90-519: OpenPKG is an open source package management system for Unix . It is based on the well known RPM -system and allows easy and unified installation of packages onto common Unix-platforms ( Solaris , Linux and FreeBSD ). The project was launched by Ralf S. Engelschall in November 2000 and in June 2005 it offered more than 880 freely available packages. This installation software article
180-486: A 'fine line'. The Online Etymology Dictionary records the English words "activism" and "activist" as in use in the political sense from the year 1920 or 1915 respectively. The history of the word activism traces back to earlier understandings of collective behavior and social action . As late as 1969 activism was defined as "the policy or practice of doing things with decision and energy", without regard to
270-421: A copyleft base must come with the source code, and the source code must be available under the same or a similar license. This offers protection against proprietary software consuming code without giving back. Richard Stallman stated that "the central idea of copyleft is to use copyright law, but flip it over to serve the opposite of its usual purpose: instead of a means of privatizing software, [copyright] becomes
360-402: A day-to-day basis in a wide variety of ways, including through the creation of art ( artivism ), computer hacking ( hacktivism ), or simply in how one chooses to spend their money ( economic activism ). For example, the refusal to buy clothes or other merchandise from a company as a protest against the exploitation of workers by that company could be considered an expression of activism. However,
450-450: A digital equivalent where the user must click to accept. Open-source software has an additional acceptance mechanism. Without permission from the copyright holder, the law prohibits redistribution. Therefore, courts treat redistribution as acceptance of the license terms. These can include attribution provisions or source code provisions for copyleft licenses. Developers typically achieve compliance without lawsuits. Social pressures, like
540-619: A few forms: Activism is increasingly important on the political right in the United States and other countries, and some scholars have found: "the main split in conservatism has not been the long-standing one between economic and social conservatives detected in previous surveys (i.e., approximately the Libertarian right and the Christian right ). Instead, it is between an emergent group (Activists) that fuses both ideologies and
630-599: A file-based definition, the CPL and EPL use a module-based definition, and the FSF's own LGPL refers to software libraries. License compatibility determines how code with different licenses can be distributed together. The goal of open-source licensing is to make the work freely available, but this becomes complicated when working with multiple terminologies imposing different requirements. There are many uncommonly used licenses and some projects write their own bespoke agreements. As
720-551: A less ideological category of 'somewhat conservative' Establishment Republicans." One example of this activism is the Tea Party movement . Pew Research identified a "group of 'Staunch Conservatives' (11 percent of the electorate) who are strongly religious, across-the-board socially and economically conservative, and more politically active than other groups on the Right. They support the Tea Party at 72 percent, far higher than
810-436: A means of keeping software free." Free software licenses are also open-source software licenses. The separate terms free software and open-source software reflect different values rather than a legal difference. Both movements and their formal definitions require the covered work to be made available with source code and with permission for modification and redistribution. There are occasional edge cases where only one of
900-728: A minimalist lifestyle intended to reduce materialism and conspicuous consumption , and tax resistance , a form of direct action and civil disobedience in opposition to the government that is imposing the tax, to government policy, or as opposition to taxation in itself . Shareholder activism involves shareholders using an equity stake in a corporation to put pressure on its management. The goals of activist shareholders range from financial (increase of shareholder value through changes in corporate policy, financing structure, cost cutting, etc.) to non-financial ( disinvestment from particular countries, adoption of environmentally friendly policies, etc.). Design activism locates design at
990-424: A patent retaliation clause. Patent retaliation, or patent suspension, clauses take effect if a licensee initiates patent infringement litigation on covered code. In that situation, the patent grants are revoked. These clauses protect against patent trolling . Copyleft licenses require source code to be distributed with software and require the source code to be made available under a similar license. Like
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#17327936568681080-494: A political signification, whereas social action was defined as "organized action taken by a group to improve social conditions", without regard to normative status. Following the surge of so-called "new social movements" in the United States in the 1960s, a new understanding of activism emerged as a rational and acceptable democratic option of protest or appeal. However, the history of the existence of revolt through organized or unified protest in recorded history dates back to
1170-400: A result, this causes more confusion than other legal aspects. When releasing a collection of applications, each license can be considered separately. However, when attempting to combine software, code from another project can only be in-licensed if the project uses compatible terms and conditions. When combining code bases, the original licenses can be maintained for separate components, and
1260-436: A similar license. Permissive licenses do not, and therefore the code can be used within proprietary software. Copyleft can be further divided into strong and weak depending on whether they define derivative works broadly or narrowly. Licenses focus on copyright law, but code is also covered by other forms of IP. Major open-source licenses written since the late 1990s contain patent grants. These open-source patent grants cover
1350-465: A social process known as diffusion , and if successful, may become new additions to the activist repertoire. Activism is not an activity always performed by those who profess activism as a profession. The term "activist" may apply broadly to anyone who engages in activism, or narrowly limited to those who choose political or social activism as a vocation or characteristic practice. Judges may employ judicial activism to promote their own conception of
1440-458: A specific ideology or national history, as can be seen, for example, in the importance of conservative British women in the 1920s on issues of tariffs. Political activism, although often identified with young adults, occurs across peoples entire life-courses. Political activism on college campuses has been influential in left-wing politics since the 1960s, and recently there has been "a rise in conservative activism on US college campuses" and "it
1530-449: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Open-source license Open-source licenses are software licenses that allow content to be used, modified, and shared. They facilitate free and open-source software (FOSS) development. Intellectual property (IP) laws restrict the modification and sharing of creative works. Free and open-source licenses use these existing legal structures for an inverse purpose. They grant
1620-616: Is a design that identifies the distinct source of a product. Because they distinguish products, the same designs can be used in different fields where there is no risk of confusing similar sources. To give up control of a trademark would result in the loss of that trademark. Therefore, no open-source license freely offers the use of a trademark. Trademark restrictions can overlap copyrights and affect material otherwise freely available. The US Supreme Court described using trademark law to restrict public domain content as "mutant copyright". In Dastar Corp. v. Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp. ,
1710-452: Is a set of conditions under which actions otherwise restricted by IP laws are permitted. Under the bare license interpretation, advocated by the FSF, a case is brought to court by the copyright holder as copyright infringement . Under the contract interpretation, a case can be brought to court by an involved party as a breach of contract . US and French courts have tried cases under both interpretations. Non-profit organizations like FSF and
1800-506: Is common for conservative political organizations to donate money to relatively small conservative students groups". While people's motivations for political activism may vary, one model examined activism in the British Conservative party and found three primary motivations: (1) "incentives, such as ambitions for elective office", (2) "a desire for the party to achieve policy goals" and (3) "expressive concerns, as measured by
1890-412: Is different from the current society, which is found to be effective for increasing collective action intentions. Fashion activism was coined by Celine Semaan. Fashion activism is a type of activism that ignites awareness by giving consumers tools to support change, specifically in the fashion industry. It has been used as an umbrella term for many social and political movements that have taken place in
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#17327936568681980-584: Is how they define derivative works covered by the reciprocal provisions. The GPL, and the Affero License (AGPL) based on it, use a broad scope to describe affected works. The AGPL extends the reciprocal obligation in the GPL to cover software made available over a network. They are called strong copyleft in contrast to the weaker copyleft licenses often used by corporations. Weak copyleft uses narrower, explicit definitions of derivative works. The MPL uses
2070-640: Is known as franchise activism . Economic activism involves using the economic power of government, consumers, and businesses for social and economic policy change. Both conservative and liberal groups use economic activism as a form of pressure to influence companies and organizations to oppose or support particular political, religious, or social values and behaviors. This may be done through ethical consumerism to reinforce "good" behavior and support companies one would like to succeed, or through boycott or divestment to penalize "bad" behavior and pressure companies to change or go out of business. Brand activism
2160-543: Is more comprehensive and explicit. The Apache Software Foundation wrote it for their Apache HTTP Server . Version 2, published in 2004, offers legal advantages over simple licenses and provides similar grants. While the BSD and MIT licenses offer an implicit patent grant, the Apache License includes a section on patents with an explicit grant from contributors. Additionally, it is one of the few permissive licenses with
2250-540: Is often done full-time, as part of an organization's core business . Many organizations in the activism industry are either non-profit organizations or non-governmental organizations with specific aims and objectives in mind. Most activist organizations do not manufacture goods, but rather mobilize personnel to recruit funds and gain media coverage. The term activism industry has often been used to refer to outsourced fundraising operations. However, activist organizations engage in other activities as well. Lobbying , or
2340-404: Is the continual process where developers can build on the derivative works of each other and combine their projects into collective works. Explicitly making covered code sublicensable provides a legal advantage when tracking the chain of authorship. The BSD and MIT are template licenses that can be adapted to any project. They are widely adapted and used by many FOSS projects. The Apache License
2430-418: Is the type of activism in which business plays a leading role in the processes of social change . Applying brand activism, businesses show concern for the communities they serve, and their economic, social, and environmental problems, which allows businesses to build sustainable and long-term relationships with the customers and prospects. Kotler and Sarkar defined the phenomenon as an attempt by firms to solve
2520-506: Is triggered when covered code is hosted or distributed. Some developers have adopted the AGPL, and others have switched to proprietary licenses with features of open-source licensing. For example, open-core developer Elastic switched from the Apache license to the "source-available" Server Side Public License . Source-available software comes with source code as a reference. Since 2010,
2610-623: The Creative Commons CC0, provides a waiver of copyright claims into the public domain along with a permissive software license as a fallback. In jurisdictions that do not accept a public domain waiver, the permissive license takes effect. Public domain waivers share limitations with simple academic licenses. This creates the possibility that an outside party could attempt to control a public domain work via patent or trademark law. Public domain waivers handle warranties differently from any type of license. Even very permissive ones, like
2700-625: The European Court of Justice noted in the 2012 SAS Institute case that "ideas and principles which underlie [computer program] interfaces are not protected by copyright". In a similar 2021 case , the US Supreme Court permitted the recreation of an API in a transformative product under fair use . A long-debated subject within the FOSS community is whether open-source licenses are "bare licenses" or contracts . A bare license
2790-494: The GNU General Public License (GPL). Traditional, proprietary software licenses are written with the goal of increasing profit , but Stallman wrote the GPL to increase the body of available free software. His reciprocal licenses offer the rights to use, modify, and distribute the work on the condition that people must release derivative works under a license offering these same freedoms. Software built on
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2880-610: The Open Source Initiative (OSI). At Debian , Perens had proposed the Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG). The DFSG were drafted to provide a more specific and objective standard for the FOSS that Debian would host in their repositories. The OSI adopted the DSFG and used them as the basis for their Open Source Definition. The Free Software Foundation maintains a rival set of criteria,
2970-533: The Software Freedom Conservancy offer to hold the rights to developers' projects to enforce compliance. When a copyright expires, the work enters the public domain , and is freely available to anyone. Some creative works are not covered by copyright and enter directly into the public domain. In the early history of computing, this applied to software. Early computer software was often given away with hardware. Developed initially at MIT,
3060-446: The US and German courts rejected these claims. They ruled that the defendants could not have legally distributed the software if the licenses were unenforceable. Courts have found that distributing software indicates acceptance of the license's terms. Physical software releases can obtain the consumer's assent with notices placed on shrinkwrap . Online distribution can use clickwrap ,
3150-545: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights including such liberties as: right to life , citizenship , and property , freedom of movement ; constitutional freedoms of thought , expression , religion , peaceful assembly ; and others. The foundations of the global human rights movement involve resistance to colonialism , imperialism , slavery , racism , segregation , patriarchy , and oppression of indigenous peoples. Environmental activism takes quite
3240-403: The bazaar , an open-air public market. He argued that aside from ethics, the open model provided advantages that proprietary software could not replicate. Raymond focused heavily on feedback , testing , and bug reports . He contrasted the proprietary model where small pools of secretive workers carried out this work with the development of Linux where the pool of testers included potentially
3330-400: The invention relies on another patented idea. Thus, open-source patent grants can offer permission only from covered patents. They cannot guarantee that a third party has not patented any concepts embodied in the code. The older permissive licenses do not discuss patents directly and offer only implicit patent grants in their offers to use or sell covered material. Newer copyleft licenses and
3420-490: The justice of their cause. Research has now begun to explore how contemporary activist groups use social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action combining politics with technology . Left-wing and right-wing online activists often use different tactics. Hashtag activism and offline protest are more common on the left. Working strategically with partisan media, migrating to alternative platforms , and manipulation of mainstream media are more common on
3510-715: The slave revolts of the 1st century BC(E) in the Roman Empire , where under the leadership of former gladiator Spartacus 6,000 slaves rebelled and were crucified from Capua to Rome in what became known as the Third Servile War . In English history, the Peasants' Revolt erupted in response to the imposition of a poll tax , and has been paralleled by other rebellions and revolutions in Hungary, Russia, and more recently, for example, Hong Kong . In 1930 under
3600-406: The 2004 Apache License offer explicit patent grants and limited protection from patent litigation. These patent retaliation clauses protect developers by terminating grants for any party who initiates a patent lawsuit regarding covered software. Trademarks are the only form of IP not shared by free and open-source software. Trademarks on FOSS function the same as any other trademark. A trademark
3690-539: The 21st century, most human rights movements did not explicitly treat environmental issues, and likewise, human rights concerns were not typically integrated into early environmental activism. In the 21st century, the intersection between human rights and environmentalism has become increasingly important, leading to criticism of the mainstream environmentalist movement and the development of the environmental justice and climate justice movements. Human rights activism seeks to protect basic rights such as those laid out in
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3780-572: The FSF or the OSI accept a license, but the popular free software licenses are open source, including the GPL . Practical benefits to copyleft licenses have attracted commercial developers. Corporations have used and written reciprocal licenses with a narrower scope than the GPL. For example, Netscape drafted their own copyleft terms after rejecting permissive licenses for the Mozilla project. The GPL remains
3870-511: The Free Software Definition. Historically, these three organizations and their sets of criteria have been the notable authorities in determining whether a license covers free and open-source software. There is significant diversity among individual licenses but little difference between the rival definitions. The three definitions each require that people receiving covered software must be able to use, modify, and redistribute
3960-427: The GPL and are said to be GPL-compatible. GPL software can only be used under the GPL or AGPL. Permissive licenses are broadly compatible because they can cover separate parts of a project. Multiple licenses including the GPL and Apache License have been revised to enhance compatibility. Translation issues, ambiguity in licensing terms, and incompatibility of some licenses with the law in certain jurisdictions compound
4050-743: The Internet itself, also known as digital rights . The Digital Rights movement consists of activists and organizations, such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation , who work to protect the rights of people in relation to new technologies, particularly concerning the Internet and other information and communications technologies . Many contemporary activists now utilize new tactics through the Internet and other information and communication technologies (ICTs), also known as Internet activism or cyber-activism. Some scholars argue that many of these new tactics are digitally analogous to
4140-479: The MIT license, disclaim warranty and liability. Anyone using the free software must accept this disclaimer as a condition. Because public domain content is available to everyone, the copyright waiver cannot impose a disclaimer. Open-source licenses allow other businesses to commercialize covered software. Work released under a permissive license can be incorporated into proprietary software. Permissive licenses permit
4230-505: The addition of new terms, including proprietary ones. Proprietary software has heavily integrated open-source code released under the Apache, BSD, and MIT licenses. Open core is a business model where developers release a core piece of software as open source and monetize a product containing it as proprietary software. The strong copyleft GPL is written to prevent distribution within proprietary software. Weak copyleft licenses impose specific requirements on derivative works that may allow
4320-418: The center of promoting social change, raising awareness on social/political issues, or questioning problems associated with mass production and consumerism . Design Activism is not limited to one type of design. Art activism or artivism utilizes the medium of visual art as a method of social or political commentary. Art activism can activate utopian thinking , which is imagining about an ideal society that
4410-523: The cloud model has grown in prominence. Developers have criticized cloud companies that profit from hosting open-source software without contributing money or code upstream, comparing the practice to strip mining . Cloud computing leader Amazon Web Services has stated they comply with licenses and act in their customers' best interests. Activist Activism (or advocacy ) consists of efforts to promote, impede, direct or intervene in social , political , economic or environmental reform with
4500-748: The court "caution[ed] against misuse or over-extension of trademark" law without providing a firm decision on those mutant copyrights. Trademark overlap can leave open-source and free content projects vulnerable to a "hostile takeover" if outside parties file for trademarks on derivative works. Notably, Andrey Duskin applied for trademarks on the SCP Foundation , a collaborative writing project, when creating derivative works based on SCP stories. Permissive licenses , also known as academic licenses, allow recipients to use, modify, and distribute software with no obligation to provide source code. Institutions created these licenses to distribute their creations to
4590-439: The covered code to be distributed within proprietary software in certain circumstances. Cloud computing relies on free and open-source software and avoids the distribution that triggers most licenses. Cloud software is hosted rather than distributed. A vendor hosts the software online, and their end users do not have to download, access, or even know about the code in use. The copyleft GNU Affero General Public License (AGPL)
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#17327936568684680-399: The covered software. The BSD licenses brought the concept of academic freedom of ideas to computing. Early academic software authors had shared code based on implied promises. Berkeley made these concepts explicit with clear disclaimers for liability and warranty along with conditions, or clauses , for redistribution. The original had four clauses, but subsequent versions have further reduced
4770-468: The covered work. Eric S. Raymond was a proponent of the term " open source " over "free software". He viewed open source as more appealing to businesses and more reflective of the tangible advantages of FOSS development. One of Raymond's goals was to expand the existing hacker community to include large commercial developers. In The Cathedral and the Bazaar , Raymond compared open-source development to
4860-464: The desire to make changes in society toward a perceived common good . Forms of activism range from mandate building in a community (including writing letters to newspapers), petitioning elected officials , running or contributing to a political campaign , preferential patronage (or boycott ) of businesses, and demonstrative forms of activism like rallies , street marches , strikes , sit-ins , or hunger strikes . Activism may be performed on
4950-676: The developing world, collectivist communist or socialist organization and affiliation. Activism has had major impacts on Western societies as well, particularly over the past century through social movements such as the Labour movement , the women's rights movement , and the civil rights movement . Activism has often been thought to address either human rights or environmental concerns, but libertarian and religious right activism are also important types. Human rights and environmental issues have historically been treated separately both within international law and as activist movements; prior to
5040-525: The entire world. He summarized this strength as "Given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow." The OSI succeeded in bringing open-source development to corporate developers including Sun Microsystems, IBM , Netscape, Mozilla , Apache , Apple Inc., Microsoft, and Nokia. These companies released code under existing licenses and drafted their own to be approved by the OSI. Open-source licenses are categorized as copyleft or permissive . Copyleft licenses require derivative works to include source code under
5130-477: The free software movement. Copyleft licenses require derivative works to be distributed with the source code and under a similar license. Since the mid-2000s, courts in multiple countries have upheld the terms of both types of license. Software developers have filed cases as copyright infringement and as breaches of contract. Intellectual property (IP) is a legal category that treats creative output as property, comparable to private property . Legal systems grant
5220-535: The global problems its future customers and employees care about. Consumer activism consists of activism carried out on behalf of consumers for consumer protection or by consumers themselves. For instance, activists in the free produce movement of the late 1700s protested against slavery by boycotting goods produced with slave labor. Today, vegetarianism, veganism , and freeganism are all forms of consumer activism which boycott certain types of products. Other examples of consumer activism include simple living ,
5310-602: The industry. Fashion Activism uses a participatory approach to a political activity. Craft activism or craftivism is a type of visual activism that allows people to bring awareness to political or social discourse. It is a creative approach to activism as it allows people to send short and clear messages to society. People who contribute to craftivism are called "craftivists". Activism in literature may publish written works that express intended or advocated reforms. Alternatively, literary activism may also seek to reform perceived corruption or entrenched systems of power within
5400-488: The influencing of decisions made by government, is another activist tactic. Many groups, including law firms, have designated staff assigned specifically for lobbying purposes. In the United States, lobbying is regulated by the federal government. Many government systems encourage public support of non-profit organizations by granting various forms of tax relief for donations to charitable organizations. Governments may attempt to deny these benefits to activists by restricting
5490-438: The initial release is considered an original work . The creator, or their employer, holds the copyright to this original work and therefore has the exclusive right to make copies, release modified versions, distribute copies, perform publicly, or display the work publicly. Modified versions of the original work are derivative works . When a creator modifies an existing work, they hold the copyright to their modifications. Unless
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#17327936568685580-1159: The issues in front of an international audience. This was one of the first occasions in which social networking technology was used by citizen-activists to circumvent state-controlled media and communicate directly with the rest of the world. These types of practices of Internet activism were later picked up and used by other activists in subsequent mass mobilizations, such as the 15-M Movement in Spain in 2011, Occupy Gezi in Turkey in 2013, and more. Online "left- and right-wing activists use digital and legacy media differently to achieve political goals". Left-wing online activists are usually more involved in traditional "hashtag activism" and offline protest, while right-wing activists may "manipulate legacy media, migrate to alternative platforms, and work strategically with partisan media to spread their messages". Research suggests right-wing online activists are more likely to use "strategic disinformation and conspiracy theories". Internet activism may also refer to activism which focuses on protecting or changing
5670-425: The larger work released under a compatible license. This compatibility is often one-way. Public domain content can be used anywhere as there is no copyright claim, but code acquired under any almost any set of terms cannot be waved to the public domain. Permissive licenses can be used within copyleft works, but copyleft material cannot be released under a permissive license. Some weak copyleft licenses can be used under
5760-582: The leadership of Mahatma Gandhi thousands of protesting Indians participated in the Salt March , as a protest against the oppressive taxes of their government, resulting in the imprisonment of 60,000 people and eventually independence of their nation. In nations throughout Asia, Africa and South America, the prominence of activism organized by social movements and especially under the leadership of civil activists or social revolutionaries has pushed for increasing national self-reliance or, in some parts of
5850-487: The license, increasing the difficulties of compliance. Free and open-source software licenses have been successfully enforced in civil court since the mid-2000s. In a pair of early lawsuits— Jacobsen v. Katzer in the United States and Welte v. Sitecom in Germany—;defendants argued that open-source licenses were invalid. Sitecom and Katzer separately argued that the licenses were unenforceable. Both
5940-468: The modern usage begins with Richard Stallman's efforts to create a free operating system. In 1984, programmer Don Hopkins mailed a manual to Stallman with a "Copyleft Ⓛ" sticker. Stallman, who was working on the GNU operating system, adopted the term. An early version of copyleft licensing was used for the 1985 release of GNU Emacs . The term became associated with the FSF's later reciprocal licenses, notably
6030-715: The most popular license of this type, but there are other significant examples. The FSF has crafted the Lesser General Public License (LGPL) for libraries . Mozilla uses the Mozilla Public License (MPL) for their releases, including Firefox . IBM drafted the Common Public License (CPL) and later adopted the Eclipse Public License (EPL). A difference between the GPL and other reciprocal licenses
6120-721: The next most favorable group." One analysis found a group estimated to be 4% of the electorate who identified both as libertarians and staunch religious conservatives "to be the core of this group of high-engagement voters" and labeled this group "Activists." Activists employ many different methods, or tactics, in pursuit of their goals. The tactics chosen are significant because they can determine how activists are perceived and what they are capable of accomplishing. For example, nonviolent tactics generally tend to garner more public sympathy than violent ones. and are more than twice as effective in achieving stated goals. Historically, most activism has focused on creating substantive changes in
6210-440: The opposite of their intended goal of restriction. Instead of imposing restrictions, free software explicitly provided freedoms to the recipient. In the 90s, the term "open source" was coined as an alternative label for free software, and specific criteria were laid out to determine which licenses covered free and open-source software. Two active members of the free software community, Bruce Perens and Eric S. Raymond , founded
6300-641: The original work was in the public domain, a derivative work can only be distributed with the permission of every copyright holder. In 1980, the US government amended the law to treat software as a literary work. Software released after this point was restricted by IP laws. At that time, American activist and programmer Richard Stallman was working as a graduate student at the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory . Stallman witnessed fragmentation among software developers. He blamed
6390-510: The owner of an IP the right to restrict access in many ways. Owners can sell, lease, gift, or license their properties. Multiple types of IP law cover software including trademarks , patents , and copyrights . Most countries, including the United States (US), have created copyright laws in line with the Berne Convention . These laws assign a copyright whenever a work is released in any fixed format. Under US copyright law,
6480-446: The patents held by the developers. Software patents cover ideas and, rather than a specific implementation, cover any implementation of a claim . Patent claims give the holder the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, or importing products based on the idea. Because patents grant the right to exclude rather than the right to create, it is possible to have a patent on an idea but still be unable to legally implement it if
6570-470: The permissive licenses, most copyleft licenses require attribution. Most, including the GPL, disclaim implied warranties. Copyleft uses the restrictions of IP law—contrary to their usual purpose—to mandate that the code remain open. The term and it's related slogan, "All rights reversed", had been previously used in a playful manner by the Principia Discordia and Tiny BASIC ;
6660-561: The pioneering video game Spacewar! was used to market and test the PDP-1 computer. According to attorney Lawrence Rosen , copyright laws were not written with the expectation that creators would place their work into the public domain. Thus intellectual property laws lack clear paths to waive a copyright. Highly permissive licenses described as "public domain" may legally function as unilateral contracts that offer something but impose no terms. A public-domain-equivalent license , like
6750-440: The policy or practice of a government or industry. Some activists try to persuade people to change their behavior directly (see also direct action ), rather than to persuade governments to change laws. For example, the cooperative movement seeks to build new institutions which conform to cooperative principles, and generally does not lobby or protest politically. Other activists try to persuade people or government policy to remain
6840-928: The potential for community backlash, are often sufficient. Cease and desist letters are a common method to bring companies back into compliance, especially in Germany. A standard process has developed in the German legal system. FOSS developers present companies with a cease and desist letter. These letters outline how to come back into compliance from a violation. German judges can issue a court-mandated cease and desist order to unresponsive companies. Civil cases proceed if these first steps fail. The German procedural laws are clear and favorable to claimants. Uncertainties remain in how different courts will handle certain aspects of licensing. For software in general, there are debates about what can be patented and what can be copyrighted. Regarding an application programming interface (API),
6930-417: The problem of license compatibility. Downloading an open-source module is straightforward, but complying with the licensing terms can be more difficult. Because of the amount of software dependencies, engineers working on complex projects often rely on license management software to achieve compliance with the licensing terms of open-source components. Many open-source software files do not unambiguously state
7020-545: The public. Permissive licenses are usually short, often less than a page of text. They impose few conditions . Most include disclaimers of warranty and obligations to credit authors. A few include explicit provisions for patents, trademarks, and other forms of intellectual property. The University of California, Berkeley created the first open-source license when they began distributing their Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) operating system. The BSD license and its later variations permit modification and distribution of
7110-791: The publishing industry. Science activism may include efforts to better communicate the benefits of science or ensure continued funding for scientific research. It may also include efforts to increase perceived legitimacy of particular scientific fields or respond to the politicization of particular fields. The March for Science held around the world in 2017 and 2018 were notable examples of science activism. Approaches to science activism vary from protests to more psychological, marketing-oriented approaches that takes into account such factors as individual sense of self, aversion to solutions to problems, and social perceptions. Some groups and organizations participate in activism to such an extent that it can be considered as an industry. In these cases, activism
7200-483: The recipient the rights to use the software, examine the source code , modify it, and distribute the modifications. These criteria are outlined in the Open Source Definition . After 1980, the United States began to treat software as a literary work covered by copyright law. Richard Stallman founded the free software movement in response to the rise of proprietary software . The term "open source"
7290-412: The restrictions. As a result, it's common to specify if the covered software uses a 2-clause or 3-clause version. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) created an academic license based on the BSD original. The MIT license clarified the conditions by making them more explicit. For example, the MIT license describes the right to sublicense . One of the strengths of open-source development
7380-490: The right (in the United States). In addition, the perception of increased left-wing activism in science and academia may decrease conservative trust in science and motivate some forms of conservative activism, including on college campuses. Some scholars have also shown how the influence of very wealthy Americans is a form of activism. Separating activism and terrorism can be difficult and has been described as
7470-706: The same, in an effort to counter change . Charles Tilly developed the concept of a " repertoire of contention ", which describes the full range of tactics available to activists at a given time and place. This repertoire consists of all of the tactics which have been proven to be successful by activists in the past, such as boycotts, petitions, marches, and sit-ins, and can be drawn upon by any new activists and social movements. Activists may also innovate new tactics of protest. These may be entirely novel, such as Douglas Schuler's idea of an "activist road trip", or may occur in response to police oppression or countermovement resistance. New tactics then spread to others through
7560-516: The social good. The definition of judicial activism and whether a specific decisions is activist are controversial political issues. The legal systems of different nations vary in the extent that judicial activism may be permitted. Activists can also be public watchdogs and whistle blowers by holding government agencies accountable to oversight and transparency. Political activism may also include political campaigning , lobbying , voting , or petitioning . Political activism does not depend on
7650-539: The spread of proprietary software and closed models of development. To push back against these trends, Stallman founded the free software movement . Throughout the 1980s, he started the GNU Project to create a free operating system, wrote essays on freedom, founded the Free Software Foundation (FSF), and wrote several free software licenses. The FSF used existing intellectual property laws for
7740-493: The strength of the respondent's partisanship". In addition, very wealthy Americans can exercise political activism through massive financial support of political causes, and one study of the 400 richest Americans found "substantial evidence of liberal or right-wing activism that went beyond making contributions to political candidates." This study also found, in general, "old money is, if anything, more uniformly conservative than new money." Another study examined how "activism of
7830-425: The term commonly refers to a form of collective action , in which numerous individuals coordinate an act of protest together. Collective action that is purposeful, organized, and sustained over a period of time becomes known as a social movement . Historically, activists have used literature, including pamphlets , tracts, and books to disseminate or propagate their messages and attempt to persuade their readers of
7920-431: The traditional offline tools of contention. Other digital tactics may be entire new and unique, such as certain types of hacktivism . Together they form a new "digital repertoire of contention" alongside the existing offline one. The rising use of digital tools and platforms by activists has also increasingly led to the creation of decentralized networks of activists that are self-organized and leaderless , or what
8010-553: The wealthy" has often increased inequality but is now sometimes used to decrease economic inequality . The power of Internet activism came into a global lens with the Arab Spring protests starting in late 2010. People living in the Middle East and North African countries that were experiencing revolutions used social networking to communicate information about protests, including videos recorded on smart phones, which put
8100-630: Was used by the Open Source Initiative (OSI), founded by free software developers Bruce Perens and Eric S. Raymond . "Open source" emphasizes the strengths of the open development model rather than software freedoms. While the goals behind the terms are different, open-source licenses and free software licenses describe the same type of licenses. The two main categories of open-source licenses are permissive and copyleft . Both grant permission to change and distribute software. Typically, they require attribution and disclaim liability . Permissive licenses come from academia. Copyleft licenses come from
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