Successful supply to Israeli military
59-727: Egyptian front International front Operation Nickel Grass was the codename for a strategic airlift conducted by the United States to deliver weapons and supplies to Israel during the 1973 Arab–Israeli War . Between 14 October and 14 November of that year, the Military Airlift Command of the United States Air Force shipped approximately 22,325 tons of supplies, including tanks , artillery , and ammunition , in multiple flights of C-141 Starlifters and C-5 Galaxys . This initiative
118-685: A 2021 offensive following the withdrawal of US and NATO forces , foreign governments evacuated hundreds of thousands of their citizens as well as at-risk Afghans from Hamid Karzai International Airport . As part of the U.S. Armed Forces ' Operation Allies Refuge , U.S. Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin requisitioned U.S. airliners through the Civil Reserve Air Fleet to assist the U.S. Transportation Command . The U.S. Department of Defense later claimed to have evacuated 122,000 people, including U.S. citizens and Afghan Special Immigrant Visa applicants. Other airlifts included
177-509: A combat theater from a point on the other side of the planet, if necessary. Aircraft which perform this role are considered strategic airlifters . This contrasts with tactical airlifters, such as the C-130 Hercules and Transall C-160 , which can normally only move supplies within a given theater of operations . Examples of late current large strategic airlifters include: However it is prohibitively expensive and impractical to shift
236-439: A common road. Flights were made flying at night with all lights off and under near-total radio silence to avoid Nigerian Air Force MiG aircraft . All the airplanes, crews, and logistics were paid, set up, and maintained by the joint church groups. JCA and their crews and aircraft (mostly aging multi prop airliners like DC-7 's, Lockheed Constellation and Superconstellations , DC-6 's, and DC3 's) kept flying into Biafra at
295-632: A few hours. The first C-5A transport airplane arrived at Lod airport at 18:30 local time on 14 October. That same day the Battle of the Sinai had concluded in Israel's favor. A major Egyptian thrust had been stopped with the destruction of many attacking tanks, and Israel was now winning the war. Airlifted supplies were not all that was delivered under Nickel Grass. In the opening days of the war, Arab forces destroyed significant numbers of IAF aircraft, surprising
354-463: A large portion of their income. Tactical airlift is a military term for the airborne transportation of supplies and equipment within a theatre of operations (in contrast to strategic airlift). Aircraft that perform this role are referred to as tactical airlifters . These are typically turboprop aircraft and feature short landing and take-off distances and low-pressure tires allowing operations from small or poorly prepared airstrips. While they lack
413-676: A substantial mechanised force such as main battle tanks by air. For instance the M1 Abrams could only be carried by a C-5 Galaxy (two tanks) or a C-17 Globemaster III (one tank). This difficulty has prompted investment in lighter armoured fighting vehicles (such as the Stryker ), as well as some preliminary research into alternative airlift technologies such as ground effect vehicles and airships . Civilian aircraft are also commonly used for transportation. For some civilian airlines, such as Volga-Dnepr Airlines , military contracts account for
472-432: Is commonly referred to as ordnance , especially concerning mounted guns ( artillery ) and the shells they consume. Along with fuel, and munitions in general, the steady supply of ordnance is an ongoing logistical challenge in active combat zones. Materiel management consists of continuing actions relating to planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, controlling, and evaluating the application of resources to ensure
531-420: Is supplies, equipment , and weapons in military supply-chain management , and typically supplies and equipment in a commercial supply chain context. In a military context, the term materiel refers either to the specific needs (excluding manpower) of a force to complete a specific mission , or the general sense of the needs (excluding manpower) of a functioning army. An important category of materiel
590-514: The 1948 Arab–Israeli War . In 1949 Israel evacuated 49,000 Yemenite Jews to Israel via Operation On Wings of Eagles . In 1951 it carried out Operation Ezra and Nehemiah evacuating over 120,000 Jews from Iraq to Israel via British Cyprus . The Israel Defense Forces later evacuated over 8,000 Beta Israel refugees from Ethiopia living in refugee camps in Sudan through Operation Moses , Operation Joshua , and Operation Solomon during
649-528: The Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey also exist which attempt to combine VTOL flight with greater range and speed. Tactical airlift aircraft are designed to be maneuverable, allowing the low-altitude flight to avoid detection by radar and for the airdropping of supplies. Most are fitted with defensive aids systems to protect them from attack by surface-to-air missiles . The earliest Soviet tactical airlift occurred in 1929, in which forty men of
SECTION 10
#1732780814782708-696: The Berlin Airlift , to supply isolated West Berlin with food and coal, the 1990 Air India airlift to rescue Indian citizens caught up in the Gulf War , and the 1967–70 Biafran airlift during the Nigerian Civil War . In November 1915 the French squadron MF 99 S , equipped with Farman MF.11 , flew wounded soldiers from Serbia through Albania to Corfu . This was the first medevac operation in air history. In April 1923 aircraft of
767-513: The Biafran secession war from Nigeria in 1967–70. This joint effort (which those involved used to call "Jesus Christ Airlines" as an inside joke from the initials JCA) is estimated to have saved more than a million lives in Biafra. Most airplanes departed from Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe to the bush landing strip of Uli , the only operational "airport" in Biafra, which was made by enlarging
826-774: The British Royal Air Force 's Iraq Command flew 280 Sikh troops from Kingarban to Kirkuk in the first British air trooping operation. This operation was only conducted over a short-range and it was not until 1929 that the RAF conducted a long-range non-combat air evacuation of British Embassy staff from Afghanistan to India using a Vickers Victoria during the Kabul airlift . The world's first long-range combat airlift took place from July to October 1936. Nazi German Luftwaffe Ju 52 and Fascist Italian Regia Aeronautica Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 were used by
885-670: The British Armed Forces ' Operation Pitting , the Canadian Armed Forces ' Operation AEGIS , and the Indian Armed Forces ' Operation Devi Shakti . Strategic airlift is the use of military transport aircraft to transport vehicles , materiel , weaponry , or personnel over long distances. Typically, this involves airlifting the required items between two airbases that are not in the same vicinity. This allows commanders to bring items into
944-654: The Ethiopian famine and civil war . During the First Indochina War , the French expeditionary forces devised the hérisson (' hedgehog ') concept, establishing a fortified airhead by airlifting soldiers to positions adjacent to key Viet Minh supply lines to Laos. This would cut off Viet Minh soldiers fighting in Laos and force them to withdraw. "It was an attempt to interdict the enemy's rear area, to stop
1003-661: The Gulf War , which repatriated 176,000 Indian migrant workers stranded in Ba'athist Iraq after the invasion of Kuwait . India has conducted other airlifts of migrant workers during Middle Eastern crises. The Indian Navy evacuated numerous Indian civilians from the 2006 Lebanon War via Operation Sukoon , from the First Libyan Civil War via Operation Safe Homecoming , from the South Sudanese Civil War via Operation Sankat Mochan , and from
1062-961: The Middle East . The American airlift to Israel and the Arab embargo of the United States greatly transformed the dynamic of the Saudi Arabia–United States relationship . Israel, as well as the U.S. and most of the world, were caught by surprise on 6 October 1973 when Egypt and Syria attacked the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights , respectively. The Soviet Union had supplied Egypt and Syria over 600 advanced surface-to-air missiles , 300 MiG-21 fighters, 1,200 tanks and hundreds of thousands of tons of war material. Seeing Israel's vulnerable position, Henry Kissinger ,
1121-794: The Nazi-occupied Netherlands through Operations Manna and Chowhound to alleviate the Dutch famine of 1944-45 . The largest airlift was the Berlin airlift , lasting from June 1948 to September 1949, an international operation intended to thwart the blockading of West Berlin by the Soviet Union . The airlift was arranged by the U.S. Air Force , the British Royal Air Force, the French Air Force ,
1180-562: The Red Army were airlifted to the town of Garm , Tajikistan (then the Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic ) to repel an attacking force of Basmachi rebels under Fuzail Maksum . Examples of late current large tactical airlifters include: Materiel Materiel or matériel ( / m ə ˌ t ɪər i ˈ ɛ l / ; from French matériel 'equipment, hardware')
1239-811: The Royal Canadian Air Force , the Royal Australian Air Force , the Royal New Zealand Air Force , and the South African Air Force using C-47 Skytrains , C-54 Skymasters , Handley Page Haltons , and Short Sunderlands . Many Soviet and Western leaders alike initially assumed that an airlift to resupply West Berlin would fail because of the results of the Battle of Stalingrad. However, it instead succeeded and became an embarrassment for
SECTION 20
#17327808147821298-848: The Saudi-Yemen War in Operation Raahat . The Pakistan Navy also evacuated Pakistani nationals from Yemen via an airlift during the Saudi intervention. The Indian Armed Forces also conducted an airlift to Nepal after the 2015 Nepal earthquake through Operation Maitri . During the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in Wuhan , numerous air forces and civilian airlines arranged evacuation flights from Wuhan Tianhe International Airport . The highest rate of civilian airlift in history (number of civilians evacuated per day)
1357-796: The Spanish Nationalist Air Force to transport Army of Africa troops from Spanish Morocco to the Spanish mainland at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War . Airlifts became practical during World War II as aircraft became large and sophisticated enough to handle large cargo demands. The Germans used an airlift in successful relief of the Demyansk Pocket , albeit with the Luftwaffe suffering considerable losses to its fleet of transport planes. Due to
1416-521: The USS ; John F. Kennedy west of the Straits of Gibraltar . They then flew on to the USS Franklin D. Roosevelt southeast of Sicily where they stayed overnight, then continued on to Israel refueling once more from tankers launched from the USS Independence south of Crete . Twelve C-130E Hercules transports were also transferred to Israel, the first of the type to be delivered to
1475-650: The United States Secretary of State and President Richard Nixon 's National Security Adviser , made arrangements for the Israeli national airline , El Al to pick up some items, including ammunition, "high technology products" and AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles at a U.S. naval base in Virginia. A modest effort soon began, but Kissinger still hoped to keep any visible involvement at a minimum. On 8 October, Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir authorized
1534-518: The "oil weapon" to give the Arab side an advantage in the Arab–Israeli conflict . Following the outbreak of hostilities, OAPEC's members, led by Faisal of Saudi Arabia , proclaimed the implementation of a total oil embargo against the United States and other countries that had provided any form of support to Israel to defend against the Arab military offensive. This, along with the contemporaneous failure of major pricing and production negotiations between
1593-531: The Arab states declared a complete oil embargo on the U.S.. Oil prices skyrocketed, fuel became scarce and the U.S. was soon embroiled in the 1973 oil crisis . Nickel Grass also revealed a severe deficiency in American airlift capabilities: the need for staging bases overseas. Without Portugal's assistance, the airlift might not even have been possible. As a result, the U.S. greatly expanded its aerial refueling capabilities and made long-distance flight operations
1652-671: The Azores and Israel, the aircraft had to follow an extremely precise route. Flying exactly along the airspace border between hostile Arab nations to the south and European nations to the north, the transport craft flew down the middle of the Mediterranean Sea to Israel. Fighter escort was deemed necessary for this leg of the journey, so American fighters from the U.S. 6th Fleet escorted the transports to within 150 miles (240 km) of Israel, where Israeli Air Force Phantoms and Mirages escorted them into Ben Gurion Airport. Along
1711-559: The C-5 had been plagued by problems. The USAF claimed to have rectified the problems, but the C-5 was still viewed by the press as an expensive failure. During Nickel Grass, C-5s carried 48% of the total cargo in only 145 of the 567 total missions. The C-5 also carried "outsize" cargo such as M60 Patton tanks, M109 howitzers , ground radar systems, mobile tractor units, CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopters and A-4 Skyhawk components, cargo that could not fit in smaller aircraft. This performance justified
1770-714: The C-5's existence. General George Brown , Chairman of the American Joint Chiefs of Staff , was reprimanded by President Gerald Ford after criticizing the resupply effort. According to Time magazine, Brown's criticisms included the opinion that the airlift was driven in part by Jews controlling the American banking system. Strategic airlift An airlift is the organized delivery of supplies or personnel primarily via military transport aircraft . Airlifting consists of two distinct types: strategic and tactical. Typically, strategic airlifting involves moving material long distances (such as across or off
1829-416: The French aircraft to use the runways, afterwards a bombardment forced the French to abandon use of the airstrip altogether and rely upon parachute drops. The besieged French forces eventually surrendered. The largest civilian airlift ever, the Biafran airlift , was carried out by Protestant and Catholic churches working together under the banner "Joint Church Aid" (JCA) to carry food to Biafra , during
Operation Nickel Grass - Misplaced Pages Continue
1888-701: The Hump by November 1945. After many USAAF airmen were shot down in Nazi-occupied Serbia during Operation Tidal Wave , the U.S. Fifteenth Air Force and the Office of Strategic Services evacuated a number of them in Operation Halyard with the assistance of Draža Mihailović 's Chetnik partisans. Additionally, at the end of World War II the USAAF and the RAF arranged humanitarian airdrops to
1947-500: The IAF. When the third cease-fire resolution was finally implemented on October 24, the airlift immediately slowed. Further flights were made to rebuild Israeli forces to their pre-war strength and Operation Nickel Grass was ended on 14 November. In the end, the military airlift shipped 22,325 tons of materiel to Israel. Additionally, the U.S. conducted its own seaborne re-supply operation, delivering 33,210 tons to Israel by 30 October. During
2006-491: The Israelis with aggressive use of the new Soviet SA-6 Gainful SAMs. Consequently, at least 100 F-4 Phantom II fighters were sent to Israel under Nickel Grass, coming from the 4th Tactical Fighter Wing , the 33d Tactical Fighter Wing and the 57th Fighter Weapons Wing . They were flown to Lod, where American pilots were swapped for their Israeli counterparts. After the replacement of USAF insignia with IAF insignia if needed,
2065-494: The Mediterranean route, American ships were stationed every 300 miles (480 km), and an aircraft carrier every 600 miles (970 km). These precautions appeared justified when unidentified Arab fighters made threats over the radio, but no conflict ensued. Upon arrival, the transports were unloaded by U.S. and Israeli servicemen before they returned home and supplies were expedited to the front where they arrived within
2124-826: The Soviet Union, which ended the blockade. The blockade and the success of the airlift would be a major factor in the beginning of the Cold War and the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization , the Western European Union , and the Federal Republic of Germany . The Israeli Air Force and El Al conducted a number of airlifts during the Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries to Israel after
2183-520: The USAF's participation however: traditional European allies refused to allow re-supply aircraft to land for refueling or even overfly their territory. Portugal seemed willing to help though, so aircraft were dispatched to Lajes Field in the Azores Islands . After a few hours in the air, word came through that Portugal would permit them to land, and Lajes became a key staging point for the rest of
2242-635: The United States, beginning the 1970s energy crisis . During the 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus the Hellenic Air Force attempted to airlift commandos to Nicosia Airport through Operation Niki but failed after the Nord Noratlas planes were shot down by friendly fire from the Cypriot National Guard after flying over RAF Akrotiri . The largest civilian airlift in history was conducted by Air India during
2301-496: The airlift. Strategic Air Command (SAC) Boeing KC-135 Stratotankers were the first to arrive at Lajes Air Base. The KC-135s had left Pease AFB , New Hampshire, the night of Saturday, 13 October (one of the bases El Al was using to re-supply the war effort); the tankers were ferrying factory-fresh Douglas A-4 Skyhawk and F-4 Phantom II aircraft flying non-stop from the factory in St. Louis, Missouri to Ben Gurion Airport . To comply with
2360-577: The apparent vindication of the airlift tactic, Chief of the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe Hermann Göring assured Adolf Hitler that the Luftwaffe could conduct an airlift on a larger scale, which was the key factor not to let the Sixth Army withdraw from Stalingrad after its encirclement by the Red Army . However the Luftwaffe was strained at this point while facing better prepared Soviet air forces at Stalingrad, so they were unable to delivery
2419-467: The assembly of thirteen 20-kiloton nuclear warheads on Jericho missiles and F-4 Phantom II , which were prepared for action against Syrian and Egyptian targets; their preparation was made easily detectable, likely as a signal to the United States. Kissinger learned of this threatening nuclear escalation on the morning of 9 October. On that same day, Meir issued a personal appeal for military assistance, which European nations declined. Nixon, however, ordered
Operation Nickel Grass - Misplaced Pages Continue
2478-553: The commencement of Operation Nickel Grass, to replace all of Israel's materiel losses. The decision was taken the same day the Soviets began their own resupply operation of Arab forces by sea. Author Seymour Hersh claimed in 1991 that there was "anecdotal evidence" that Kissinger had told Anwar Sadat that the reason for the U.S. airlift was that the Israelis were close to "going nuclear." In subsequent interviews, however, Kissinger, James Schlesinger and William Quandt , stated that
2537-423: The continent or theater), whereas a tactical airlift focuses on deploying resources and material into a specific location with high precision. Depending on the situation, airlifted supplies can be delivered by a variety of means. When the destination and surrounding airspace is considered secure, the aircraft will land at an appropriate airport or airbase to have its cargo unloaded on the ground. When landing
2596-470: The cost of many crews lives. During the 1973 Yom Kippur War , the U.S. Air Force Military Airlift Command conducted Operation Nickel Grass to resupply Israel in the face of a coordinated surprise attack by Egypt and Syria . The airlift allowed Israel to begin a counteroffensive against the Arab states but caused the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries to place an oil embargo on
2655-400: The craft or distributing the supplies to a certain area from a landing zone by surface transportation is not an option, the cargo aircraft can drop them in mid-flight using parachutes attached to the supply containers in question. When there is a broad area available where the intended receivers have control without fear of the enemy interfering with the collection and/or stealing the goods,
2714-495: The demands of other European nations, even U.S. supplies already stationed in Europe were routed through Lajes and soon over thirty aircraft per day were moving through Lajes. To accommodate this, the base grew to house an extra 1,300 people who were billeted in improvised housing and hastily reactivated World War II barracks , rooms that would normally accommodate one or two enlisted men were expanded to four (2 bunk-beds). Between
2773-654: The effective and economical support of military forces. It includes provisioning, cataloging, requirements determination, acquisition, distribution, maintenance, and disposal. The terms "materiel management", "materiel control", "inventory control", "inventory management", and "supply management" are synonymous. Military materiel is often shipped to and used in severe climates without controlled warehouses or fixed material handling equipment . Packaging and labeling often need to meet stringent technical specifications to help ensure proper delivery and final use. Some military procurement allows for commercial packaging rather than
2832-451: The exporters and the major oil companies , led to the 1973 oil crisis . Nevertheless, Israel continued to receive support and the war came to an end on 25 October following a ceasefire. OAPEC lifted the embargo in March 1974. The economic impact of the oil crisis influenced the future decisions of American policymakers and decisively reshaped the United States' external policies, especially in
2891-506: The flow of supplies and reinforcements, to establish a redoubt in the enemy's rear and disrupt his lines". It was executed successfully at the Battle of Nà Sản , so the French hoped to repeat it on a larger scale at the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ . However, based on the lessons learned from Nà Sản, the Viet Minh improved their preparations at Điện Biên Phủ including concealed artillery and massed anti-aircraft batteries, making it dangerous for
2950-563: The necessary supplies before the airfields were overrun. In spite of the airlift's obvious shortcomings, Hitler refused permission for the Sixth Army to attempt a breakout, eventually leading its commander Friedrich Paulus to surrender. The U.S. Army Air Force 's Air Transport Command began the largest and longest-sustained airlift of the war in May 1942, delivering more than half a million net tons of materiel from India to Free China over
3009-504: The ongoing Soviet re-supply effort and Sadat's early rejection of a ceasefire were the primary motivators, not fears of Israeli use of nuclear weapons. Initially, only El Al, provided transport, and supplies began to arrive in Israel on 10 October, the same day the first Soviet resupply by air arrived in Damascus . Nonetheless, it was soon clear that El Al's limited supply of ill-configured passenger aircraft were insufficient. Still wanting to avoid direct U.S. involvement, starting 10 October,
SECTION 50
#17327808147823068-467: The planes can maintain a normal flight altitude and simply airdrop the supplies down and let them parachute to the ground. However, when the area is too small for this method, as with an isolated base, and/or is too dangerous to land in, a Low-altitude parachute-extraction system drop is used. During disasters and other crises, airlifts are used to support or replace other transport methods to relieve beleaguered civilian populations. Examples include
3127-497: The planes were refueled and ordered to the front, often taking to the air within hours of having arrived. Some aircraft came directly from the USAFE fleet and operated in USAF camouflage , but with Israeli insignia, thus earning the Israeli nickname "Frog". Nine days after the initial attack, Israel launched counterattacks. Thirty-six A-4 Skyhawks from U.S. stocks, staging from Lajes were refueled by SAC KC-135A tankers from Pease Air Force Base , New Hampshire and U.S. Navy tankers from
3186-431: The same general time, the Soviets airlifted 12,500–15,000 tons of supplies, more than half of which went to Syria; they also supplied another 63,000 tons mainly to Syria by means of a sealift. Operation Nickel Grass had immediate and far-reaching effects. Arab members of OPEC had declared they would limit or stop oil shipments to the U.S. and other countries if they supported Israel in the conflict. Holding to their threats,
3245-536: The speed and range of strategic airlifters (which are typically jet -powered), these capabilities are invaluable within war zones. Larger military transport helicopters , such as the CH-47 Chinook and Mil Mi-26 , can also be used to airlift personnel and equipment. Helicopters have the advantage that they do not require a landing strip and that equipment can often be suspended below the aircraft allowing it to be delivered without landing but are fuel inefficient and thus typically have limited range. Hybrid aircraft such as
3304-424: The standard rather than the exception. A GAO study of the operation discussed the shortcomings of the C-141A. As a result, the C-141B was conceived. The A models were sent back to Georgia where they were cut fore and aft of the wing, extended in length by three pallet positions, and refitted for in-flight refueling. Nickel Grass vindicated the USAF decision to purchase the C-5 Galaxy. Since its introduction in 1970,
3363-422: The use of commercial carriers was explored to provide 10–20 flights a day. None of these were willing to accept the job for fear of being refused entry to Arab nations after the war. On 12 October, Nixon decided that no more delays could be allowed, and ordered the USAF to "send everything that can fly." Within nine hours, C-141s and C-5s were en route to Israel. The political maneuvering was not immediately solved by
3422-413: Was during fall of Kabul in August 2021, where 778 flights evacuated 124,334 people over 17 days - 7,300 civilians per day (compared to 2,700 per day airlift of Indians from Kuwait in 1990). The evacuation peaked on August 23, 2021, where over 21,600 civilians were evacuated in a single day. During the fall of Kabul at the end of the War in Afghanistan after the Taliban captured most of Afghanistan in
3481-470: Was undertaken to help improve the position of the Israeli military in the face of a large-scale joint offensive by Egypt and Syria , both of which had been receiving extensive support from the Soviet Union . On 19 October, nearly two weeks after Egypt's Operation Badr , the United States pledged to support Israel's fight against the Arab countries . Earlier, the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) had reached an understanding to use
#781218