GNA victory
201-674: [REDACTED] Government of National Accord [REDACTED] United States (since 1 Aug. 2016) [REDACTED] United Kingdom [REDACTED] Italy [REDACTED] Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant [REDACTED] Fayez al-Sarraj (Head of Unity Government) [REDACTED] Colonel Al-Mahdi Al-Barghathi (GNA Minister of Defense) [REDACTED] Rida Issa (GNA navy commander) Islamist conflict with Libyan National Army ISIL and anti-ISIL operations Factional fighting LNA vs GNA Terror attacks Foreign involvement Peace Process The Battle of Sirte during
402-578: A Neolithic culture had settled into a sedentary way of life there in fortified mudbrick villages, where they supplemented hunting and fishing on the Nile with grain gathering and cattle herding. Neolithic peoples created cemeteries such as R12 . During the fifth millennium BC, migrations from the drying Sahara brought neolithic people into the Nile Valley along with agriculture. The population that resulted from this cultural and genetic mixing developed
603-473: A coup d'état on 11 April 2019 and Bashir's imprisonment. Sudan is currently embroiled in a civil war between two rival factions, the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF), and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF). Islam was Sudan's state religion and Islamic laws were applied from 1983 until 2020 when the country became a secular state . Sudan is a least developed country and among
804-575: A dictator , and was one of the world's longest serving non-royal leaders, ruling for 42 years. He ruled until being overthrown and killed during the 2011 Libyan Civil War , which was part of the wider Arab Spring , with authority transferred to the National Transitional Council then to the elected General National Congress . Since 2011, Libya has been involved in a political and humanitarian crisis , and by 2014, two rival authorities claimed to govern Libya, which led to
1005-684: A reconnaissance mission heralding attacks on enemy targets. In the weeks that followed, US American forces were in the forefront of NATO operations against Libya. More than 8,000 US personnel in warships and aircraft were deployed in the area. At least 3,000 targets were struck in 14,202 strike sorties, 716 of them in Tripoli and 492 in Brega . The US air offensive included flights of B-2 Stealth bombers, each bomber armed with sixteen 2000-pound bombs, flying out of and returning to their base in Missouri in
1206-459: A resistance leader against Italian colonization and became a national hero despite his capture and execution on 16 September 1931. His face is currently printed on the Libyan ten dinar note in memory and recognition of his patriotism. Another prominent resistance leader, Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi (later King Idris I ), Emir of Cyrenaica, continued to lead the Libyan resistance until the outbreak of
1407-508: A second civil war , with parts of Libya split between the Tobruk and Tripoli-based governments as well as various tribal and Islamist militias. The two main warring sides signed a permanent ceasefire in 2020, and a unity government took authority to plan for democratic elections, though political rivalries continue to delay this. In March 2022, the House of Representatives ceased recognising
1608-464: A 30-year-long military dictatorship led by Omar al-Bashir ruled Sudan and committed widespread human rights abuses , including torture, persecution of minorities, alleged sponsorship of global terrorism , and ethnic genocide in Darfur from 2003–2020. Overall, the regime killed an estimated 300,000 to 400,000 people. Protests erupted in 2018, demanding Bashir's resignation, which resulted in
1809-594: A bridge and an intersection in Sirte. In addition, the Libyan Navy secured Sirte's coast and blocked potential escape routes for ISIL via the sea. The following day, street fighting continued to rage in Sirte and heavy clashes took place around the Ouagadougou complex, with GNA forces hitting with artillery fire ISIL positions around the conference centre. On 12 June, GNA forces secured both Sirte's port, airport and
2010-467: A bridge on the city's western outskirts. The next day, fighting was concentrated near the Ouagadougou conference hall, where ISIL held religious instruction sessions, and GNA forces managed to surround the hall. Meanwhile, some ISIL fighters started retreating from Sirte, while PFG forces advanced within 70 kilometers to the east of Sirte and reached the town of Harawa. On 10 June, the GNA captured two barracks,
2211-567: A car bomb. By 16 September, 15 people including nine Libyans, three Koreans, two Indians and a Palestinian had been freed. On 18 September, al-Bunyan al-Marsous launched an offensive against the last ISIL holdouts in Sirte . During the clashes, two car bombs were destroyed, before they could reach pro-GNA fighters. Pro-GNA militias stated they had captured the Social Security headquarters, an ISIL field hospital, Fateh School, Grand Mosque and
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#17327906546322412-402: A costly royal government. The discovery of significant oil reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled one of the world's poorest nations to establish an extremely wealthy state. Although oil drastically improved the Libyan government's finances, popular resentment began to build over the increased concentration of the nation's wealth in the hands of King Idris and
2613-707: A dynastic change, while another one in 1761–1762 resulted in the Hamaj Regency , where the Hamaj (a people from the Ethiopian borderlands) effectively ruled while the Funj sultans were their mere puppets. Shortly afterwards the sultanate began to fragment; by the early 19th century it was essentially restricted to the Gezira. The coup of 1718 kicked off a policy of pursuing a more orthodox Islam, which in turn promoted
2814-681: A four-day border war that came to be known as the Egyptian–Libyan War . Both nations agreed to a ceasefire under the mediation of the Algerian president Houari Boumédiène . Hundreds of Libyans lost their lives in the country's support for Idi Amin 's Uganda in its war against Tanzania . Gaddafi financed various other groups from anti-nuclear movements to Australian trade unions. On 2 March 1977, Libya officially became Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. Libya adopted its plain green national flag on 19 November 1977. The country had
3015-561: A free vote on whether they wished independence or a British withdrawal. A polling process was carried out resulting in the composition of a democratic parliament and Ismail al-Azhari was elected first Prime Minister and led the first modern Sudanese government. On 1 January 1956, in a special ceremony held at the People's Palace, the Egyptian and British flags were lowered and the new Sudanese flag, composed of green, blue and yellow stripes,
3216-525: A full-scale revolt beginning on 17 February . Libya's authoritarian regime led by Muammar Gaddafi put up much more of a resistance compared to the regimes in Egypt and Tunisia. While overthrowing the regimes in Egypt and Tunisia was a relatively quick process, Gaddafi's campaign posed significant stalls on the uprising in Libya. The first announcement of a competing political authority appeared online and declared
3417-460: A hotel. An attempted suicide bombing by ISIL was also thwarted by the militias. 7–10 pro-GNA fighters were reported to be killed, while 30–60 were wounded in the clashes. On 5 September, the media wing of Al-Bunyan Al-Marsous reported that it had captured ISIL pockets in the Jizah neighbourhood including a Wihda Bank branch. On 6 September, the pro-GNA forces captured the buildings of the civil court and
3618-615: A key province of the New Kingdom, economically, politically, and spiritually. Indeed, major pharaonic ceremonies were held at Jebel Barkal near Napata. As an Egyptian colony from the 16th century BC, Nubia ("Kush") was governed by an Egyptian Viceroy of Kush . Resistance to the early eighteenth Dynasty Egyptian rule by neighboring Kush is evidenced in the writings of Ahmose, son of Ebana , an Egyptian warrior who served under Nebpehtrya Ahmose (1539–1514 BC), Djeserkara Amenhotep I (1514–1493 BC), and Aakheperkara Thutmose I (1493–1481 BC). At
3819-411: A law was introduced affirming equality of the sexes and wage parity. In 1971, Gaddafi sponsored the creation of a Libyan General Women's Federation. In 1972, a law was passed criminalizing the marriage of girls under the age of sixteen and making the woman's consent a necessary prerequisite for a marriage. On 25 October 1975, a coup attempt was launched by a group of 20 military officers, mostly from
4020-615: A meeting in Paris. In April 2019, Khalifa Haftar launched Operation Flood of Dignity , in an offensive by the Libyan National Army aimed to seize Western territories from the Government of National Accord (GNA). In June 2019, forces allied to Libya's UN-recognized Government of National Accord successfully captured Gharyan, a strategic town where military commander Khalifa Haftar and his fighters were based. According to
4221-754: A new cabinet. On 14 October 2012, the General National Congress elected former GNC member and human rights lawyer Ali Zeidan as prime minister-designate. Zeidan was sworn in after his cabinet was approved by the GNC. On 11 March 2014, after having been ousted by the GNC for his inability to halt a rogue oil shipment, Prime Minister Zeidan stepped down, and was replaced by Prime Minister Abdullah al-Thani . The Second Civil War began in May 2014 following fighting between rival parliaments with tribal militias and jihadist groups soon taking advantage of
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#17327906546324422-494: A new foothold in the last ISIL-controlled area of the city and advanced further on 6 November. During the fighting, the GNA freed 14 civilians, while a senior GNA commander was killed. On 9 November, after more advances by the GNA, only a few ISIL snipers were estimated to be left in the area still under their control. On 12 November, the GNA stated that it was delaying the final assault because it would result in intense street-to-street fighting. They also stated that they were taking
4623-653: A number of historic sites. On 11 September 2012, Islamist militants mounted an attack on the American diplomatic compound in Benghazi , killing the US ambassador to Libya, J. Christopher Stevens , and three others. The incident generated outrage in the United States and Libya. On 7 October 2012, Libya's Prime Minister-elect Mustafa A.G. Abushagur was ousted after failing a second time to win parliamentary approval for
4824-547: A period of military anarchy during which coup followed coup and few deys survived in office more than a year. One such coup was led by Turkish officer Ahmed Karamanli . The Karamanlis ruled from 1711 until 1835 mainly in Tripolitania, and had influence in Cyrenaica and Fezzan as well by the mid-18th century. Ahmed's successors proved to be less capable than himself, however, the region's delicate balance of power allowed
5025-866: A permanent ceasefire was signed to end the war. Sudan Sudan , officially the Republic of the Sudan , is a country in Northeast Africa . It borders the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, Libya to the northwest, Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the east, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the southeast, and South Sudan to the south. Sudan has a population of 50 million people as of 2024 and occupies 1,886,068 square kilometres (728,215 square miles), making it Africa's third-largest country by area and
5226-420: A permanent constitution." The stated purpose of that process was "...intended to culminate in the creation of a modern, democratic state based on the principle of inclusion, the rule of law, separation of powers and respect for human rights." The SRSG praised the participants for achieving agreement, stating that "The Libyan people have unequivocally expressed themselves in favour of peace." The SRSG then informed
5427-585: A petty kingdom. After the prosperous reign of king Joel ( fl. 1463–1484) Makuria collapsed. Coastal areas from southern Sudan up to the port city of Suakin was succeeded by the Adal Sultanate in the fifteenth century. To the south, the kingdom of Alodia fell to either the Arabs, commanded by tribal leader Abdallah Jamma , or the Funj , an African people originating from the south. Datings range from
5628-456: A police station in Abu Grain, at a crossroad between Sirte and Misrata, killed 10 soldiers and wounded 7. Also, a six-man GNA scouting team in Sirte was killed and their bodies paraded by ISIL. On 21 June, GNA forces secured areas in the "700" neighbourhood, south of the city center, and gained ground to the west of the center of Sirte in the heavily damaged District No. 2. Other gains included:
5829-527: A priority of the revolutionary government. The following year, under Egyptian and Sudanese pressure, the British agreed to Egypt's demand for both governments to terminate their shared sovereignty over Sudan and to grant Sudan independence. On 1 January 1956, Sudan was duly declared an independent state. After Sudan became independent, the Gaafar Nimeiry regime began Islamist rule. This exacerbated
6030-530: A rallying area and a checkpoint, killing at least 10 GNA fighters and wounding 20. Another attack by three IS suicide-bombers was prevented and the attackers killed. Between 21 and 22 August, pro-GNA militias captured the Ribat mosque, the city's biggest and main mosque, as well as the internal security building that was used as an IS prison, a courthouse, the Al-Naga district and Dubai Street. During their advances,
6231-503: A representative mix of utopian socialism and Arab nationalism with a streak of Bedouin supremacy. In February 1977, Libya started delivering military supplies to Goukouni Oueddei and the People's Armed Forces in Chad. The Chadian–Libyan War began in earnest when Libya's support of rebel forces in northern Chad escalated into an invasion . Later that same year, Libya and Egypt fought
Battle of Sirte (2016) - Misplaced Pages Continue
6432-463: A residential area in the east of the city, while fighting was continuing two kilometers from the conference hall. ISIL fighters in the city retreated into a densely built-up area, with snipers taking up positions against the advancing GNA forces. ISIL also started using waves of suicide-bombers to stall approaching GNA forces. Three ISIL suicide car-bombers targeted a field hospital in the west of Sirte, as well as two positions of GNA fighters, including at
6633-737: A revival of the Nubian Empire, which rather continued in the form of a smaller kingdom centred on Napata . The city was raided by the Egyptian c. 590 BC, and sometime soon after to the late-3rd century BC, the Kushite resettled in Meroë . On the turn of the fifth century the Blemmyes established a short-lived state in Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia, probably centred around Talmis ( Kalabsha ), but before 450 they were already driven out of
6834-586: A sizable, populous empire rivaling Egypt. Mentuhotep II , the 21st century BC founder of the Middle Kingdom , is recorded to have undertaken campaigns against Kush in the 29th and 31st years of his reign. This is the earliest Egyptian reference to Kush ; the Nubian region had gone by other names in the Old Kingdom. Under Thutmose I , Egypt made several campaigns south. The Egyptians ruled Kush in
7035-596: A social hierarchy over the next centuries which became the Kingdom of Kerma at 2500 BC. Anthropological and archaeological research indicates that during the predynastic period Nubia and Nagadan Upper Egypt were ethnically and culturally nearly identical, and thus, simultaneously evolved systems of pharaonic kingship by 3300 BC. The Kerma culture was an early civilization centered in Kerma , Sudan. It flourished from around 2500 BC to 1500 BC in ancient Nubia . The Kerma culture
7236-414: A spokesman for GNA forces, Mustafa al-Mejii, dozens of LNA fighters under Haftar were killed, while at least 18 were taken prisoner. In March 2020, UN-backed government of Fayez Al-Sarraj commenced Operation Peace Storm. The government initiated the bid in response to the state of assaults carried by Field Marshal Haftar 's LNA . "We are a legitimate, civilian government that respects its obligations to
7437-415: A step-by-step approach to limit casualties among their ranks, as well as the civilians held as human shields by ISIL. On 16 November, GNA advanced to control the "20" street. The next day, they tightened the siege on the group and found bodies of 11 militants, likely killed in recent clashes. They also destroyed a car bomb and freed three women along with a number of children. By this point, ISIL territory in
7638-583: A suburb of modern-day Khartoum). Still in the sixth century they converted to Christianity. In the seventh century, probably at some point between 628 and 642, Nobatia was incorporated into Makuria. Between 639 and 641 the Muslim Arabs of the Rashidun Caliphate conquered Byzantine Egypt. In 641 or 642 and again in 652 they invaded Nubia but were repelled, making the Nubians one of
7839-640: A workshop for manufacturing explosives. Three pro-GNA fighters were killed, while two ISIL commanders, Hassan al-Karami and Walid Al-Furjan, were confirmed to have been killed in the clashes. Clashes renewed on 22 September, with 10 militants and 9 pro-GNA fighters being killed. Three car bombs were destroyed before reaching their targets, while the spokesman for Misratan militias stated that the militants had been cut off from each other and surrounded in two different areas. Misrata's Central Hospital reported on 23 September that 10 pro-GNA fighters had been killed while 65 were injured during clashes from 22 to 23 September. As
8040-487: Is Arab . The largest city and capital, Tripoli , is located in northwestern Libya and contains over a million of Libya's seven million people. Libya has been inhabited by Berbers since the late Bronze Age as descendants from Iberomaurusian and Capsian cultures. In classical antiquity, the Phoenicians established city-states and trading posts in western Libya, while several Greek cities were established in
8241-627: Is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa . It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east , Sudan to the southeast , Chad to the south , Niger to the southwest , Algeria to the west , and Tunisia to the northwest , as well as maritime borders with Greece , Italy and Malta to the north. Libya comprises three historical regions: Tripolitania , Fezzan , and Cyrenaica . With an area of almost 1.8 million km (700,000 sq mi), it
Battle of Sirte (2016) - Misplaced Pages Continue
8442-478: Is also sometimes referred to as North Sudan to distinguish it from South Sudan . Affad 23 is an archaeological site located in the Affad region of southern Dongola Reach in northern Sudan, which hosts "the well-preserved remains of prehistoric camps (relics of the oldest open-air hut in the world) and diverse hunting and gathering loci some 50,000 years old". By the eighth millennium BC, people of
8643-804: Is mentioned in the Bible as having saved the Israelites from the wrath of the Assyrians, although disease among the besiegers might have been one of the reasons for the failure to take the city. The war that took place between Pharaoh Taharqa and the Assyrian king Sennacherib was a decisive event in western history, with the Nubians being defeated in their attempts to gain a foothold in the Near East by Assyria. Sennacherib's successor Esarhaddon went further and invaded Egypt itself to secure his control of
8844-602: Is now known as South Kordofan to the Sinai. Pharaoh Piye attempted to expand the empire into the Near East but was thwarted by the Assyrian king Sargon II . Between 800 BCE and 100 AD the Nubian pyramids were built, among them can be named El-Kurru , Kashta , Piye , Tantamani , Shabaka , Pyramids of Gebel Barkal , Pyramids of Meroe (Begarawiyah) , the Sedeinga pyramids , and Pyramids of Nuri . The Kingdom of Kush
9045-545: Is the fourth-largest country in Africa and the Arab world , and the 16th-largest in the world . Libya claims 32,000 square kilometres of southeastern Algeria, south of the Libyan town of Ghat . The country's official religion is Islam , with 96.6% of the Libyan population being Sunni Muslims . The official language of Libya is Arabic , with vernacular Libyan Arabic being spoken most widely. The majority of Libya's population
9246-583: The 'Urabi revolt , which threatened the Khedive's survival. Tewfik appealed for help to the British, who subsequently occupied Egypt in 1882. Sudan was left in the hands of the Khedivial government, and the mismanagement and corruption of its officials. During the Khedivial period, dissent had spread due to harsh taxes imposed on most activities. Taxation on irrigation wells and farming lands were so high most farmers abandoned their farms and livestock. During
9447-823: The 10th-largest proven oil reserves in the world. Libya is a member of the United Nations , the Non-Aligned Movement , the African Union , the Arab League , the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , and OPEC . The origin of the name "Libya" first appeared in an inscription of Ramesses II , written as rbw in hieroglyphic. The name derives from a generalized identity given to a large confederacy of ancient east "Libyan" Berbers , North African people(s) and tribes who lived around
9648-536: The 9th century after the Hijra ( c. 1396–1494), the late 15th century, 1504 to 1509. An alodian rump state might have survived in the form of the kingdom of Fazughli , lasting until 1685. In 1504 the Funj are recorded to have founded the Kingdom of Sennar , in which Abdallah Jamma's realm was incorporated. By 1523, when Jewish traveller David Reubeni visited Sudan, the Funj state already extended as far north as Dongola. Meanwhile, Islam began to be preached on
9849-708: The Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in 750, and Libya came under the rule of Baghdad. When Caliph Harun al-Rashid appointed Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab as his governor of Ifriqiya in 800, Libya enjoyed considerable local autonomy under the Aghlabid dynasty. By the 10th century, the Shiite Fatimids controlled Western Libya, and ruled the entire region in 972 and appointed Bologhine ibn Ziri as governor. Ibn Ziri's Berber Zirid dynasty ultimately broke away from
10050-593: The Arabisation of the state. To legitimise their rule over their Arab subjects the Funj began to propagate an Umayyad descend . North of the confluence of the Blue and White Niles, as far downstream as Al Dabbah , the Nubians adopted the tribal identity of the Arab Jaalin . Until the 19th century Arabic had succeeded in becoming the dominant language of central riverine Sudan and most of Kordofan. West of
10251-745: The Bronze Age collapse and the disintegration of the New Kingdom of Egypt ; it was centred at Napata in its early phase. After King Kashta ("the Kushite") invaded Egypt in the eighth century BC, the Kushite kings ruled as pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt for nearly a century before being defeated and driven out by the Assyrians . At the height of their glory, the Kushites conquered an empire that stretched from what
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#173279065463210452-400: The Coptic alphabet , while also using Greek , Coptic and Arabic . Women enjoyed high social status: they had access to education, could own, buy and sell land and often used their wealth to endow churches and church paintings. Even the royal succession was matrilineal , with the son of the king's sister being the rightful heir. From the late 11th/12th century, Makuria's capital Dongola
10653-402: The First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War . By 1819, the various treaties of the Napoleonic Wars had forced the Barbary states to give up piracy almost entirely, and Tripolitania's economy began to crumble. As Yusuf weakened, factions sprung up around his three sons. Civil war soon resulted. Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II sent in troops ostensibly to restore order, marking the end of both
10854-444: The Government of National Unity and proclaimed an alternative government, the Government of National Stability (GNS). Both governments have been functioning simultaneously since then, which has led to dual power in Libya. The international community continues to recognise the unity government as the legitimate government of the country. Libya is a developing country ranking 92nd by HDI, the highest score in mainland Africa, and has
11055-414: The Great Karnak Inscription , the military alliance comprised the Meshwesh , the Lukka , and the "Sea Peoples" known as the Ekwesh , Teresh , Shekelesh , and the Sherden . The Great karnak inscription reads: "... the third season, saying: 'The wretched, fallen chief of Libya, Meryey, son of Ded, has fallen upon the country of Tehenu with his bowmen — Sherden, Shekelesh, Ekwesh, Lukka, Teresh. Taking
11256-444: The Interim Transitional National Council as an alternative government. One of Gaddafi's senior advisors responded by posting a tweet, wherein he resigned, defected, and advised Gaddafi to flee. By 20 February, the unrest had spread to Tripoli. On 27 February 2011, the National Transitional Council was established to administer the areas of Libya under rebel control. On 10 March 2011, the United States and many other nations recognised
11457-422: The Italian Libya colony from 1934 to 1943. During World War II , Libya was an area of warfare in the North African Campaign . The Italian population then went into decline. Libya became independent as a kingdom in 1951. A bloodless military coup in 1969 , initiated by a coalition led by Colonel Muammar Gaddafi , overthrew King Idris I and created a republic . Gaddafi was often described by critics as
11658-443: The Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912), Italy simultaneously turned the three regions into colonies. From 1912 to 1927, the territory of Libya was known as Italian North Africa . From 1927 to 1934, the territory was split into two colonies, Italian Cyrenaica and Italian Tripolitania , run by Italian governors. Some 150,000 Italians settled in Libya, constituting roughly 20% of the total population. Omar Mukhtar rose to prominence as
11859-404: The Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC), and then the resurgent Neo-Assyrian Empire (935–605 BC). The Assyrians , from the tenth century BC onwards, had once more expanded from northern Mesopotamia , and conquered a vast empire, including the whole of the Near East , and much of Anatolia , the eastern Mediterranean , the Caucasus and early Iron Age Iran . According to Josephus Flavius,
12060-519: The National Transitional Council estimated 50,000 wounded. Following the defeat of loyalist forces, Libya was torn among numerous rival, armed militias affiliated with distinct regions, cities and tribes, while the central government had been weak and unable to effectively exert its authority over the country. Competing militias pitted themselves against each other in a political struggle between Islamist politicians and their opponents. On 7 July 2012, Libyans held their first parliamentary elections since
12261-443: The Second Libyan Civil War started in the spring of 2016, in the Sirte District of Libya , between the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) and the loyalist forces of the Government of National Accord (GNA) backed by the United States . ISIL forces had captured Sirte one year earlier, during the previous battle . The conflict for Sirte was described as ISIL's " last stand " in Libya. The latter portion of this battle
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#173279065463212462-493: The Second World War . The so-called " pacification of Libya " by the Italians resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica, killing approximately one quarter of Cyrenaica's population of 225,000. Ilan Pappé estimates that between 1928 and 1932 the Italian military "killed half the Bedouin population (directly or through disease and starvation in Italian concentration camps in Libya )." In 1934, Italy combined Cyrenaica , Tripolitania and Fezzan and adopted
12663-420: The Sudan Defence Force played an active part in responding to incursions early in World War Two. Italian troops occupied Kassala and other border areas from Italian Somaliland during 1940. In 1942, the SDF also played a part in the invasion of the Italian colony by British and Commonwealth forces. The last British governor-general was Robert George Howe . The Egyptian revolution of 1952 finally heralded
12864-491: The Sudanese Communist Party . Several days later, anti-communist military elements restored Nimeiry to power. In 1972, the Addis Ababa Agreement led to a cessation of the north–south civil war and a degree of self-rule. This led to ten years hiatus in the civil war but an end to American investment in the Jonglei Canal project. This had been considered absolutely essential to irrigate the Upper Nile region and to prevent an environmental catastrophe and wide-scale famine among
13065-436: The Tulunids , Ikhshidids , Ayyubids, and Mamluks before Ottoman conquest in 1517. Fezzan acquired independence under Awlad Muhammad dynasty after Kanem rule. Ottomans finally conquered Fezzan between 1556 and 1577. After a successful invasion of Tripoli by Habsburg Spain in 1510, and its handover to the Knights of St. John , the Ottoman admiral Sinan Pasha took control of Libya in 1551. His successor Turgut Reis
13266-415: The United Nations , Arab League , African Union , COMESA , Non-Aligned Movement and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation . The country's name Sudan is a name given historically to the large Sahel region of West Africa to the immediate west of modern-day Sudan. Historically, Sudan referred to both the geographical region , stretching from Senegal on the Atlantic Coast to Northeast Africa and
13467-450: The Vali of Egypt under the Ottoman Empire , Muhammad Ali styled himself as Khedive of a virtually independent Egypt. Seeking to add Sudan to his domains, he sent his third son Ismail (not to be confused with Ismaʻil Pasha mentioned later) to conquer the country, and subsequently incorporate it into Egypt. With the exception of the Shaiqiya and the Darfur sultanate in Kordofan, he was met without resistance. The Egyptian policy of conquest
13668-443: The ancient Greeks colonized the area around Barca in Eastern Libya and founded the city of Cyrene . Within 200 years, four more important Greek cities were established in the area that became known as Cyrenaica . The area was home to the renowned philosophy school of the Cyrenaics . In 525 BC the Persian army of Cambyses II overran Cyrenaica, which for the next two centuries remained under Persian or Egyptian rule. Alexander
13869-479: The 1870s, European initiatives against the slave trade had an adverse impact on the economy of northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of Mahdist forces. Muhammad Ahmad ibn Abd Allah , the Mahdi (Guided One), offered to the ansars (his followers) and those who surrendered to him a choice between adopting Islam or being killed. The Mahdiyah (Mahdist regime) imposed traditional Sharia Islamic laws . On 12 August 1881, an incident occurred at Aba Island , sparking
14070-405: The Abu Hadi roundabout in the southeast of the city. On 13 June, the GNA advance in Sirte slowed as they reached the residential areas near the city center. ISIL fighters were holed up in the central and northern part of Sirte and a GNA counter-attack against ISIL positions at the town's main western entrance, after the suicide bombings the previous day, was repelled. On 16 June, a suicide attack at
14271-402: The Ansar at Tushkah. The failure of the Egyptian invasion broke the spell of the Ansar's invincibility. The Belgians prevented the Mahdi's men from conquering Equatoria , and in 1893, the Italians repelled an Ansar attack at Agordat (in Eritrea ) and forced the Ansar to withdraw from Ethiopia. In the 1890s, the British sought to re-establish their control over Sudan, once more officially in
14472-789: The Bardo Museum in Tunisia on 18 March 2015 was reportedly carried out by two Libyan-trained militants. During 2015 an extended series of diplomatic meetings and peace negotiations were supported by the United Nations, as conducted by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG), Spanish diplomat Bernardino León . UN support for the SRSG-led process of dialogue carried on in addition to
14673-660: The Bedoin of Asia, he sailed upstream to Upper Nubia to destroy the Nubian bowmen." The tomb writings contain two other references to the Nubian bowmen of Kush. By 1200 BC, Egyptian involvement in the Dongola Reach was nonexistent. Egypt's international prestige had declined considerably towards the end of the Third Intermediate Period . Its historical allies, the inhabitants of Canaan , had fallen to
14874-570: The Ben Hamal Mosque, the electricity headquarters and the radio station. During the advance, the GNA positioned themselves within a kilometer from the conference centre. Meanwhile, GNA fighters withdrew from the port, although they still controlled the port road, due to heavy ISIL sniper fire from a nearby hotel. Some 400 to 500 ISIL fighters were operating in the port area. During the advances, GNA fighters suffered heavy casualties with 39 being killed and another 140 wounded. Another report put
15075-598: The British had a policy of running Sudan as two essentially separate territories; the north and south. The assassination of a Governor-General of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in Cairo was the causative factor; it brought demands of the newly elected Wafd government from colonial forces. A permanent establishment of two battalions in Khartoum was renamed the Sudan Defence Force acting as under the government, replacing
15276-666: The East. Parts of Libya were variously ruled by Carthaginians , Numidians , Persians , and Greeks before the entire region becoming a part of the Roman Empire . Libya was an early centre of Christianity . After the fall of the Western Roman Empire , the area of Libya was mostly occupied by the Vandals until the 7th century when invasions brought Islam to the region. From then on, centuries of Arab migration to
15477-722: The GNA captured the largest ISIL bomb factory in Sirte, a hotel in the eastern part of the city, part of the “Dollar” neighbourhood, and the security headquarters. On 1 August 2016, the Pentagon announced the U.S. military effort to support the Libyan government against ISIL would be code-named Operation Odyssey Lightning . On 1 August, at the request of the GNA, the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps Harriers and helicopters launched from USS Wasp (LHD-1) and USS San Antonio , began to bomb Sirte, targeting ISIL tanks and vehicles in support of
15678-470: The GNA discovered a major horde of gold, money and weapons inside the IS security headquarters. In one room, there were boxes of gold, jewelry, wads of Tunisian currency, rifles and shotguns, computers, radios and cartons of telephone cards. On 25 August, GNA's spokesman for the operation Mohamed al-Ghasry stated that ISIL had withdrawn from most of the neighbourhood 3 into a small part of the neighbourhood as well as
15879-493: The GNA forces. The attacks put further pressure on the estimated 1,000 ISIL fighters who remained in the city center. The strikes hit two T-72 tanks, a fighting position and two construction vehicles. The next day, an ISIL rocket launcher and a heavy equipment excavator were also hit. During these airstrikes, another Sudanese ISIL commander, Qusai al-Jaili, was reportedly killed, though other sources said he had died of illness or wounds. Al-Jaili had achieved prominence by masterminding
16080-413: The GNA launched a new attack on the Jizah neighbourhood from the seaside. By this point, about 100 ISIL militants were reportedly left, holding out in the city. The United States also ended its bombing campaign on ISIL in Sirte, after carrying out a total of 367 airstrikes. The United States Department of Defense stated that airstrikes would be resumed if they were needed. On 2 November, GNA forces gained
16281-400: The GNA took control over the al-Wishkah district, 25 km from Abu Grein. and eventually reached nearly 50 kilometers from Sirte. On 19 May, an ISIL suicide bomber attacked GNA forces, 90 kilometers west of Sirte, killing 30 soldiers and wounding 50. In late May, pro-GNA military forces seized many locations near the city of Sirte from ISIL, including the Sirte power station, and advanced on
16482-401: The GNA trying to neutralize a small number of militants still present in the area and rescuing a group of women and children. Sirte was completely captured by pro-GNA militias later in the day. The last holdouts were defeated after heavy clashes earlier in the day and a combing operation on the last 3 ISIL-held buildings where they were barricaded. The last nine militants surrendered to GNA during
16683-421: The GNA was in control of Jizah neighbourhood, while another spokesman, Mohamed al-Gasri, stated that they were besieging the remaining militants. There were premature reports that Sirte had been fully captured by GNA. GNA fighters later confirmed that they still hadn't fully captured Jizah neighbourhood, with ISIL still controlling around 10 buildings. By 6 December, ISIL was in control of less than 10 houses, with
16884-657: The Great ended Persian rule in 331 BC and received tribute from Cyrenaica. Eastern Libya again fell under the control of the Greeks, this time as part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom . After the fall of Carthage the Romans did not immediately occupy Tripolitania (the region around Tripoli), but left it instead under control of the kings of Numidia , until the coastal cities asked and obtained its protection. Ptolemy Apion ,
17085-699: The Great Depression. Cotton and gum exports were dwarfed by the necessity to import almost everything from Britain leading to a balance of payments deficit at Khartoum. In July 1936 the Liberal Constitutional leader, Muhammed Mahmoud was persuaded to bring Wafd delegates to London to sign the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty, "the beginning of a new stage in Anglo-Egyptian relations", wrote Anthony Eden . The British Army
17286-467: The Jizah neighbourhood. On 16 October, the GNA captured the Cambo (al-Manara) neighbourhood, including tunnels and a field hospital, and advanced several hundred metres into Jizah neighbourhood. On 22 October, pro-GNA militias announced they had captured the "600" neighbourhood, leaving only the Jizah area under ISIL control, although the last apartment blocks in the "600" neighbourhood were not cleared until
17487-512: The Karamanli dynasty and an independent Tripolitania. Order was not recovered easily, and the revolt of the Libyan under Abd-El-Gelil and Gûma ben Khalifa lasted until the death of the latter in 1858. The second period of direct Ottoman rule saw administrative changes, and greater order in the governance of the three provinces of Libya. Ottoman rule finally reasserted to Fezzan between 1850 and 1875 for earning income from Saharan commerce. After
17688-417: The Karamanli. The 1793–95 Tripolitanian civil war occurred in those years. In 1793, Turkish officer Ali Pasha deposed Hamet Karamanli and briefly restored Tripolitania to Ottoman rule. Hamet's brother Yusuf (r. 1795–1832) re-established Tripolitania's independence. In the early 19th century war broke out between the United States and Tripolitania, and a series of battles ensued in what came to be known as
17889-580: The Levant. This succeeded, as he managed to expel Taharqa from Lower Egypt. Taharqa fled back to Upper Egypt and Nubia, where he died two years later. Lower Egypt came under Assyrian vassalage but proved unruly, unsuccessfully rebelling against the Assyrians. Then, the king Tantamani , a successor of Taharqa, made a final determined attempt to regain Lower Egypt from the newly reinstated Assyrian vassal Necho I . He managed to retake Memphis killing Necho in
18090-849: The Maghreb shifted the demographic scope of Libya in favour of Arabs . In the 16th century, the Spanish Empire and the Knights of St John occupied Tripoli until Ottoman rule began in 1551 . Libya was involved in the Barbary Wars of the 18th and 19th centuries. Ottoman rule continued until the Italo-Turkish War , which resulted in the Italian occupation of Libya and the establishment of two colonies, Italian Tripolitania and Italian Cyrenaica (1911–1934), later unified in
18291-541: The Mahdist War. In 1899, Britain and Egypt reached an agreement under which Sudan was run by a governor-general appointed by Egypt with British consent. In reality, Sudan was effectively administered as a Crown colony . The British were keen to reverse the process, started under Muhammad Ali Pasha , of uniting the Nile Valley under Egyptian leadership and sought to frustrate all efforts aimed at further uniting
18492-575: The Mahdiyah period, largely because of the Khalifa's brutal methods to extend his rule throughout the country. In 1887, a 60,000-man Ansar army invaded Ethiopia , penetrating as far as Gondar . In March 1889, king Yohannes IV of Ethiopia marched on Metemma ; however, after Yohannes fell in battle, the Ethiopian forces withdrew. Abd ar-Rahman an-Nujumi, the Khalifa's general, attempted an invasion of Egypt in 1889, but British-led Egyptian troops defeated
18693-580: The New kingdom beginning when the Egyptian King Thutmose I occupied Kush and destroyed its capital, Kerma. This eventually resulted in their annexation of Nubia c. 1504 BC . Around 1500 BC, Nubia was absorbed into the New Kingdom of Egypt , but rebellions continued for centuries. After the conquest, Kerma culture was increasingly Egyptianized, yet rebellions continued for 220 years until c. 1300 BC . Nubia nevertheless became
18894-507: The Nile Valley by the Nobatians. The latter eventually founded a kingdom on their own, Nobatia . By the sixth century there were in total three Nubian kingdoms: Nobatia in the north, which had its capital at Pachoras ( Faras ); the central kingdom, Makuria centred at Tungul ( Old Dongola ), about 13 kilometres (8 miles) south of modern Dongola ; and Alodia , in the heartland of the old Kushitic kingdom, which had its capital at Soba (now
19095-412: The Nile by Sufi holy men who settled there in the 15th and 16th centuries and by David Reubeni's visit king Amara Dunqas , previously a Pagan or nominal Christian, was recorded to be Muslim. However, the Funj would retain un-Islamic customs like the divine kingship or the consumption of alcohol until the 18th century. Sudanese folk Islam preserved many rituals stemming from Christian traditions until
19296-514: The Nile to safeguard a planned irrigation dam at Aswan . Herbert Kitchener led military campaigns against the Mahdist Sudan from 1896 to 1898. Kitchener's campaigns culminated in a decisive victory in the Battle of Omdurman on 2 September 1898. A year later, the Battle of Umm Diwaykarat on 25 November 1899 resulted in the death of Abdallahi ibn Muhammad , subsequently bringing to an end
19497-625: The Nile, in Darfur , the Islamic period saw at first the rise of the Tunjur kingdom , which replaced the old Daju kingdom in the 15th century and extended as far west as Wadai . The Tunjur people were probably Arabised Berbers and, their ruling elite at least, Muslims. In the 17th century the Tunjur were driven from power by the Fur Keira sultanate . The Keira state, nominally Muslim since
19698-645: The Ottoman Empire from 1551 to 1911 as the Eyalet of Tripolitania. Libya gained independence in 1951 as the United Libyan Kingdom ( المملكة الليبية المتحدة al-Mamlakah al-Lībiyyah al-Muttaḥidah ), changing its name to the Kingdom of Libya ( المملكة الليبية al-Mamlakah al-Lībiyyah ), literally "Libyan Kingdom", in 1963. Following a coup d'état led by Muammar Gaddafi in 1969,
19899-538: The Ottoman invasion saw the attempted usurpation of Ajib , a minor king of northern Nubia. While the Funj eventually killed him in 1611/1612 his successors, the Abdallab , were granted to govern everything north of the confluence of Blue and White Niles with considerable autonomy. During the 17th century the Funj state reached its widest extent, but in the following century it began to decline. A coup in 1718 brought
20100-432: The Ouagadougou centre, Sirte's Ibn Sina hospital and the university campus. During the fighting, a GNA fighter jet was shot down over Sirte with both pilots missing. By 11 August, 70 percent of Sirte was under GNA control. At this point, the GNA started launching incursions into neighbourhoods 1 and 3, two of the districts that were still IS-held. The following day, bombardment commenced of neighbourhoods 1 and 2. Meanwhile, it
20301-724: The Security Council that "Libya is at a critical stage" and urging "all parties in Libya to continue to engage constructively in the dialogue process", stating that "only through dialogue and political compromise, can a peaceful resolution of the conflict be achieved. A peaceful transition will only succeed in Libya through a significant and coordinated effort in supporting a future Government of National Accord...". Talks, negotiations and dialogue continued on during mid-2015 at various international locations, culminating at Skhirat in Morocco in early September. Also in 2015, as part of
20502-647: The Senussi at a young age. He spent a considerable period of exile in Egypt under Italian rule and returned to Libya after the Axis powers were ousted in 1943. On December 24, 1951, as King Idris I, he addressed the nation via radio from Benghazi . On November 21, 1949, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent before January 1, 1952. Idris represented Libya in
20703-652: The Shiite Fatimids, and recognized the Sunni Abbasids of Baghdad as rightful Caliphs. In retaliation, the Fatimids brought about the migration of thousands from mainly two Arab Qaisi tribes, the Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal to North Africa. This act drastically altered the fabric of the Libyan countryside, and cemented the cultural and linguistic Arabisation of the region. Zirid rule in Tripolitania
20904-508: The UN Security Council passed Resolution 1973 , with a 10–0 vote and five abstentions including Russia, China, India, Brazil and Germany. The resolution sanctioned the establishment of a no-fly zone and the use of "all means necessary" to protect civilians within Libya. On 19 March, the first act of NATO allies to secure the no-fly zone began by destroying Libyan air defenses when French military jets entered Libyan airspace on
21105-531: The US Africa Command announced that 495 precision airstrikes were carried out in and around Sirte and 800 to 900 ISIL fighters were killed during the operation in Sirte between 1 August and 19 December 2016. In addition to the airstrikes, the destroyer USS Carney (DDG-64) fired 285 5-inch shells at ISIL targets throughout the city. Libya Libya , officially the State of Libya ,
21306-469: The United Kingdom as a condominium . In effect, Sudan was governed as a British possession. The Egyptian revolution of 1952 toppled the monarchy and demanded the withdrawal of British forces from all of Egypt and Sudan. Muhammad Naguib , one of the two co-leaders of the revolution and Egypt's first President, was half-Sudanese and had been raised in Sudan. He made securing Sudanese independence
21507-458: The United Nations informed the United Nations that the country's official name was henceforth the "State of Libya"; "Libya" remained the official short form, and the country continued to be listed under "L" in alphabetical lists. The coastal plain of Libya was inhabited by Neolithic peoples from as early as 8000 BC. The Afroasiatic ancestors of the Berber people are assumed to have spread into
21708-426: The advancing forces. Three days later, pro-GNA militias captured the neighbourhood 2 district and started advancing into neighbourhood 1. During the fighting for neighbourhood 2, ISIL fighters launched nine suicide bombings that killed 9 GNA fighters and wounded 82. Following the capture of this area, only neighbourhoods 1 and 3 remained IS-held. On 18 August, ISIL fighters from outside the city attacked GNA fighters at
21909-429: The al-Manara neighbourhood. As of 12 October, the GNA air force and artillery were intermittently bombarding ISIL positions in the "600" neighbourhood. U.S. airstrikes were also being conducted. Overall between 9 and 15 October, at least 22 pro-GNA fighters were killed in clashes, while more than half a dozen militants also died. On 14 October, street-to-street fighting, involving tanks and armoured vehicles, took place in
22110-632: The area by the Late Bronze Age . The earliest known name of such a tribe was the Garamantes , based in Germa . The Phoenicians were the first to establish trading posts in Libya. By the 5th century BC, the greatest of the Phoenician colonies, Carthage , had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa, where a distinctive civilization, known as Punic , came into being. In 630 BC,
22311-630: The area. On 2 December, several women, who pretended to surrender blew themselves up, killing four GNA fighters and wounding 38 others. ISIL had also recaptured a few buildings. The campaign was temporarily halted to preserve the lives of civilians, while a senior militant was arrested and 4 others surrendered. 42 women and children were rescued on the next day, while six militants, who tried to escape, were arrested. The GNA captured nine buildings on 4 December, with 10 women and children leaving ISIL-held area, while 2 militants, who tried to escape, were arrested. On 5 December, GNA spokesman Ridda Issa claimed that
22512-443: The beginning of the march towards Sudanese independence. Having abolished the monarchy in 1953, Egypt's new leaders, Mohammed Naguib , whose mother was Sudanese, and later Gamal Abdel Nasser , believed the only way to end British domination in Sudan was for Egypt to officially abandon its claims of sovereignty. In addition, Nasser knew it would be difficult for Egypt to govern an impoverished Sudan after its independence. The British on
22713-419: The best of every warrior and every man of war of his country. He has brought his wife and his children — leaders of the camp, and he has reached the western boundary in the fields of Perire." The name "Libya" was brought back into use in 1903 by Italian geographer Federico Minutilli. It was intended to supplant terms applied to Ottoman Tripolitania , the coastal region of what is today Libya, having been ruled by
22914-577: The biblical Moses led the Egyptian army in a siege of the Kushite city of Meroe. To end the siege Princess Tharbis was given to Moses as a (diplomatic) bride, and thus the Egyptian army retreated back to Egypt. The Kingdom of Kush was an ancient Nubian state centred on the confluences of the Blue Nile and White Nile , and the Atbarah River and the Nile River . It was established after
23115-512: The city had been reduced to just one square kilometer. About 400 ISIL militants, who had managed to escape Sirte since the beginning of the offensive, were conducting guerrilla attacks behind the frontline. The GNA advanced further on 21 November, capturing a fortified school. They seized a number of barricaded houses on the next day. The United States also resumed its airstrikes on ISIL at this point. Advancing GNA fighters were delayed by booby traps and mines. Some GNA units had to be pulled back from
23316-648: The city of Misrata . This resulted in the arrest and executions of the coup plotters. In March 1977, Libya officially became the "Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya". Gaddafi officially passed power to the General People's Committees and henceforth claimed to be no more than a symbolic figurehead. The new jamahiriya (Arab for "republic") governance structure he established was officially referred to as " direct democracy ". Gaddafi, in his vision of democratic government and political philosophy , published The Green Book in 1975. His short book inscribed
23517-516: The city were killed. The same day, an attack by ISIL militants on a GNA checkpoint from outside Sirte , near Ghardabiya Air Base , in a possible attempt to lift the siege of the city, was repelled. Overall, 80 ISIL and 8 GNA fighters were reported killed during the clashes, while another 57 GNA fighters were wounded. A Dutch photojournalist, Jeroen Oerlemans , who was covering the government-backed offensive against ISIL, also died due to ISIL sniper fire. On 7 October 2016, GNA forces managed to separate
23718-417: The clashes, two suicide bombers targeted them, while a woman, whom they were trying to provide a safe passage, started firing on them instead, before being killed. By 1 December, the territory under ISIL control was reduced to around 50 buildings in the area of two city blocks. By this point, the GNA also closed off all pathways for the militants to escape. Only families, women and children were allowed to exit
23919-596: The command of Amr ibn al-As , the Rashidun army conquered Cyrenaica . In 647 an army led by Abdullah ibn Saad took Tripoli from the Byzantines definitively. The Fezzan was conquered by Uqba ibn Nafi in 663. The Berber tribes of the hinterland accepted Islam, however they resisted Arab political rule. For the next several decades, Libya was under the purview of the Umayyad Caliph of Damascus until
24120-475: The continental United States. The support provided by the NATO air forces contributed to the ultimate success of the revolution. By 22 August 2011, rebel fighters had entered Tripoli and occupied Green Square , which they renamed Martyrs' Square in honour of those killed since 17 February 2011. On 20 October 2011, the last heavy fighting of the uprising came to an end in the city of Sirte . The Battle of Sirte
24321-491: The council headed by Mahmoud Jibril as acting prime minister and as the legitimate representative of the Libyan people and withdrawing the recognition of Gaddafi's regime. Pro-Gaddafi forces were able to respond militarily to rebel pushes in Western Libya and launched a counterattack along the coast toward Benghazi, the de facto centre of the uprising. The town of Zawiya , 48 kilometres (30 mi) from Tripoli,
24522-674: The country and slaves being transported to Egypt and the Ottoman Empire . From the 19th century, the entirety of Sudan was conquered by the Egyptians under the Muhammad Ali dynasty . Religious-nationalist fervour erupted in the Mahdist Uprising in which Mahdist forces were eventually defeated by a joint Egyptian-British military force. In 1899, under British pressure, Egypt agreed to share sovereignty over Sudan with
24723-407: The delay. There were concerns that all of them hadn't been cleared behind the lines as some militants had carried out attacks on pro-GNA troops behind them. On 14 September, four foreigners and two Libyans were freed from ISIL's prisons in Sirte. The foreigners included two North Koreans and two Indians . Meanwhile, AFRICOM carried out airstrikes against ISIL, hitting six positions of the group and
24924-404: The elections, to the consternation of Islamist lawmakers in the GNC, who reconvened and declared a continuing mandate for the GNC, refusing to recognise the new House of Representatives. Armed supporters of the General National Congress occupied Tripoli, forcing the newly elected parliament to flee to Tobruk . In January 2015, meetings were held with the aim to find a peaceful agreement between
25125-693: The end of the Second Intermediate Period (mid-sixteenth century BC), Egypt faced the twin existential threats—the Hyksos in the North and the Kushites in the South. Taken from the autobiographical inscriptions on the walls of his tomb-chapel, the Egyptians undertook campaigns to defeat Kush and conquer Nubia under the rule of Amenhotep I (1514–1493 BC). In Ahmose's writings, the Kushites are described as archers , "Now after his Majesty had slain
25326-673: The end of the civil war, unnamed organized assailants bulldozed a Sufi mosque with graves in the centre of the Libyan capital Tripoli . It was the second such razing of a Sufi site in two days. Numerous acts of vandalism and destruction of heritage were carried out by suspected Islamist militias, including the removal of the Nude Gazelle Statue and the destruction and desecration of World War II-era British grave sites near Benghazi. Many other cases of heritage vandalism were reported to be carried out by Islamist-related radical militias and mobs that either destroyed, robbed, or looted
25527-404: The end of the former regime. On 8 August, the National Transitional Council officially handed power over to the wholly-elected General National Congress , which was then tasked with the formation of an interim government and the drafting of a new Libyan Constitution to be approved in a general referendum . On 25 August 2012, in what Reuters reported as "the most blatant sectarian attack" since
25728-477: The escape of four assassins of U.S. diplomat John Granville from Kober Prison in Khartoum in 2009. By 4 August, “Dollar” was secured. On 7 August, GNA troops showed a small former ISIL training camp with an assault course, along with fox holes, that was taken by GNA forces. On 8 August, the GNA seized an area of guest houses close to the Ouagadougou conference centre. Two days later, GNA forces took control of
25929-533: The few who managed to defeat the Arabs during the Islamic expansion . Afterward the Makurian king and the Arabs agreed on a unique non-aggression pact that also included an annual exchange of gifts , thus acknowledging Makuria's independence. While the Arabs failed to conquer Nubia they began to settle east of the Nile, where they eventually founded several port towns and intermarried with the local Beja . From
26130-437: The first, second and third residential districts and the university campus. On 15 July, heavy clashes erupted around the conference centre leaving 21 GNA soldiers dead and 139 wounded. During the fighting, three ISIL suicide car-bombers, including a Libyan and an Egyptian, hit GNA forces in an unsuccessful counter-attack. GNA fighters managed to enter the conference complex, but had not been able to capture it. Some 10 days later,
26331-638: The former garrison of Egyptian army soldiers, saw action afterward during the Walwal Incident . The Wafdist parliamentary majority had rejected Sarwat Pasha 's accommodation plan with Austen Chamberlain in London; yet Cairo still needed the money. The Sudanese Government's revenue had reached a peak in 1928 at £6.6 million, thereafter the Wafdist disruptions, and Italian borders incursions from Somaliland, London decided to reduce expenditure during
26532-441: The frontline in Jizah neighbourhood, along with two ISIL snipers. On 9 October, GNA forces advanced across two streets in the "600" neighbourhood. The media officer of the Misratan militias stated that they had completely encircled the neighbourhood. Two female militants reportedly surrendered along with their children, in fear of being used as suicide bombers. Another media official reported that pro-GNA fighters had also advanced into
26733-412: The government in Tripoli. European slaves and large numbers of enslaved Blacks transported from Sudan were also a feature of everyday life in Tripoli. In 1551, Turgut Reis enslaved almost the entire population of the Maltese island of Gozo , some 5,000 people, sending them to Libya. In time, real power came to rest with the pasha's corps of janissaries . In 1611 the deys staged a coup against
26934-439: The help primarily of the Baggara of western Sudan, overcame the opposition of the others and emerged as the unchallenged leader of the Mahdiyah. After consolidating his power, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad assumed the title of Khalifa (successor) of the Mahdi, instituted an administration, and appointed Ansar (who were usually Baggara ) as emirs over each of the several provinces. Regional relations remained tense throughout much of
27135-506: The international community, but is committed primarily to its people and has an obligation to protect its citizens," Sarraj said in line with his decision. On 28 August 2020, the BBC Africa Eye and BBC Arabic Documentaries revealed that a drone operated by the United Arab Emirates (UAE) killed 26 young cadets at a military academy in Tripoli , on 4 January. Most of the cadets were teenagers and none of them were armed. The Chinese-made drone Wing Loong II fired Blue Arrow 7 missile, which
27336-431: The last Greek ruler, bequeathed Cyrenaica to Rome, which formally annexed the region in 74 BC and joined it to Crete as a Roman province . As part of the Africa Nova province, Tripolitania was prosperous, and reached a golden age in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, when the city of Leptis Magna , home to the Severan dynasty , was at its height. On the Eastern side, Cyrenaica's first Christian communities were established by
27537-403: The last ISIL-controlled areas in Sirte, after taking control of the dividing line between the "600" neighbourhood and the sea-view Jizah apartment buildings. The control of the dividing line also cut ISIL aid routes. During their advances, the GNA discovered secret tunnels connecting the besieged areas in the city. During the day's fighting, the senior ISIL leader Abu al-Baraa al-Masri was killed on
27738-407: The later establishment of the Tunisian Hafsid Kingdom independent from the Almohads. In the 14th century, the Banu Thabit dynasty ruled Tripolitania before reverting to direct Hafsid control. By the 16th century, the Hafsids became increasingly caught up in the power struggle between Spain and the Ottoman Empire . After Abbasid control was weakened, Cyrenaica was under Egypt-based states such as
27939-399: The lowest income per capita figures globally, it also suffered from one of the highest illiteracy rates. King Idris I, already in his sixties, had no direct heir to succeed him. His cousin, whom he had married in 1932, reportedly experienced numerous miscarriages, and their son, born in 1953, tragically died shortly after birth. Crown Prince Rida, Idris's brother, was the designated heir, but
28140-408: The lush regions of Cyrenaica and Marmarica . An army of 40,000 men and a confederacy of tribes known as "Great Chiefs of the Libu " were led by King Meryey who fought a war against pharaoh Merneptah in year 5 (1208 BCE). This conflict was mentioned in the Great Karnak Inscription in the western delta during the 5th and 6th years of his reign and resulted in a defeat for Meryey. According to
28341-412: The medieval Nubians has been described as " Afro-Byzantine ", but was also increasingly influenced by Arab culture. The state organisation was extremely centralised, being based on the Byzantine bureaucracy of the sixth and seventh centuries. Arts flourished in the form of pottery paintings and especially wall paintings. The Nubians developed an alphabet for their language, Old Nobiin , basing it on
28542-431: The mid eighth to mid eleventh century the political power and cultural development of Christian Nubia peaked. In 747 Makuria invaded Egypt, which at this time belonged to the declining Umayyads , and it did so again in the early 960s, when it pushed as far north as Akhmim . Makuria maintained close dynastic ties with Alodia, perhaps resulting in the temporary unification of the two kingdoms into one state. The culture of
28743-422: The modern Sudan. The name derives from the Arabic bilād as-sūdān ( بلاد السودان ), or "The Land of the Blacks ". The name is one of various toponyms sharing similar etymologies , in reference to the very dark skin of the indigenous people. Prior to this, Sudan was known as Nubia and Ta Nehesi or Ta Seti by Ancient Egyptians named for the Nubian and Medjay archers or bowmen. Since 2011, Sudan
28944-505: The name "Libya" (used by the Ancient Greeks for all of North Africa except Egypt) for the unified colony, with Tripoli as its capital. The Italians emphasized infrastructure improvements and public works. In particular, they greatly expanded Libyan railway and road networks from 1934 to 1940, building hundreds of kilometres of new roads and railways and encouraging the establishment of new industries and dozens of new agricultural villages. In June 1940, Italy entered World War II . Libya became
29145-403: The name of the Egyptian Khedive, but in actuality treating the country as a British colony. By the early 1890s, British, French, and Belgian claims had converged at the Nile headwaters. Britain feared that the other powers would take advantage of Sudan's instability to acquire territory previously annexed to Egypt. Apart from these political considerations, Britain wanted to establish control over
29346-593: The name of the state was changed to the Libyan Arab Republic ( الجمهورية العربية الليبية al-Jumhūriyyah al-'Arabiyyah al-Lībiyyah ). The official name was "Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya" from 1977 to 1986 ( الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية ), and "Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya" ( الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية العظمى , al-Jamāhīriyyah al-'Arabiyyah al-Lībiyyah ash-Sha'biyyah al-Ishtirākiyyah al-'Udmá listen ) from 1986 to 2011. The National Transitional Council , established in 2011, referred to
29547-443: The narrow frontline and were reserved for relieving other fighters. By 22 November, only 50 militants were remaining in a few dozen properties still controlled by ISIL. Between 22 and 24 November, the US conducted more than a dozen airstrikes, hitting 61 ISIL positions. GNA captured 25 houses in addition to a stash of arms on 24 November. On 26 November, GNA managed to take control of around 30 buildings, facing heavy resistance. During
29748-441: The national elite. This discontent continued to mount with the rise of Nasserism and Arab nationalism throughout North Africa and the Middle East . On 1 September 1969, a group of rebel military officers led by Muammar Gaddafi launched a coup d'état against King Idris , which became known as the Al Fateh Revolution. Gaddafi was referred to as the " Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution " in government statements and
29949-495: The next day. On 26 October, GNA militias launched an attack on the Jizah neighbourhood by shelling it with heavy artillery, managing to take control of several residential blocks by the following day. In the fighting between 19 and 26 October, 22 GNA fighters and more than 22 ISIL militants were killed, while 24 foreign hostages were freed by the GNA. Additionally, 24 civilians crossed the frontline into GNA territory, while seven unidentified and burned bodies were found. On 31 October,
30150-415: The night, along with 10 women and children. By the end of the offensive, the United States had carried out 495 airstrikes against the group in Sirte. 21 women and 31 children were released from ISIL-held territory. A total of 12 fighters were killed in the clashes on the last day. On 20 December 2016, AFRICOM formally announced the end of its military operations to help GNA capture Sirte. In September 2017,
30351-505: The northern half of neighbourhood 1. On 28 August, the GNA suffered heavy casualties in fighting while advancing into neighbourhood 1 and 3. Five car bombs were deployed by the militants in the battle though at least one was destroyed before it could reach its target. Hospitals in Sirte reported that 35 GNA fighters died and 150 more were wounded. U.S. and Libyan warplanes bombarded ISIL-held neighbourhoods in Sirte overnight. The Cordoba mosque which ISIL had renamed to Abu Musab Zarqawi mosque
30552-447: The number of GNA dead at more than 40. On 1 July, ISIL fighters were driven out of the "100" and "700" neighbourhoods and GNA forces had surrounded the conference hall. ISIL fighters were also still holed up at a nearby hospital, with snipers and landmines slowing the GNA's progress. The next day, the GNA captured the city center, or at least part of it, as well as the harbor. By 7 July, Mirghani Badawi al-Bashir, nicknamed "Abu-al-Harith",
30753-422: The official Libyan press. He began dominating history and politics of Libya for the next four decades. Moving to reduce Italian influence, in October 1970 all Italian-owned assets were expropriated and the 12,000-strong Italian community was expelled from Libya alongside the smaller community of Italian Libyan Jews . The day became a national holiday known as "Vengeance Day". Libya's increase in prosperity
30954-594: The ongoing support from the international community, the UN Human Rights Council requested a report about the Libyan situation and the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Zeid Ra'ad Al Hussein , established an investigative body (OIOL) to report on human rights and rebuilding the Libyan justice system. Chaos-ridden Libya emerged as a major transit point for people trying to reach Europe . Between 2013 and 2018, nearly 700,000 migrants reached Italy by boat, many of them from Libya. In May 2018 Libya's rival leaders agreed to hold parliamentary and presidential elections following
31155-416: The only plain-coloured flag in the world until 2011, when Libya adopted its current flag. From 1977 onward, per capita income in the country rose to more than US$ 11,000, the fifth-highest in Africa, while the Human Development Index became the highest in Africa and greater than that of Saudi Arabia . This was achieved without borrowing any foreign loans, keeping Libya debt-free . The Great Manmade River
31356-485: The other hand continued their political and financial support for the Mahdist successor, Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi , who it was believed would resist Egyptian pressure for Sudanese independence. Abd al-Rahman was capable of this, but his regime was plagued by political ineptitude, which garnered a colossal loss of support in northern and central Sudan. Both Egypt and Britain sensed a great instability fomenting, and thus opted to allow both Sudanese regions, north and south to have
31557-437: The outbreak of what became the Mahdist War . From his announcement of the Mahdiyya in June 1881 until the fall of Khartoum in January 1885, Muhammad Ahmad led a successful military campaign against the Turco-Egyptian government of the Sudan, known as the Turkiyah . Muhammad Ahmad died on 22 June 1885, a mere six months after the conquest of Khartoum. After a power struggle amongst his deputies, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad , with
31758-405: The pasha, and Dey Sulayman Safar was appointed as head of government. For the next hundred years, a series of deys effectively ruled Tripolitania. The two most important Deys were Mehmed Saqizli (r. 1631–49) and Osman Saqizli (r. 1649–72), both also Pasha, who ruled effectively the region. The latter conquered also Cyrenaica. Lacking direction from the Ottoman government, Tripoli lapsed into
31959-405: The poorest countries in the world, ranking 170th on the Human Development Index as of 2024 and 185th by nominal GDP per capita . Its economy largely relies on agriculture due to international sanctions and isolation, as well as a history of internal instability and factional violence. The large majority of Sudan is dry and over 60% of Sudan's population lives in poverty. Sudan is a member of
32160-536: The power vacuum. Most notably, radical Islamist fighters seized Derna in 2014 and Sirte in 2015 in the name of the Islamic State . In February 2015, neighbouring Egypt launched airstrikes against IS in support of the Tobruk government. In June 2014, elections were held to the House of Representatives , a new legislative body intended to take over from the General National Congress . The elections were marred by violence and low turnout, with voting stations closed in some areas. Secularists and liberals did well in
32361-409: The process and besieged cities in the Nile Delta. Ashurbanipal , who had succeeded Esarhaddon, sent a large army in Egypt to regain control. He routed Tantamani near Memphis and, pursuing him, sacked Thebes . Although the Assyrians immediately departed Upper Egypt after these events, weakened, Thebes peacefully submitted itself to Necho's son Psamtik I less than a decade later. This ended all hopes of
32562-427: The recent past. Soon the Funj came in conflict with the Ottomans , who had occupied Suakin c. 1526 and eventually pushed south along the Nile, reaching the third Nile cataract area in 1583/1584. A subsequent Ottoman attempt to capture Dongola was repelled by the Funj in 1585. Afterwards, Hannik , located just south of the third cataract, would mark the border between the two states. The aftermath of
32763-425: The region, which was thin on the ground. The British ambassador blocked Italian attempts to secure a Non-Aggression Treaty with Egypt-Sudan. But Mahmoud was a supporter of the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem ; the region was caught between the Empire's efforts to save the Jews, and moderate Arab calls to halt migration. The Sudanese Government was directly involved militarily in the East African Campaign . Formed in 1925,
32964-508: The reign of Sulayman Solong (r. c. 1660–1680), was initially a small kingdom in northern Jebel Marra , but expanded west- and northwards in the early 18th century and eastwards under the rule of Muhammad Tayrab (r. 1751–1786), peaking in the conquest of Kordofan in 1785. The apogee of this empire, now roughly the size of present-day Nigeria , would last until 1821. In 1821, the Ottoman ruler of Egypt, Muhammad Ali of Egypt , invaded and conquered northern Sudan. Although technically
33165-427: The removal of some aspects of foreign control in 1947. Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the Allies , Italy relinquished all claims to Libya. A national assembly crafted a constitution that established a monarchy and extended an offer for the throne to Sayyid Idris , the Emir of Cyrenaica . Sayyid Idris held the esteemed position as the leader of the influential Senussi religious brotherhood , which
33366-466: The rift between the Islamic North, the seat of the government, and the Animists and Christians in the South. Differences in language, religion, and political power erupted in a civil war between government forces, influenced by the National Islamic Front (NIF), and the southern rebels, whose most influential faction was the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), which eventually led to the independence of South Sudan in 2011. Between 1989 and 2019,
33567-452: The rival parties in Libya. The so-called Geneva-Ghadames talks were supposed to bring the GNC and the Tobruk government together at one table to find a solution of the internal conflict. However, the GNC actually never participated, a sign that internal division not only affected the "Tobruk Camp", but also the "Tripoli Camp". Meanwhile, terrorism within Libya steadily increased, also affecting neighbouring countries. The terrorist attack against
33768-411: The royal family was riddled with incessant disputes. King Idris's devout Muslim piety, which solidified his support among the Bedouin population , clashed with the modernizing and urban intellectual currents in Libya. To address the rivalry between Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, Benghazi and Tripoli alternated as the capital every two years. The swift emergence of a large number of bureaucrats resulted in
33969-407: The savings bank in neighbourhood 3 in addition to an ammunition stockpile belonging to the militants containing mines, explosives and warheads. On 8 September, pro-GNA forces stated that ISIL was using civilians as human shields which was delaying the advancement of pro-GNA fighters. Some days later, they also pointed out that the slipping away of some militants as pro-GNA militias advanced was behind
34170-457: The setting for the hard-fought North African Campaign that ultimately ended in defeat for Italy and its German ally in 1943. From 1943 to 1951, Libya was under Allied occupation . The British military administered the two former Italian Libyan provinces of Tripolitana and Cyrenaïca, while the French administered the province of Fezzan. In 1944, Idris returned from exile in Cairo but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until
34371-425: The situation for the besieged ISIL forces became increasingly dire, media reports started to emerge that ISIL began to employ female fighters as snipers in an extremely unusual move for the militant group. Between 25 and 26 September, AFRICOM carried out airstrikes on an ISIL supply point and other positions around the "600 Buildings" neighbourhood. On 2 October 2016, a group of ISIL militants who attempted to escape
34572-404: The state as simply "Libya". The UN formally recognized the country as "Libya" in September 2011 based on a request from the Permanent Mission of Libya citing the Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration of 3 August 2011. In November 2011, the ISO 3166-1 was altered to reflect the new country name "Libya" in English, "Libye (la)" in French. In December 2017 the Permanent Mission of Libya to
34773-409: The subsequent UN negotiations. By December 24, 1951, Libya declared its independence as the United Kingdom of Libya , a constitutional and hereditary monarchy under King Idris . However, the new kingdom faced challenging prospects. It lacked significant industry and agricultural resources. The kingdom's primary exports consisted of hides, wool, horses, and ostrich feathers. Despite having one of
34974-467: The third-largest by area in the Arab League . It was the largest country by area in Africa and the Arab League until the secession of South Sudan in 2011 ; since then both titles have been held by Algeria . Sudan's capital and most populous city is Khartoum . The area that is now Sudan witnessed the Khormusan ( c. 40000–16000 BC), Halfan culture ( c. 20500–17000 BC), Sebilian ( c. 13000–10000 BC), Qadan culture ( c. 15000–5000 BC),
35175-439: The time of the Emperor Claudius . It was heavily devastated during the Kitos War and almost depopulated of Greeks and Jews alike. Although repopulated by Trajan with military colonies, from then started its decline. Libya was early to convert to Nicene Christianity and was the home of Pope Victor I ; however, Libya was also home to many non-Nicene varieties of early Christianity, such as Arianism and Donatism . Under
35376-426: The town of Jarif to the south of Sirte. Also in late May, the eastern front of Sirte saw action. The Petroleum Facilities Guard (PFG) captured the towns of Bin Jawad and Noufiliyah from ISIL. On 4 June, GNA forces captured the Ghardabiya Air Base , 10–20 kilometers south of Sirte's center. However, ISIL recaptured the air base the following day. On 8 June, GNA fighters entered Sirte for the first time after capturing
35577-401: The two countries. Under the Delimitation, Sudan's border with Abyssinia was contested by raiding tribesmen trading slaves, breaching boundaries of the law. In 1905 local chieftain Sultan Yambio, reluctant to the end, gave up the struggle with British forces that had occupied the Kordofan region, finally ending the lawlessness. Ordinances published by Britain enacted a system of taxation. This
35778-405: The usual work of the United Nations Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL). In July 2015 SRSG Leon reported to the UN Security Council on the progress of the negotiations, which at that point had just achieved a political agreement on 11 July setting out "a comprehensive framework... includ[ing] guiding principles... institutions and decision-making mechanisms to guide the transition until the adoption of
35979-430: The war of Jebel Sahaba , the earliest known war in the world, around 11500 BC, A-Group culture (c. 3800–3100 BC), Kingdom of Kerma ( c. 2500–1500 BC), the Egyptian New Kingdom ( c. 1500–1070 BC), and the Kingdom of Kush ( c. 785 BC – 350 AD). After the fall of Kush, the Nubians formed the three Christian kingdoms of Nobatia , Makuria , and Alodia . Between the 14th and 15th centuries, most of Sudan
36180-408: Was accompanied by increased internal political repression, and political dissent was made illegal under Law 75 of 1973. Widespread surveillance of the population was carried out through Gaddafi's Revolutionary Committees. Gaddafi also wanted to ease the strict social restrictions imposed on women by the previous regime, establishing the Revolutionary Women's Formation to encourage reform. In 1970,
36381-588: Was allowed to return to Sudan to protect the Canal Zone. They were able to find training facilities, and the RAF was free to fly over Egyptian territory. It did not, however, resolve the problem of Sudan: the Sudanese Intelligentsia agitated for a return to metropolitan rule, conspiring with Germany's agents. Italian fascist leader Benito Mussolini made it clear that he could not invade Abyssinia without first conquering Egypt and Sudan; they intended unification of Italian Libya with Italian East Africa . The British Imperial General Staff prepared for military defence of
36582-472: Was also built to allow free access to fresh water across large parts of the country. In addition, financial support was provided for university scholarships and employment programs. Much of Libya's income from oil, which soared in the 1970s, was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring dozens of paramilitaries and terrorist groups around the world. An American airstrike led by then US president Ronald Reagan intended to kill Gaddafi failed in 1986. Libya
36783-425: Was based in the southern part of Nubia, or " Upper Nubia " (in parts of present-day northern and central Sudan), and later extended its reach northward into Lower Nubia and the border of Egypt. The polity seems to have been one of several Nile Valley states during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt . In the Kingdom of Kerma's latest phase, lasting from about 1700–1500 BC, it absorbed the Sudanese kingdom of Saï and became
36984-443: Was bombarded by air force planes and army tanks and seized by Jamahiriya troops , "exercising a level of brutality not yet seen in the conflict." Organizations of the United Nations, including United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and the United Nations Human Rights Council , condemned the crackdown as violating international law, with the latter body expelling Libya outright in an unprecedented action. On 17 March 2011
37185-410: Was both the last decisive battle and the last one in general of the First Libyan Civil War where Gaddafi was captured and killed by NATO -backed forces on 20 October 2011. Sirte was the last Gaddafi loyalist stronghold and his place of birth. The defeat of loyalist forces was celebrated on 23 October 2011, three days after the fall of Sirte. At least 30,000 Libyans died in the civil war. In addition,
37386-445: Was captured on the same day along with other areas of neighbourhood 3. GNA militias announced the next day that they had completely captured neighbourhood 1 with ISIL still controlling half of neighbourhood 3. 10 GNA fighters were killed during the clashes while 12 were wounded. On 3 September, pro-GNA militias launched an offensive on the last-ISIL held areas of Sirte and stated they had captured several buildings including two banks and
37587-548: Was concurrent with the Battle of Mosul against ISIL in Iraq , with the Raqqa campaign by the Syrian Democratic Forces on ISIL's de facto capital in Syria , and with the Battle of al-Bab in northern Syria . The offensive on Sirte launched on 12 May 2016, under the name “Al-Bunyan Al-Marsoos,” variously translated as "Impenetrable Wall" or "Solid Foundation." Fighting took place east of Assdada, around 80 km (50 miles) south of Misrata . On 16 May, GNA military forces recaptured Abu Grein from ISIL militants. The next day,
37788-445: Was confirmed the GNA also took control of the Amina Hotel, the police academy building and the Al-Giza military zone. On 12 August, the GNA announced the beginning of the final battle, dubbed Macmadas , to completely capture Sirte. On the next day, the city's radio station and the "Indian" buildings were captured by the GNA as they advanced into neighbourhood 2. During the fighting, there was an attempted ISIL suicide bomb attack against
37989-469: Was expanded and intensified by Ibrahim Pasha 's son, Ismaʻil, under whose reign most of the remainder of modern-day Sudan was conquered. The Egyptian authorities made significant improvements to the Sudanese infrastructure (mainly in the north), especially with regard to irrigation and cotton production. In 1879, the Great Powers forced the removal of Ismail and established his son Tewfik Pasha in his place. Tewfik's corruption and mismanagement resulted in
38190-438: Was finally put under sanctions by the United Nations after the bombing of a commercial flight at Lockerbie in 1988 killed 270 people. In the 1990s, the government's rule was threatened by militant Islamism and an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate Gaddafi. The government responded with repressive measures. Riots and Islamic activisim were crushed by Revolutionary Guard Corps . Nevertheless, Cyrenaica between 1995 and 1998
38391-417: Was following the precedent set by the Khalifa. The main taxes were recognized. These taxes were on land, herds, and date-palms. The continued British administration of Sudan fuelled an increasingly strident nationalist backlash, with Egyptian nationalist leaders determined to force Britain to recognise a single independent union of Egypt and Sudan. With a formal end to Ottoman rule in 1914, Sir Reginald Wingate
38592-415: Was founded by his grandfather in the preceding century as a response to Western influence in the Arab world . This devout Islamic movement garnered significant support from the desert Bedouin and became a major political force in Libya. During the declining years of the Ottoman Empire , it effectively governed the Libyan interior. Born in an oasis in Cyrenaica in 1890, Sayyid Idris assumed leadership of
38793-468: Was gradually settled by Arab nomads . From the 16th to the 19th centuries, central and eastern Sudan were dominated by the Funj sultanate , while Darfur ruled the west and the Ottomans the east. In 1811, Mamluks established a state at Dunqulah as a base for their slave trading . Under Turco-Egyptian rule of Sudan after the 1820s, the practice of trading slaves was entrenched along a north–south axis, with slave raids taking place in southern parts of
38994-399: Was in decline, and Alodia's capital declined in the 12th century as well. In the 14th and 15th centuries Bedouin tribes overran most of Sudan, migrating to the Butana , the Gezira , Kordofan and Darfur . In 1365 a civil war forced the Makurian court to flee to Gebel Adda in Lower Nubia , while Dongola was destroyed and left to the Arabs. Afterwards Makuria continued to exist only as
39195-442: Was killed by a drone strike. A leading local ISIL commander and a prominent Sudanese preacher, Mirghani's death was regarded as heavy blow to ISIL by experts. On 9 July, a mass grave was discovered by GNA forces on a farm on the southern edge of Sirte. The next day, an ISIL ammunition store was hit in the city center by ground fire, while more air-strikes hit other ISIL positions. In turn, ISIL fired Grad missiles at GNA positions in
39396-428: Was named the Bey of Tripoli and later Pasha of Tripoli in 1556. By 1565, administrative authority as regent in Tripoli was vested in a pasha appointed directly by the sultan in Constantinople / Istanbul . In the 1580s, the rulers of Fezzan gave their allegiance to the sultan, and although Ottoman authority was absent in Cyrenaica , a bey was stationed in Benghazi late in the next century to act as agent of
39597-443: Was operated from UAE-run Al-Khadim Libyan air base. In February, these drones stationed in Libya were moved to an air base near Siwa in the western Egyptian desert. The Guardian probed and discovered the blatant violation of UN arms embargo by the UAE and Turkey on 7 October 2020. As per the reporting, both the nations sent large-scale military cargo planes to Libya in support of their respective parties. On 23 October 2020,
39798-436: Was politically unstable, due to the tribal allegiances of the local troops. In 2003, Gaddafi announced that all of his regime's weapons of mass destruction were disassembled, and that Libya was transitioning toward nuclear power . The first civil war came during the Arab Spring movements which overturned the rulers of Tunisia and Egypt . Libya first experienced protests against Gaddafi's regime on 15 February 2011, with
39999-420: Was raised in their place by the prime minister Ismail al-Azhari . Dissatisfaction culminated in a coup d'état on 25 May 1969. The coup leader, Col. Gaafar Nimeiry , became prime minister, and the new regime abolished parliament and outlawed all political parties. Disputes between Marxist and non-Marxist elements within the ruling military coalition resulted in a briefly successful coup in July 1971 , led by
40200-469: Was sent that December to occupy Sudan as the new Military Governor. Hussein Kamel was declared Sultan of Egypt and Sudan , as was his brother and successor, Fuad I . They continued upon their insistence of a single Egyptian-Sudanese state even when the Sultanate of Egypt was retitled as the Kingdom of Egypt and Sudan , but it was Saad Zaghloul who continued to be frustrated in the ambitions until his death in 1927. From 1924 until independence in 1956,
40401-443: Was short-lived though, and already in 1001 the Berbers of the Banu Khazrun broke away. Tripolitania remained under their control until 1146, when the region was overtaken by the Normans of Sicily . For the next 50 years, Tripolitania was the scene of numerous battles among Ayyubids , the Almohad rulers and insurgents of the Banu Ghaniya . Later, a general of the Almohads, Muhammad ibn Abu Hafs, ruled Libya from 1207 to 1221 before
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