of the Big Ten Conference for the majority of fielded sports. It is a member of the Association of American Universities . Past and present alumni and faculty include 6 Nobel Prize laureates, 9 Rhodes Scholars , 7 Churchill Scholars , 1 Fields Medalist , 7 Pulitzer Prize winners, 64 Goldwater scholars , 7 U.S. senators , 15 U.S. representatives , 104 Olympic medalists , and 1 foreign head of state . The proposal of

5382-446: The $ 1 billion mark in 1999. At the end of 2005, Ohio State's endowment stood at $ 1.73 billion, ranking it seventh among public universities and 27th among all American universities. In June 2006, the endowment passed the $ 2 billion mark. In recent decades, and in response to continually shrinking state funding, Ohio State has conducted two significant multi-year fundraising campaigns. The first concluded in 1987 and raised $ 460 million,

5520-460: The 'chicken run', the earliest use of which was recorded the following year, often by Rhodesians who remained to contemptuously describe those who had left. Other phrases such as 'taking the gap' or 'gapping it' were also used. As the outward flow increased, the phrase 'owl run' also came into use, as leaving the country was deemed by many to be a wise choice. Disfavour with the biracial Zimbabwe Rhodesia administration in 1979 also contributed to

5658-417: The 15th president of Ohio State in 2014. In 2020, Kristina M. Johnson took office as the 16th president. And in 2023, Walter E. Carter Jr. took office as the 17th president. Throughout 1969, anti-Vietnam War protest tensions grew on Ohio State's campus. What is now Bricker Hall was occupied by students, but after being told they had "five minutes to leave, or they'd be arrested", students departed from

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5796-537: The 1950 US census, a migration pattern of disproportionate numbers of whites moving from cities to suburban communities was easily dismissed as merely anecdotal. Because American urban populations were still substantially growing, a relative decrease in one racial or ethnic component eluded scientific proof to the satisfaction of policy makers. In essence, data on urban population change had not been separated into what are now familiarly identified its "components." The first data set potentially capable of proving "white flight"

5934-470: The 1970s, with the immigration of non-Scandinavians from (in numerical order, starting with the largest): Poland , Pakistan , Iraq , Somalia , Vietnam , Iran , Turkey , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Russia , Sri Lanka , the Philippines , the former Yugoslavia , Thailand , Afghanistan , and Lithuania . By June 2009, more than 40% of Oslo schools had an immigrant majority, with some schools having

6072-499: The Association of American Universities, and remains the only public university in Ohio among the organization's 60 members. Ohio State is also the only public university in Ohio to be classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Highest Research Activity" and have its undergraduate admissions classified as "more selective". Ohio State's political science program is ranked among the top programs globally. Considered to be one of

6210-603: The Clifton Park Junior High School had 2,023 white students and 34 black students; ten years later, it had twelve white students and 2,037 black students. In northwest Baltimore, Garrison Junior High School's student body declined from 2,504 whites and twelve blacks to 297 whites and 1,263 blacks in that period. At the same time, the city's working class population declined because of the loss of industrial jobs as heavy industry restructured. In Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971),

6348-531: The Columbus Project), Mershon Center for International Security Studies , Museum of Biological Diversity, National Center for the Middle Market, Stone Laboratory on Gibraltar Island , Center for Urban and Regional Analysis and Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center . Ohio State was among the first group of four public universities to raise a $ 1 billion endowment when it passed

6486-512: The Federal decision in Penick v. The Columbus Board of Education (1977) accelerated white flight from Columbus, Ohio . Although the racial desegregation of schools affected only public school districts, the most vehement opponents of racial desegregation have sometimes been whites whose children attended private schools. A secondary, non-geographic consequence of school desegregation and busing

6624-557: The Great Depression, the church was rebuilt 12 years later and dedicated on September 27, 1942 by Bishop H. Lester Smith. Medary Avenue Elementary School , located at 2500 Medary Avenue, was built in 1892 by David Riebel , who was hired as the first Columbus Public Schools architect in 1893. The impressive three-story masonry building was built in the Richardsonian Romanesque style of architecture, which

6762-500: The Oval, university spokesperson Ben Johnson stated "the naming review process is thoughtful and thorough and therefore could take several years", but the statue has not been removed. With the onset of the Great Depression , Ohio State would face many of the challenges affecting universities throughout America as budget support was slashed, and students without the means of paying tuition returned home to support families. By

6900-470: The Oval. This axis shifted the university's street grid 12.25 degrees from the City of Columbus' street grid. Construction of the main library in 1915 reinforced this grid shift. Ohio State's research library system has a combined collection of over 5.8 million volumes. Along with 21 libraries on its Columbus campus, the university has eight branches at off-campus research facilities and regional campuses, and

7038-559: The Philadelphia law firm Cozen O'Connor , the university will be creating a new framework to handle sexual assault cases and reevaluating its Title IX program. On July 20, 2018, BBC News reported that over 100 male students, including athletes from 14 sports, had reported sexual misconduct by a deceased university team physician, Richard Strauss. The reports dated back to 1978, and included claims that he groped and took nude photographs of his patients. Four former wrestlers filed

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7176-741: The South Oval. At its eastern end, it is anchored by the Ohio Union. To the west are Hale Hall, the Kuhn Honors House, Browning Amphitheatre (a traditional stone Greek theatre ) and Mirror Lake . Knowlton Hall , dedicated in October 2004, is at the corner of West Woodruff Avenue and Tuttle Park Place, next to Ohio Stadium . Knowlton Hall along with the Fisher College of Business and Hitchcock Hall form an academic nucleus in

7314-476: The Supreme Court ordered the desegregation busing of poor black students to suburban white schools, and suburban white students to the city to try to integrate student populations. In Milliken v. Bradley (1974), the dissenting Justice William Douglas observed, "The inner core of Detroit is now rather solidly black; and the blacks, we know, in many instances are likely to be poorer." Likewise, in 1977,

7452-447: The UK is mainly from areas with a high ethnic minority population to those with predominantly white populations; white British families have moved out of London, as many immigrants have settled in the capital. The report's writers expressed concern about British social cohesion, and stated that different ethnic groups were living "parallel lives"; they were concerned that lack of contact between

7590-479: The United States during the 1940s, the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 , low-cost mortgages through the G.I. Bill , and residential redlining enabled white families to abandon inner cities in favor of suburban living and prevent ethnic minorities from doing the same. The result was severe urban decay that, by the 1960s, resulted in crumbling " ghettos ". Prior to national data available in

7728-575: The United States has received immigrants from Mexico, Central and South America, Asia, and Africa. Immigration has changed the demographics of both cities and suburbs, and the US has become a largely suburban nation, with the suburbs becoming more diverse. In addition, Latinos , the fastest growing minority group in the US, began to migrate away from traditional entry cities and to cities in the Southwest , such as Albuquerque , Phoenix and Tucson . In 2006,

7866-704: The Wilce Student Health Center, named for university physician John Wilce , the Mary A. Daniels Student Wellness Center and the Counseling and Consultation Service. The RPAC is the main recreational facility on campus. The Wellness Center within the RPAC offers services such as nutrition counseling, financial coaching, HIV and STI testing, sexual assault services, and alcohol and other drug education. Ohio State's " Buckeye Bullet " electric car broke

8004-629: The abolitionist's perception of the pre- Civil War tension and how "the shadows of the impending civil disruption, had brought about a white exodus" of Northerners to Southern states such as Georgia. In the years leading up to World War I , the newspapers in the Union of South Africa were reporting on the "spectre of white flight", in particular due to Afrikaners travelling to the Port of Durban in search of ships for Britain and Australia. In 1958, political scientist Morton Grodzins identified that "once

8142-407: The building's exterior. This unique wall cladding was requested by Austin E. Knowlton , the namesake of and main patron to the creation of Knowlton Hall. Knowlton also requested that five white marble columns be erected on the site, each column representing one of the classical orders of architecture . The Ohio State College of Medicine is on the southern edge of the central campus. It is home to

8280-422: The building. In late April 1970, anti-war riots ensued on Ohio State campus, leading to nearly 300 arrests, over 60 injuries, and seven gunshot wounds. Students began "boycotting classes with a student strike, protesting the university's rejection of a list of demands presented the week before. Specific demands included adding black and women's studies to the university's courses." On April 29, 1970, five days before

8418-425: The chief reasons for emigration as uncertainty about the future, economic decline due to embargo and war, and the heavy commitments of national service, which was described as "the overriding factor causing people to leave". Of the male emigrants in 1976 about half fell into the 15 to 39 age bracket. Between 1960 and 1976 160,182 whites immigrated, while 157,724 departed. This dynamic turnover rate led to depressions in

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8556-585: The cities their residents had left. For instance, Milwaukee, Wisconsin partially annexed towns such as Granville ; the (then) mayor, Frank P. Zeidler , complained about the socially destructive "Iron Ring" of new municipalities incorporated in the post–World War II decade. Analogously, semi-rural communities, such as Oak Creek , South Milwaukee , and Franklin , formally incorporated as discrete entities to escape urban annexation. Wisconsin state law had allowed Milwaukee's annexation of such rural and suburban regions that did not qualify for discrete incorporation per

8694-407: The cities. During the later 20th century, industrial restructuring led to major losses of jobs, leaving formerly middle-class working populations suffering poverty, with some unable to move away and seek employment elsewhere. Real estate prices often fall in areas of economic erosion, allowing persons with lower income to establish homes in such areas. Since the 1960s and changed immigration laws,

8832-471: The college's political science , audiology , sociology , speech–language pathology , finance , accounting , public affairs , nursing , social work , healthcare administration and pharmacy programs as among the top 20 programs in the country. The Academic Ranking of World Universities placed Ohio State 39-51 nationally and 101–150 globally for 2023. In its 2024 rankings, Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked it tied for 99th in

8970-686: The dispersal of the Gaza Solidarity Encampment, suspending a pro-Palestinian student organization, and suppressing the Undergraduate Student Government's attempts at passing legislation for financial divestment from Israel after receiving pressure from officials in Zionist organization Hillel International . Ohio State's 1,764-acre (7.14 km ) main campus is about 2.5 miles (4.0 km) north of Columbus' downtown. The historical center of campus

9108-439: The early decay of non-white city neighborhoods by withholding maintenance capital mortgages, thus making it difficult for the communities to either retain or attract middle-class residents. The new suburban communities limited the emigration of poor and non-white residents from the city by restrictive zoning ; thus, few lower-middle-class people could afford a house in the suburbs. Many all-white suburbs were eventually annexed to

9246-499: The economic, then social, conditions resulting in urban decay. White flight in North America started to reverse in the 1990s, when the rich suburbanites returned to cities, gentrifying the decayed urban neighborhoods. New municipalities were established beyond the abandoned city's jurisdiction to avoid the legacy costs of maintaining city infrastructures; instead new governments spent taxes to establish suburban infrastructures. The federal government contributed to white flight and

9384-570: The environmental geographer Laura Pulido, the historical processes of suburbanization and urban decentralization contribute to contemporary environmental racism . In 1870, The Nation covered the large-scale migrations of white Americans ; "The report of the Emigration Commissioners of Louisiana, for the past year, estimates the white exodus from the Southern Atlantic States, Alabama, and Mississippi, to

9522-645: The ethnic White British population. The study, which examined the white population in London, the West Midlands , West Yorkshire , and Greater Manchester between 1991 and 2001, also concluded that white population losses were largest in areas with the highest ethnic minority populations. In 2018, research at Indiana University showed that between 2000 and 2010 in the US, of a sample size of 27,891 Census tracts, 3,252 experienced "white flight". The examined areas had "an average magnitude loss of 40 percent of

9660-527: The facility was completed in 2023, as one of the first buildings in the District. Research facilities include Aeronautical/Astronautical Research Laboratory , Byrd Polar Research Center , Center for Automotive Research, (OSU CAR), Chadwick Arboretum , Biomedical Research Tower, Biological Sciences Building, CDME, Comprehensive Cancer Center, David Heart and Lung Research Institute, Electroscience Laboratory, Large Binocular Telescope ( LBT , originally named

9798-662: The fall of 2007 that Ohio State would launch a $ 2.5 billion fundraising campaign. In 2019, celebrating the university's 150th year, President Michael V. Drake announced the "Time and Change Campaign" with a goal of raising $ 4.5 billion from 1 million individual donors. The Office of Student Life has partnership affiliations with the Schottenstein Center , the Blackwell Inn and the Drake Events Center . Services supporting student wellness include

9936-410: The federally ordered school desegregation began, whites who could afford private schools withdrew their children from the racially diverse Pasadena public school system. By 2004, Pasadena had 63 private schools educating some 33% of schoolchildren, while white students made up only 16% of the public school populace. The Pasadena Unified School District superintendent characterized public schools as "like

10074-578: The groups could result in fear more readily exploited by extremists. In a study, the London School of Economics found similar results. A 2016 BBC documentary, Last Whites of the East End , covered the migration of whites from Newham to Essex . A 2019 Guardian article stated that "came to represent 'white flight' in the UK", and a 2013 Prospect magazine article gave Essex as an example of white flight. Researcher Ludi Simpson has stated that

10212-557: The growth of ethnic minorities in Britain is due mostly to natural population growth (births outnumbering deaths), rather than immigration. Both white and non-white Britons who can do so economically are equally likely to leave mixed-race inner-city areas. In his opinion, these trends indicate counter urbanisation , rather than white flight. In 2013, the Toronto Star examined the "identity crisis" of Brampton (a suburban city in

10350-416: The housing market to flip. Home ownership dropped from over 50% to around 10% as many of the large old houses were converted to multi-family high density housing that would accommodate the renter population. Historically off campus housing has poor housing stock, this is the case for neighborhoods close to Ohio State; however, the housing is generally of better quality farther north. Old North Columbus has had

10488-569: The increased number of Latinos had made whites a minority group in some western cities. In the 1930s, states outside the South (where racial segregation was legal) practiced unofficial segregation via exclusionary covenants in title deeds and real estate neighborhood redlining  – explicit, legally sanctioned racial discrimination in real property ownership and lending practices. Blacks were effectively barred from pursuing homeownership, even when they were able to afford it. Suburban expansion

10626-426: The largest en masse arrests on campus since the 1969–1970 Vietnam War protests . The protester demands of OSU include " financial divestment, academic boycott, financial disclosure , acknowledging the genocide, and ending targeted policing". Pro-Palestinian groups have been critical of the university's responses to the protests, which have included allowing state troopers to aim long-range rifles at students during

10764-491: The late 1980s. Since the early 2000s, the college has raised standards for admission, and been increasingly cited as one of the best public universities in the United States. The main campus in Columbus has grown into the fifth-largest university campus in the United States. On January 12, 2015, OSU claimed the first-ever College Football Playoff National Championship by defeating Oregon 42–20. On June 22, 2022,

10902-405: The leading departments in the United States, it has played a particularly significant role in the construction and development of the constructivist and realist schools of international relations . In 2004, it was ranked as first among public institutions and fourth overall in the world by British political scientist Simon Hix at the London School of Economics and Political Science , while

11040-536: The legal incorporation standards. In some areas, the post–World War II racial desegregation of the public schools catalyzed white flight. In 1954, the US Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ordered the de jure termination of the "separate, but equal" legal racism established with the Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) case in the 19th century. It declared that segregation of public schools

11178-493: The letter “e” to the end of “Old”, on the two arches. According to Preservation Society member Seth Golding, "Olde was the spelling in the 1850s. It's more quaint, not just old. " Despite Preservation Society claims that the spelling was supposed to be corrected, the two arches retain the original spelling of “Old”. Solomen and George W. Beers platted 40 acres of land in 1847 to create the first permanent settlement of Clinton Township, which they named North Columbus. This community

11316-764: The level of mixing of neighbors, exceeding the departure threshold for additional people. About 800,000 out of an earlier total population of 5.2 million whites left post- apartheid South Africa after 1995, according to a 2009 report in Newsweek . The country has suffered a high rate of violent crime, a primary stated reason for emigration. Other causes cited in the Newsweek report include attacks against white farmers , concern about being excluded by affirmative action programmes, political instability and worries about corruption. Many of those who leave are highly educated , resulting in skills shortages. Some observers fear

11454-441: The local government used the highway system to perpetuate the racial residence-boundaries the city established with a 1926 racial zoning law. Constructing interstate highways through majority-black neighborhoods eventually reduced the populations to the poorest proportion of people financially unable to leave their destroyed community. The real estate business practice of "blockbusting" was a for-profit catalyst for white flight, and

11592-474: The long-term consequences, as South Africa's labor policies make it difficult to attract skilled immigrants. In the global economy, some professionals and skilled people have been attracted to work in the U.S. and European nations. Until 1980, the unrecognised Republic of Rhodesia held a well-publicised image as being one of two nations in sub-Saharan Africa where a white minority of European descent and culture held political, economic, and social control over

11730-446: The majority of London's population was still ethnic British). In the 2001 census , the London boroughs of Newham and Brent were found to be the first areas to have non-white majorities. The 2011 census found that, for the first time, less than 50% of London's population were white British, and that in some areas of London white British people make up less than 20% of the population. A 2005 report stated that white migration within

11868-524: The majority still live in largely segregated neighborhoods, which have continued to form. In 1969, Nobel Prize-winning economist Thomas Schelling published "Models of Segregation", a paper in which he demonstrated through a "checkerboard model" and mathematical analysis, that even when every agent prefers to live in a mixed-race neighborhood, almost complete segregation of neighborhoods emerges as individual decisions accumulate. In his "tipping model", he showed that members of an ethnic group do not move out of

12006-664: The mid-1930s, however, enrollment had stabilized due in large part to the role of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration and later the National Youth Administration . By the end of the decade, enrollment had still managed to grow to over 17,500. In 1934, the Ohio State Research Foundation was founded to bring in outside funding for faculty research projects. In 1938, a development office

12144-608: The milder climate in the Southeast and Southwest . The term 'white flight' has also been used for large-scale post-colonial emigration of whites from Africa , or parts of that continent, driven by levels of violent crime and anti-colonial or anti-white state policies. Migration of middle-class white populations was observed during the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s out of cities such as Cleveland , Detroit , Kansas City and Oakland , although racial segregation of public schools had ended there long before

12282-628: The minority." A 2016 article from The Globe and Mail , addressing the diversity of Brampton, acknowledged that while academics in Canada are sometimes reluctant to use the term of white flight, it reported that: [...] the Brampton story reveals that we have our own version of white flight, and before we figure out how to manage hyper-diverse and increasingly polarized cities like Greater Toronto, we need to reflect on our own attitudes about race and ethnic diversity . In 2018, The Guardian covered

12420-752: The modern sector of the economy. Inasmuch as black workers did not begin making large inroads into apprenticeships and other training programs until the 1970s, few were in a position to replace their white colleagues in the 1980s. A study of school choice in Copenhagen found that an immigrant proportion of below 35% in the local schools did not affect parental choice of schools. If the percentage of immigrant children rose above this level, white Danes are far more likely to choose other schools. Immigrants who speak Danish at home also opt out. Other immigrants, often more recent ones, stay with local schools. In Finland, white flight has been observed in districts where

12558-503: The most important buildings of its generation. Its design has also been criticized as proving less than ideal for many of the art installations it has attempted to display. The centerpiece of the Wexner Center's permanent collection is Picasso 's Nude on a Black Armchair , which was purchased by Wexner at auction for $ 45 million. To the south of the Oval is another, somewhat smaller expanse of green space commonly referred to as

12696-475: The neighborhood. The log cabin was built near present-day Dodridge Street, but was later moved to Norwich Avenue. Also appearing on the National Register of Historic Places is the old North High School , a Tudor Revival building designed by famed architect, Frank Packard , which opened on September 2, 1924. The Ramlow building, or Ramlow Hall, on the corner of High Street and Dodridge is one of

12834-568: The northwestern corner of North campus. Knowlton Hall was designed by Atlanta-based Mack Scogin Merrill Elam along with WSA Studio from Columbus. The Hall is home to the KSA Café, the disciplines of architecture, landscape architecture, city and regional planning, and about 550 undergraduate and graduate students. Knowlton Hall stands out from the general reddish-brown brick of Ohio State's campus with distinctive white marble tiles that cover

12972-641: The original white population." Published in Social Science Research , the study found "relative to poorer neighborhoods, white flight becomes systematically more likely in middle-class neighborhoods at higher thresholds of black , Hispanic, and Asian population presence." In studies in the 1980s and 1990s, blacks said they were willing to live in neighborhoods with 50/50 ethnic composition. Whites were also willing to live in integrated neighborhoods, but preferred proportions of more whites. Despite this willingness to live in integrated neighborhoods,

13110-466: The overcrowding and physical deterioration of areas with large minority populations. Such conditions are considered to have contributed to the emigration of other populations. The limited facilities for banking and insurance, due to a perceived lack of profitability, and other social services, and extra fees meant to hedge against perceived profit issues, increased their cost to residents in predominantly non-white suburbs and city neighborhoods. According to

13248-470: The phenomenon of "unconscious segregation", the article points to large East Asian and South Asian enclaves within Greater Vancouver such as Burnaby , East Vancouver , Richmond , South Vancouver and Surrey . In contrast, other cities and neighbourhoods within the metropolitan region such as Tsawwassen , South Surrey , White Rock and Langley host equally large white enclaves. In

13386-436: The phrase misleadingly suggests that whites immediately departed when blacks moved into the neighborhood, when in fact, many whites defended their space with violence, intimidation, or legal tactics. Leah Boustan , Professor of Economics at Princeton, attributes white flight both to racism and economic reasons. The business practices of redlining , mortgage discrimination , and racially restrictive covenants contributed to

13524-446: The property market, a slump in the construction industry, and a decline in retail sales. The number of white Rhodesians peaked in 1975 at 278,000, and rapidly declined as the bush war intensified. In 1976, around 14,000 whites left the country, marking the first year since Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965 that more whites had left the country than arrived, with most leaving for South Africa. This became known as

13662-408: The proportion of non-whites exceeds the limits of the neighborhood's tolerance for interracial living, whites move out." Grodzins termed this phenomenon the tipping point in the study of white flight. In 2004, a study of UK census figures at the London School of Economics demonstrated evidence of white flight, resulting in ethnic minorities in inner-city areas becoming increasingly isolated from

13800-415: The role of Ohio State, and that Miami University and Ohio University would not offer instruction beyond the master's degree level – an agreement that would remain in place until the 1950s. In 1916, Ohio State was elected into membership in the Association of American Universities . In 1911, president Thompson wrote in a letter, "the race problem is growing in intensity every year, and I am disposed to doubt

13938-671: The rural Southern United States to urban cities of the Northern United States and the Western United States in the Great Migration and the waves of new immigrants from around the world. Some historians have challenged the phrase "white flight" as a misnomer whose use should be reconsidered. In her study of West Side in Chicago during the post-war era, historian Amanda Seligman argues that

14076-789: The share of non-Finnish population is 20% or above. In Greater Helsinki region, there are more than 30 such districts. Those include e.g. Kallahti in Helsinki , Suvela in Espoo , and Länsimäki in Vantaa . Outside the Greater Helsinki region, the phenomenon has been witnessed at least in Varissuo district of Turku . A 2007 government report stated that immigration in Dublin has caused "dramatic" white flight from elementary schools in

14214-752: The shooter was not identified. The Ohio State University abuse scandal centered on allegations of sexual abuse that occurred between 1978 and 1998, while Richard Strauss was employed as a physician by Ohio State University (OSU) in the Athletics Department and in the Student Health Center. An independent investigation into the allegations was announced in April 2018 and was conducted by the law firm Perkins Coie . In July 2018, several former wrestlers accused former head coach Russ Hellickson and U.S. representative Jim Jordan , who

14352-772: The states. After World War II, aided by the construction of the Interstate Highway System , many white Americans began leaving industrial cities for new housing in suburbs. The roads served to transport suburbanites to their city jobs, facilitating the development of suburbs, and shifting the tax base away from the city. This may have exacerbated urban decay . In some cases, such as in the Southern United States, local governments used highway road constructions to deliberately divide and isolate black neighborhoods from goods and services, often within industrial corridors. In Birmingham, Alabama ,

14490-653: The surrounding Columbus City School District . Ohio State University The Ohio State University ( Ohio State or OSU ) is a public land-grant research university in Columbus, Ohio , United States. A member of the University System of Ohio , it was founded in 1870. It is one of the largest universities by enrollment in the United States, with nearly 50,000 undergraduate students and nearly 15,000 graduate students. The university consists of sixteen colleges and offers over 400 degree programs at

14628-534: The terms became popular in the United States . They referred to the large-scale migration of people of various European ancestries from racially mixed urban regions to more racially homogeneous suburban or exurban regions. The term has more recently been applied to other migrations by whites , from older, inner suburbs to rural areas, as well as from the American Northeast and Midwest to

14766-462: The top 10 programs nationally, and top 20 internationally by QS World University Rankings . The college is the only school in North America that offers an ABET -accredited welding engineering undergraduate degree. The National Science Foundation ranked Ohio State University 12th among American universities for research and development expenditures in 2021 with $ 1.23 billion. In

14904-530: The town largely lost relevance when it was annexed by city of Columbus in 1871. In an effort by the city to reestablish the neighborhood's identity, a street project was proposed in 2000 to add two arches at the north and south borders of the neighborhood bearing the neighborhood's name, Old North Columbus. In 2009, upon the building of the arches, there was a campaign led by the Olde North Columbus Preservation Society to add

15042-530: The trans-Mississippi regions, at scores of thousands". By 1888, with rhetoric typical of the time, Walter Thomas Mills 's The Statesman publication predicted: Social and political equality and the political supremacy of the negro element in any southern state must lead to one of three things: A white exodus, a war of races , or the destruction of representative institutions, as in the District of Columbia . An 1894 biography of William Lloyd Garrison reveals

15180-643: The unit due to concerns about mismanagement and a lack of support for survivors of sexual assault. This occurred after the unit was suspended in February 2018 and following an external review. The Columbus Dispatch and the school newspaper, The Lantern , reported that "[SCE] failed to properly report students' sexual-assault complaints" and that some victims were told that they were " 'lying', 'delusional', 'suffering from mental illness', 'have an active imagination', that they 'didn't understand their own experience', and also 'fabricated their story ' ". With help from

15318-555: The university's "Center for Automotive Research-Intelligent Transportation" (CAR-IT) designed, built and managed the vehicle. In 2007, Buckeye Bullet 2 was launched. This follow-up effort was a collaboration between Ohio State engineering students and engineers from the Ford Motor Company and will seek to break the land speed record for hydrogen cell powered vehicles. In June 2018, Ohio State dissolved its Sexual Civility and Empowerment unit and eliminated four positions in

15456-603: The university's supporters in the state legislature, put forth the Lybarger Bill with the aim of shifting virtually all higher education support to the continued development of Ohio State while funding only the " normal school " functions of the state's other public universities. Although the Lybarger Bill failed narrowly to gain passage, in its place the Eagleson Bill was passed as a compromise, which determined that all doctoral education and research functions would be

15594-521: The wealthy as well as its share of students. After World War II there was a tremendous number of veterans looking to go to school at Ohio State with the GI Bill and at the same time the Baby Boomers were headed to college as well. This, paired with the national trend of " white flight " moving to the suburbs, led to a housing crisis in the Columbus suburbs. This major influx of GIs and students caused

15732-494: The white flight that had occurred in Brampton, and how the suburban city had been nicknamed "Bramladesh" and "Browntown", due to its "73% visible minority, with its largest ethnic group Indian ". It was also reported how "the white population fell from 192,400 in 2001 to 169,230 in 2011, and now hovers around 151,000." In 2014, the Vancouver Sun addressed the issue of white flight across Metropolitan Vancouver . Detailing

15870-402: The wisdom on the part of the colored people of taking any move that practically forces the doctrine of social equality." At the same time, Ohio State "practiced racial segregation " that was widespread across the country at the time against Black students, and "there is no known evidence [Thompson] saw benefits in addressing it". In 2024, after attempts were made to remove Thompson's statue from

16008-532: The world record for the fastest speed by an electric vehicle on October 3, 2004, with a maximum speed of 271.737 mph (437.318 km/h) at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah . The vehicle also holds the U.S. record for fastest electric vehicle with a speed of 314.958 mph (506.876 km/h), and peak timed mile speed of 321.834 mph (517.942 km/h). A team of engineering students from

16146-450: The world. In 2024, QS World University Rankings ranked the university 151st in the world. The Washington Monthly college rankings, which seek to evaluate colleges' contributions to American society based on factors of social mobility, research and service to the country by their graduates, placed Ohio State 61st among national universities in 2023. In 1916, Ohio State became the first university in Ohio to be extended membership into

16284-666: Was "cultural" white flight: withdrawing white children from the mixed-race public school system and sending them to private schools unaffected by US federal integration laws. In 1970, when the United States District Court for the Central District of California ordered the Pasadena Unified School District desegregated, the proportion of white students (54%) reflected the school district's proportion of whites (53%). Once

16422-628: Was The Blue Danube, a popular restaurant of the neighborhood from 1940 to when it closed in 2018. The business's new owner plans to reopen the Blue Danube in the summer or fall of 2023. There is one school located in Old North Columbus, which is the Columbus North International School, located at the site of the old North High School at 100 E Arcadia Avenue. This 7th through 12th grade school, which

16560-690: Was a direct result of the war, with refugees from concentration camps and surrounding countries in Scandinavia and Northern Europe. The second, prior to 1970, involved immigrant workers, mainly from Finland , Italy , Greece , and Yugoslavia . In the most recent phase, from the 1970s onwards, refugees immigrated from the Middle East , Africa, and Latin America , joined later by their relatives. A study which mapped patterns of segregation and congregation of incoming population groups found that, if

16698-468: Was a popular style for many public buildings throughout the late 19th century and early 20th century. Medary Elementary School closed in 2007 and the building has served as the home for the Bridgeway Academy, formerly Helping Hands Center for Special Needs, since 2008. The main thoroughfare running North and South through the neighborhood is High St. and running east and west is Hudson St. This

16836-551: Was also a consideration. This was because they did not want their children to grow up in a school where they were a minority, and wanted them to be in a good environment for learning the Swedish language. For centuries, London was the destination for refugees and immigrants from continental Europe. Although all the immigrants were European, neighborhoods showed ethnic succession over time, as older residents moved out and new immigrants moved in, an early case of white flight (though

16974-484: Was also the site of a brick factory and a mill along the banks of the Olentangy River, which was owned and operated by the Beers Family, who helped to settle the area originally. Soon after being annexed in 1871, the city had a new neighbor in the community in 1873, The Ohio State University. Ohio State brought a major boom to the area and with that boom came more people that needed to live, work, and play. This really

17112-508: Was an assistant coach at OSU between 1987 and 1994, of knowing about Strauss's alleged abuse but failing to take action to stop it. Jordan has denied that he had any student-athlete report sexual abuse to him. The report, released in May 2019, concluded that Strauss abused at least 177 male student-patients and that OSU was aware of the abuse as early as 1979, but the abuse was not widely known outside of athletics or student health until 1996, when he

17250-456: Was between 26 and 32. In the 2020–2021 academic year, 26 freshman students were National Merit Scholars . The Public Ivies : America's Flagship Public Universities (2000) by Howard and Matthew Greene listed Ohio State as one of a select number of public universities offering the highest educational quality. In its 2023 edition, U.S. News & World Report ranked Ohio State as tied for 43rd among all national universities. They ranked

17388-419: Was demolished in February 2007 to make way for the new Ohio Union, which was finished in 2010. During this time, student activities were relocated to Ohio Stadium and other academic buildings. White flight White flight or white exodus is the sudden or gradual large-scale migration of white people from areas becoming more racially or ethnoculturally diverse. Starting in the 1950s and 1960s,

17526-416: Was founded in 2010, is largely focused around international studies programs, such as their World Language Studies Program and their International Seminar Program. This school is a part of a network of other International Schools in Columbus such as Ecole Kenwood Elementary School, and Columbus North International School. It is also part of Columbus Public Schools lottery system that draws from middle schools in

17664-409: Was funded in large part by Ohio State alumnus Les Wexner's gift of $ 25 million in the 1980s. The center was founded to encompass all aspects of visual and performing arts with a focus on new commissions and artist residencies. Part of its design was to pay tribute to the armory that formerly had the same location. Its groundbreaking deconstructivist architecture has resulted in it being lauded as one of

17802-581: Was not simply a more powerful calculating instrument that placed the reality of white flight beyond a high hurdle of proof seemingly required for policy makers to consider taking action. Also instrumental were new statistical methods developed by Emerson Seim for disentangling deceptive counter-effects that had resulted when numerous cities reacted to departures of a wealthier tax base by annexation. In other words, central cities had been bringing back their new suburbs, such that families that had departed from inner cities were not even being counted as having moved from

17940-596: Was opened to begin raising funds privately to offset reductions in state support. In 1952, Ohio State founded the interdisciplinary Mershon Center for International Security Studies , which it still houses. The work of this program led to the United States Department of Homeland Security basing the National Academic Consortium for Homeland Security at the university in 2003. Ohio State had an open admissions policy until

18078-494: Was reserved for middle-class and working-class white people, facilitated by their increased wages incurred by the war effort and by subsequent federally guaranteed mortgages (VA, FHA, HOLC) available only to whites to buy new houses, such as those created by the Federal Housing Administration . In 1948, the Supreme Court ruled that racially restrictive covenants could not constitutionaly be enforced by

18216-418: Was separate from the city of Columbus, which lay just to the south, but was later annexed by Columbus in 1871. During the 19th Century, North Columbus was a stagecoach stop between downtown Columbus and Worthington. Unlike the adjacent temperance-minded neighborhood of Clintonville , North Columbus had a history of saloons and speakeasies adorning the main thoroughfare of what is today High Street. North Columbus

18354-490: Was shot and killed by the first responding OSU police officer, and 13 people were hospitalized for injuries. A series of protests at Ohio State University by pro-Palestinian demonstrators occurred on-campus in response to the Israel-Palestine conflict beginning on October 7, 2023. A solidarity encampment was constructed on OSU's South Oval on April 25, 2024, during which there were at least 36 arrests, making for

18492-458: Was suspended from his duties. Strauss continued to abuse OSU students at an off-campus clinic until his retirement from the university in 1998. OSU was faulted in the report for failing to report Strauss's conduct to law enforcement. On November 28, 2016, a terrorist vehicle-ramming and stabbing attack occurred at 9:52   a.m. EST at Ohio State University's Watts Hall in Columbus, Ohio . The attacker, Somali refugee Abdul Razak Ali Artan,

18630-604: Was the 1950 census. But original processing of this data, on older-style tabulation machines by the US Census Bureau, failed to attain any approved level of statistical proof. It was rigorous reprocessing of the same raw data on a UNIVAC I , led by Donald J. Bogue of the Scripps Foundation and Emerson Seim of the University of Chicago , that scientifically established the reality of white flight. It

18768-446: Was the birth of what Old North Columbus is today. Old North Columbus has a number of Historic structures dating back to the early 19th Century. The North Columbus Commercial Historic District , which encompasses the entire stretch of High Street between Hudson Street and Dodridge Street is on the National Register of Historic Places . There is also an original early 19th century log cabin, built in 1806 by David Beers, still present in

18906-722: Was the first student union built by an American public university. It is dedicated to the enrichment of the student experience, on and off the university campus. The first Ohio Union, on the south edge of the South Oval, was constructed in 1909 and was later renamed Enarson Hall. The second Ohio Union was completed in 1950 and was prominently along High Street, southeast of the Oval. It was a center of student life for more than 50 years, providing facilities for student activities, organizations and events, and serving as an important meeting place for campus and community interaction. The union also housed many student services and programs, along with dining and recreational facilities. The second Ohio Union

19044-602: Was unconstitutional. Many southern jurisdictions mounted massive resistance to the policy. In some cases, white parents withdrew their children from public schools and established private religious schools instead. These schools, termed segregation academies , sprung up in the American South between the late 1950s and mid-1970s and allowed parents to prevent their children from being enrolled in racially mixed schools. Upon desegregation in 1957 in Baltimore, Maryland ,

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