101-567: Baltic coast 4–10 September Northern Front Southern Front The Worek Plan (or Operation Worek , Polish : Plan Worek , literally Plan Sack ) was an operation of the Polish Navy in the first days of World War II , in which its five submarines formed a screen in order to prevent German naval forces from carrying out landings on the Polish coast, and to attack enemy ships bombarding Polish coastal fortifications, in particular
202-499: A / (spelled a ), / ɔ / (spelled o ) and / u / (spelled u and ó as separate letters). The nasal vowels are / ɛ w̃ / (spelled ę ) and / ɔ w̃ / (spelled ą ). Unlike Czech or Slovak, Polish does not retain phonemic vowel length — the letter ó , which formerly represented lengthened /ɔː/ in older forms of the language, is now vestigial and instead corresponds to /u/. The Polish consonant system shows more complexity: its characteristic features include
303-771: A dialect of Polish. Many Silesians consider themselves a separate ethnicity and have been advocating for the recognition of Silesian as a regional language in Poland . The law recognizing it as such was passed by the Sejm and Senate in April 2024, but has been vetoed by President Andrzej Duda in late May of 2024. According to the last official census in Poland in 2011, over half a million people declared Silesian as their native language. Many sociolinguists (e.g. Tomasz Kamusella , Agnieszka Pianka, Alfred F. Majewicz, Tomasz Wicherkiewicz ) assume that extralinguistic criteria decide whether
404-669: A few culturally and linguistically related tribes from the basins of the Vistula and Oder before eventually accepting baptism in 966. With Western Christianity , Poland also adopted the Latin alphabet , which made it possible to write down Polish, which until then had existed only as a spoken language . The closest relatives of Polish are the Elbe and Baltic Sea Lechitic dialects ( Polabian and Pomeranian varieties). All of them, except Kashubian , are extinct. The precursor to modern Polish
505-467: A large number of branches in all of these areas) offers services available in Polish at all of their cash machines in addition to English and Spanish . According to the 2011 census there are now over 500,000 people in England and Wales who consider Polish to be their "main" language. In Canada , there is a significant Polish Canadian population : There are 242,885 speakers of Polish according to
606-543: A large number of loanwords and similar grammatical structures. Extensive usage of nonstandard dialects has also shaped the standard language ; considerable colloquialisms and expressions were directly borrowed from German or Yiddish and subsequently adopted into the vernacular of Polish which is in everyday use. Historically, Polish was a lingua franca , important both diplomatically and academically in Central and part of Eastern Europe . In addition to being
707-543: A lect is an independent language or a dialect: speakers of the speech variety or/and political decisions, and this is dynamic (i.e. it changes over time). Also, research organizations such as SIL International and resources for the academic field of linguistics such as Ethnologue , Linguist List and others, for example the Ministry of Administration and Digitization recognized the Silesian language. In July 2007,
808-488: A maximum draft of 4.23 meters (13 ft 11 in). She displaced 2,239 long tons (2,275 t ) at standard and 3,165 long tons (3,216 t) at deep load . The Wagner geared steam turbines were designed to produce 70,000 metric horsepower (51,000 kW ; 69,000 shp ) which would propel the ship at 36 knots (67 km/h ; 41 mph ). Steam was provided to the turbines by six high-pressure Benson boilers with superheaters . Friedrich Ihn carried
909-631: A maximum of 752 metric tons (740 long tons) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4,400 nautical miles (8,100 km; 5,100 mi) at 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph), but the ship proved top-heavy in service and 30% of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship. The effective range proved to be only 1,530 nmi (2,830 km; 1,760 mi) at 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). The ship's crew consisted of 10 officers and 315 sailors. Friedrich Ihn carried five 12.7 cm SK C/34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft. The fifth gun
1010-465: A mine placed by the Żbik did sink a German minesweeper . No Polish submarines were lost to enemy action, but they suffered progressive wear and tear, and technical problems, forcing the submarine commanders to break off their actions, effectively ending the operation by the middle of September 1939. The plan was created for the five Polish submarines Orzeł (Eagle), Wilk (Wolf), Sęp (Vulture), Żbik (Wild Cat) and Ryś (Lynx) to use in
1111-454: A nasal consonant, rather than a nasal vowel. For example, ą in dąb ("oak") is pronounced [ɔm] , and ę in tęcza ("rainbow") is pronounced [ɛn] (the nasal assimilates to the following consonant). When followed by l or ł (for example przyjęli , przyjęły ), ę is pronounced as just e . When ę is at the end of the word it is often pronounced as just [ɛ] . Depending on
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#17327731898911212-607: A partial "Barbara" anti-aircraft refit where twin 2 cm mounts replaced her singles, giving her a total of eighteen 2 cm barrels. Friedrich Ihn , named after the commander of the torpedo boat S35 , who was killed during the Battle of Jutland in 1916, was ordered on 19 January 1935 from Blohm & Voss . She was laid down at their shipyard in Hamburg on 30 May 1935 as yard number B503, launched on 5 November 1935 and completed on 6 April 1938. The ship participated in
1313-502: A single torpedo at the German destroyer Z14 Friedrich Ihn from 400 yards out. The torpedo missed and the destroyer dropped depth charges, severely damaging the submarine. The next day the German submarine U-14 (1935) launched a torpedo at Sep , but it exploded prematurely. On 4 September Orzel' s captain, Lieutenant Commander Henryk Kłoczkowski, deemed it impossible to continue with the operation in his sector, and decided to withdraw into
1414-491: A single word. This applies in particular to many combinations of preposition plus a personal pronoun, such as do niej ('to her'), na nas ('on us'), prze ze mnie ('because of me'), all stressed on the bolded syllable. The Polish alphabet derives from the Latin script but includes certain additional letters formed using diacritics . The Polish alphabet was one of three major forms of Latin-based orthography developed for Western and some South Slavic languages,
1515-628: A small maintenance crew aboard to preserve their value. The Allied Tripartite Commission allocated Ihn to the Soviet Union at the end of 1945. By this time she had developed some problems with her boilers and the British proposed to swap her for Theodor Reidel to avoid forcing the Soviets to wait for her to be repaired. They refused and Ihn was repaired more quickly than had been estimated with additional spare boiler parts loaded aboard for
1616-505: A straggler from QP 8 later that afternoon and sank her. Tirpitz rejoined them shortly afterwards and Ciliax ordered Ihn to Harstad to refuel. The destroyer rejoined the battleship in the morning and was able to shoot down one of five Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers from the aircraft carrier HMS Victorious that unsuccessfully attacked the German ships at 10:20. Two hours later both ships arrived back in port. By May, Ihn
1717-405: A verse by Jan Brzechwa ) is W Szczebrzeszynie chrząszcz brzmi w trzcinie [fʂt͡ʂɛbʐɛˈʂɨɲɛ ˈxʂɔw̃ʂt͡ʂ ˈbʐmi fˈtʂt͡ɕiɲɛ] ('In Szczebrzeszyn a beetle buzzes in the reed'). Unlike languages such as Czech, Polish does not have syllabic consonants – the nucleus of a syllable is always a vowel. The consonant /j/ is restricted to positions adjacent to a vowel. It also cannot precede
1818-478: A vowel when it precedes another vowel (it represents /j/ , palatalization of the preceding consonant, or both depending on analysis). Also the letters u and i sometimes represent only semivowels when they follow another vowel, as in autor /ˈawtɔr/ ('author'), mostly in loanwords (so not in native nauka /naˈu.ka/ 'science, the act of learning', for example, nor in nativized Mateusz /maˈte.uʂ/ 'Matthew'). Some loanwords , particularly from
1919-447: Is possible to say ko goście zoba czy li? – here kogo retains its usual stress (first syllable) in spite of the attachment of the clitic. Reanalysis of the endings as inflections when attached to verbs causes the different colloquial stress patterns. These stress patterns are considered part of a "usable" norm of standard Polish - in contrast to the "model" ("high") norm. Some common word combinations are stressed as if they were
2020-524: Is the Old Polish language . Ultimately, Polish descends from the unattested Proto-Slavic language. The Book of Henryków (Polish: Księga henrykowska , Latin : Liber fundationis claustri Sanctae Mariae Virginis in Heinrichau ), contains the earliest known sentence written in the Polish language: Day, ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai (in modern orthography: Daj, uć ja pobrusza, a ti pocziwaj ;
2121-529: Is the most widely-used minority language in Lithuania's Vilnius County , by 26% of the population, according to the 2001 census results, as Vilnius was part of Poland from 1922 until 1939. Polish is found elsewhere in southeastern Lithuania. In Ukraine, it is most common in the western parts of Lviv and Volyn Oblasts , while in West Belarus it is used by the significant Polish minority, especially in
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#17327731898912222-430: The kropka (superior dot) over the letter ż , and the ogonek ("little tail") under the letters ą, ę . The letters q, v, x are used only in foreign words and names. Polish orthography is largely phonemic —there is a consistent correspondence between letters (or digraphs and trigraphs ) and phonemes (for exceptions see below). The letters of the alphabet and their normal phonemic values are listed in
2323-401: The ś in święty ("holy") all represent the sound / ɕ / . The exceptions to the above rule are certain loanwords from Latin, Italian, French, Russian or English—where s before i is pronounced as s , e.g. sinus , sinologia , do re mi fa sol la si do , Saint-Simon i saint-simoniści , Sierioża , Siergiej , Singapur , singiel . In other loanwords
2424-517: The Baltic Sea . The submarine was attacked by the German minesweepers M3 and M4 . One depth charge exploded just above Orzel , knocking out all lights and sending it crashing into the sea bed. The submarine escaped that night under the cover of darkness. Faced with an oil leak, Kłoczkowski chose to seek refuge in Tallinn , Estonia . The next day Wilk attempted to lay mines off of Hel , but
2525-803: The Bay of Biscay for several months. She remained in Germany for the rest of the year after returning in July. The ship was transferred to France in early 1942 to escort the capital ships as they sailed through the English Channel to return to Germany (the Channel Dash ). Ihn was then transferred to Norway where she participated in several unsuccessful attacks on convoys to the Soviet Union . Afterwards she returned to Germany and remained there for
2626-596: The Brest and Grodno regions and in areas along the Lithuanian border. There are significant numbers of Polish speakers among Polish emigrants and their descendants in many other countries. In the United States , Polish Americans number more than 11 million but most of them cannot speak Polish fluently. According to the 2000 United States Census , 667,414 Americans of age five years and over reported Polish as
2727-669: The German Bight to lay defensive minefields in German waters. In late 1939 and early 1940, the ship laid multiple offensive minefields off the English coast that claimed 18 merchant ships and a destroyer. Ihn was under repair during the Norwegian Campaign of early 1940 and was transferred to France later that year. After a lengthy refit in Germany, she returned to France in early 1941 where she escorted returning warships , commerce raiders , and supply ships through
2828-476: The German invasion of Poland , after a distress call was received from the garrison at Westerplatte on the morning 1 September 1939. Several hours after hostilities started, the submarines received communications by radio to open the envelopes containing orders to implement the Worek Plan. Wilk loaded 10 torpedoes, 22 mines, and 114 100mm shells (for the deck gun) before departure. Due to heavy air activity,
2929-986: The Lechitic group within the Indo-European language family written in the Latin script . It is primarily spoken in Poland and serves as the official language of the country, as well as the language of the Polish diaspora around the world. In 2024, there were over 39.7 million Polish native speakers. It ranks as the sixth most-spoken among languages of the European Union . Polish is subdivided into regional dialects and maintains strict T–V distinction pronouns, honorifics , and various forms of formalities when addressing individuals. The traditional 32-letter Polish alphabet has nine additions ( ą , ć , ę , ł , ń , ó , ś , ź , ż ) to
3030-612: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 's influence gave Polish the status of lingua franca in Central and Eastern Europe . The process of standardization began in the 14th century and solidified in the 16th century during the Middle Polish era. Standard Polish was based on various dialectal features, with the Greater Poland dialect group serving as the base. After World War II , Standard Polish became
3131-521: The Royal Air Force and the attempt was abandoned as the element of surprise was lost. Another attempt was made in March, although just with Scharnhorst , and Ihn joined her escort off Kristiansand , Norway, on 7 March. Heavy weather forced the destroyer to put into Bergen , Norway, although the battleship reached Trondheim. Ihn was transferred to Narvik , Norway at the end of April, although
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3232-522: The United Kingdom and the United States . Polish began to emerge as a distinct language around the 10th century, the process largely triggered by the establishment and development of the Polish state. At the time, it was a collection of dialect groups with some mutual features, but much regional variation was present. Mieszko I , ruler of the Polans tribe from the Greater Poland region, united
3333-474: The classical languages , have the stress on the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable. For example, fizyka ( /ˈfizɨka/ ) ('physics') is stressed on the first syllable. This may lead to a rare phenomenon of minimal pairs differing only in stress placement, for example muzyka /ˈmuzɨka/ 'music' vs. muzyka /muˈzɨka/ – genitive singular of muzyk 'musician'. When additional syllables are added to such words through inflection or suffixation ,
3434-578: The flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50) , as well as the expulsion of Ukrainians and Operation Vistula , the 1947 migration of Ukrainian minorities in the Recovered Territories in the west of the country, contributed to the country's linguistic homogeneity. The inhabitants of different regions of Poland still speak Polish somewhat differently, although the differences between modern-day vernacular varieties and standard Polish ( język ogólnopolski ) appear relatively slight. Most of
3535-416: The 16th century, which is also regarded as the " Golden Age of Polish literature". The orthography was modified in the 19th century and in 1936. Tomasz Kamusella notes that "Polish is the oldest, non-ecclesiastical, written Slavic language with a continuous tradition of literacy and official use, which has lasted unbroken from the 16th century to this day." Polish evolved into the main sociolect of
3636-457: The 1700s as the successor to the medieval Old Polish (10th–16th centuries) and Middle Polish (16th–18th centuries). Among the major languages, it is most closely related to Slovak and Czech but differs in terms of pronunciation and general grammar. Additionally, Polish was profoundly influenced by Latin and other Romance languages like Italian and French as well as Germanic languages (most notably German ), which contributed to
3737-486: The 2006 census, with a particular concentration in Toronto (91,810 speakers) and Montreal . The geographical distribution of the Polish language was greatly affected by the territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II and Polish population transfers (1944–46) . Poles settled in the " Recovered Territories " in the west and north, which had previously been mostly German -speaking. Some Poles remained in
3838-587: The August 1938 Fleet Review as part of the 3rd Destroyer Division. On 23–24 March 1939, Friedrich Ihn was one of the destroyers escorting Adolf Hitler aboard the pocket battleship Deutschland as the Germans occupied Memel . She participated in the Spring fleet exercise in the western Mediterranean and made several visits to Spanish and Moroccan ports in April and May. When World War II began, Friedrich Ihn
3939-572: The Bay: Sęp was further West near Rozewie , Ryś was further east, and Żbik in the middle. They had separate areas for recharging batteries during the night: Orzeł even deeper within Danzig Bay, and the other ships north of their positions. At the beginning of September, Sęp , Ryś , and Żbik were at Hel , while Wilk and Orzel were in Oksywie . The Worek Plan was put into action with
4040-583: The Henryków monastery, noted that "Hoc est in polonico" ("This is in Polish"). The earliest treatise on Polish orthography was written by Jakub Parkosz [ pl ] around 1470. The first printed book in Polish appeared in either 1508 or 1513, while the oldest Polish newspaper was established in 1661. Starting in the 1520s, large numbers of books in the Polish language were published, contributing to increased homogeneity of grammar and orthography. The writing system achieved its overall form in
4141-631: The Polish Naval Command vice admiral Józef Unrug , who refused to accept any of a few offensive operational plans prepared by the Chief of Submarine Squadron commander Aleksander Mohuczy . One of them, the best known today, was an offensive operational plan codenamed Burza (Thunderstorm), that assumed independent search of targets, with free maneuvering and attacking of enemy ships and transports between Świnoujście ( German : Swinemünde ) and East Prussia . In consideration and planning
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4242-473: The Polish Naval Command issued an order to all of the submarines to seek British waters. Wilk surfaced off the Swedish coast. Three days later it spotted the German destroyer Z4 Richard Beitzen and torpedo boat T107 in Øresund . Believing Wilk to be a Swedish submarine on a neutrality patrol , the German ships didn't take any action. Wilk proceeded to withdraw through Kattegat . Sęp didn't receive
4343-454: The Polish coast or attempting to land forces on it and interdict naval traffic between the German mainland and East Prussia . Wilk , Ryś , and Żbik were to mine the Gulf of Danzig . The plan explicitly stated that the submarines were to act according to international law , and single, unarmed ships had to be warned before being attacked. In the event that all Polish naval bases were overrun,
4444-671: The Silesian language was recognized by ISO , and was attributed an ISO code of szl. Some additional characteristic but less widespread regional dialects include: Polish linguistics has been characterized by a strong strive towards promoting prescriptive ideas of language intervention and usage uniformity, along with normatively-oriented notions of language "correctness" (unusual by Western standards). Polish has six oral vowels (seven oral vowels in written form), which are all monophthongs , and two nasal vowels . The oral vowels are / i / (spelled i ), / ɨ / (spelled y and also transcribed as /ɘ/ or /ɪ/), / ɛ / (spelled e ), /
4545-478: The base on the Hel Peninsula . The operation came to naught, as the Germans did not have any plans for naval landings. It caused the submarines to operate in a confined area near the shore in shallow waters, making them vulnerable to strong enemy anti-submarine forces. As a result, despite making a number of attempts, the submarines were unable to directly sink any enemy ships during the operation, although
4646-485: The cases mentioned above, the letter i if followed by another vowel in the same word usually represents / j / , yet a palatalization of the previous consonant is always assumed. The reverse case, where the consonant remains unpalatalized but is followed by a palatalized consonant, is written by using j instead of i : for example, zjeść , "to eat up". The letters ą and ę , when followed by plosives and affricates, represent an oral vowel followed by
4747-713: The corresponding sentence in modern Polish: Daj, niech ja pomielę, a ty odpoczywaj or Pozwól, że ja będę mełł, a ty odpocznij ; and in English: Come, let me grind, and you take a rest ), written around 1280. The book is exhibited in the Archdiocesal Museum in Wrocław, and as of 2015 has been added to UNESCO 's " Memory of the World " list. The medieval recorder of this phrase, the Cistercian monk Peter of
4848-448: The cruisers. Ihn and her sisters Friedrich Eckoldt and Steinbrinck sortied again on the night of 18 December, but the British had turned off the navigation lights off Orfordness and the German were forced to abandon the attempt because they could not locate themselves precisely enough to lay the minefield in the proper position. Another minefield of 170 magnetic mines was laid by Ihn , Eckolt , and her sister Steinbrinck on
4949-479: The disappearance of yers . Polish can have word-initial and word-medial clusters of up to four consonants, whereas word-final clusters can have up to five consonants. Examples of such clusters can be found in words such as bezwzględny [bɛzˈvzɡlɛndnɨ] ('absolute' or 'heartless', 'ruthless'), źdźbło [ˈʑd͡ʑbwɔ] ('blade of grass'), wstrząs [ˈfstʂɔw̃s] ('shock'), and krnąbrność [ˈkrnɔmbrnɔɕt͡ɕ] ('disobedience'). A popular Polish tongue-twister (from
5050-430: The distinction between regular penultimate and exceptional antepenultimate stress. Another class of exceptions is verbs with the conditional endings -by, -bym, -byśmy , etc. These endings are not counted in determining the position of the stress; for example, zro biłbym ('I would do') is stressed on the first syllable, and zro bi libyśmy ('we would do') on the second. According to prescriptive authorities ,
5151-531: The eastern parts of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth wrote Polish in the Arabic alphabet. The Cyrillic script is used to a certain extent today by Polish speakers in Western Belarus , especially for religious texts. The diacritics used in the Polish alphabet are the kreska (graphically similar to the acute accent ) over the letters ć, ń, ó, ś, ź and through the letter in ł ;
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#17327731898915252-420: The end of words (where devoicing occurs) and in certain consonant clusters (where assimilation occurs). For details, see Voicing and devoicing in the article on Polish phonology. Most Polish words are paroxytones (that is, the stress falls on the second-to-last syllable of a polysyllabic word), although there are exceptions. Polish permits complex consonant clusters, which historically often arose from
5353-476: The entire country. Polish has traditionally been described as consisting of three to five main regional dialects: Silesian and Kashubian , spoken in Upper Silesia and Pomerania respectively, are thought of as either Polish dialects or distinct languages , depending on the criteria used. Kashubian contains a number of features not found elsewhere in Poland, e.g. nine distinct oral vowels (vs.
5454-525: The event that superior enemy surface forces took control of the Baltic Sea (the Polish surface navy consisted only of four destroyers , some minelayers, minesweepers, and gunboats). The submarines were to operate near the Polish coast, in the area of the Danzig Bay and the Hel Peninsula . They were to conserve their limited munitions for "significant military targets" (destroyer or larger) shelling
5555-467: The face of long-range torpedo volleys and attacks by Luftwaffe bombers without having hit any of the German ships. Ihn returned home on 7 November for a refit in Stettin . Her refit was completed in late January 1941, but she was trapped by thick ice so that she could not reach Gotenhafen to work up until mid-February. Ihn returned to France in April where she was based at La Pallice . There she
5656-415: The following day. She immediately turned around and returned to Hela for another load that she delivered to Glücksburg , Germany, on the 8th. She surrendered at Flensburg by the next day. The ship was moved to Wilhelmshaven over the summer under British control while the division of the surviving warships was decided among the victorious Allies. While this was being argued the ships were overhauled with
5757-467: The following table. The following digraphs and trigraphs are used: Voiced consonant letters frequently come to represent voiceless sounds (as shown in the tables); this occurs at the end of words and in certain clusters, due to the neutralization mentioned in the Phonology section above. Occasionally also voiceless consonant letters can represent voiced sounds in clusters. The spelling rule for
5858-591: The heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper and Ihn arrived at Altafjord on 4 July, but they were recalled shortly after sortieing on the 5th and never engaged any Allied ships. She escorted Galster , one of the destroyers that had run aground, back to Germany on 12 July. Ihn was refitted after her arrival and remained in the Baltic Sea for the rest of the year. On 9 January 1943, together with two other destroyers, she escorted Scharnhorst and Prinz Eugen as they attempted to return to Norway from Gotenhafen. The ships were spotted en route two days later by an aircraft from
5959-548: The landings which the Worek Plan was designed to oppose. However, an operational plan failed mainly due to its pure defensive nature, as an opposite to the aggressive nature of submarines, by their characteristics not intended and prepared to fulfill defensive roles. According to contemporary research, Polish submarine campaign in September 1939 failed due to misunderstanding of the nature of modern submarine warfare in high command of Polish Navy, particularly by Commander-in-Chief of
6060-548: The language spoken at home, which is about 1.4% of people who speak languages other than English , 0.25% of the US population, and 6% of the Polish-American population. The largest concentrations of Polish speakers reported in the census (over 50%) were found in three states: Illinois (185,749), New York (111,740), and New Jersey (74,663). Enough people in these areas speak Polish that PNC Financial Services (which has
6161-439: The letter y . The predominant stress pattern in Polish is penultimate stress – in a word of more than one syllable, the next-to-last syllable is stressed. Alternating preceding syllables carry secondary stress, e.g. in a four-syllable word, where the primary stress is on the third syllable, there will be secondary stress on the first. Each vowel represents one syllable, although the letter i normally does not represent
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#17327731898916262-537: The letters of the basic 26-letter Latin alphabet , while removing three (x, q, v). Those three letters are at times included in an extended 35-letter alphabet. The traditional set comprises 23 consonants and 9 written vowels , including two nasal vowels ( ę , ą ) defined by a reversed diacritic hook called an ogonek . Polish is a synthetic and fusional language which has seven grammatical cases . It has fixed penultimate stress and an abundance of palatal consonants . Contemporary Polish developed in
6363-431: The middle aged and young speak vernaculars close to standard Polish, while the traditional dialects are preserved among older people in rural areas. First-language speakers of Polish have no trouble understanding each other, and non-native speakers may have difficulty recognizing the regional and social differences. The modern standard dialect , often termed as "correct Polish", is spoken or at least understood throughout
6464-460: The most widely spoken variant of Polish across the country, and most dialects stopped being the form of Polish spoken in villages. Poland is one of the most linguistically homogeneous European countries; nearly 97% of Poland's citizens declare Polish as their first language . Elsewhere, Poles constitute large minorities in areas which were once administered or occupied by Poland, notably in neighboring Lithuania , Belarus , and Ukraine . Polish
6565-583: The mouth of the River Tyne , where the navigation lights were still lit. The British were unaware of the minefield's existence and lost eleven ships totaling 18,979 gross register tons (GRT). The destroyers were later ordered to escort the crippled light cruisers Leipzig and Nürnberg which had been torpedoed by the submarine HMS Salmon while covering the destroyers' withdrawal. Ihn and Steinbrinck had machinery problems en route and were forced to return to port before they reached
6666-485: The name Tarzan . German destroyer Z14 Friedrich Ihn Z14 Friedrich Ihn was a Type 1934A-class destroyer built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the mid-1930s. The ship was named after the First World War German naval officer Friedrich Ihn . At the beginning of World War II , the ship was initially deployed to blockade the Polish coast, but she was quickly transferred to
6767-704: The night of 14 September for rest and repairs (international law allowed 24 hours before the ship was to be interned ). Under German pressure the Estonians interned the submarine and its crew. In an event known as the Orzeł incident , the crew reassumed control of their vessel and escaped into the Baltic. After several fruitless weeks at sea, the submarine reached the United Kingdom on 14 October and continued fighting under Royal Navy command. Orzel went missing in 1940. Sęp surfaced outside of Stockholm on 17 September and
6868-746: The night of 6/7 January 1940 off the Thames Estuary . The destroyer HMS Grenville and six merchant ships totalling 21,617 GRT were lost to this minefield as well and another ship was damaged as well. Bonte led a destroyer minelaying sortie to the Newcastle area on the night of 10/11 January with Ihn , Heidkamp , Eckoldt , Anton Schmitt , Beitzen , and Karl Galster . Ihn had problems with her boilers that reduced her maximum speed to 27 knots (50 km/h; 31 mph) and she had to be escorted back to Germany by Beitzen . This minefield only claimed one fishing trawler of 251 tons. Ihn
6969-649: The nobles in Poland–Lithuania in the 15th century. The history of Polish as a language of state governance begins in the 16th century in the Kingdom of Poland . Over the later centuries, Polish served as the official language in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , Congress Poland , the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria , and as the administrative language in the Russian Empire 's Western Krai . The growth of
7070-459: The official language of Poland, Polish is also spoken as a second language in eastern Germany , northern Czech Republic and Slovakia , western parts of Belarus and Ukraine as well as in southeast Lithuania and Latvia . Because of the emigration from Poland during different time periods, most notably after World War II , millions of Polish speakers can also be found in countries such as Canada , Argentina , Brazil , Israel , Australia ,
7171-413: The operation had no discernible impact on the September campaign. 55°38′N 18°54′E / 55.633°N 18.900°E / 55.633; 18.900 Polish language Polish ( endonym : język polski , [ˈjɛ̃zɘk ˈpɔlskʲi] , polszczyzna [pɔlˈʂt͡ʂɘzna] or simply polski , [ˈpɔlskʲi] ) is a West Slavic language of
7272-462: The order to abort the operation until 13 September. With the submarine heavily damaged, and Hel being too dangerous to return to, the crew headed for Sweden. Ryś , also damaged, interned itself in Sweden on 18 September. Żbik followed suit on 25 September. On 1 October one of the mines Żbik had laid sank the German minesweeper M-85 with a loss of all 24 hands. Orzeł docked in Tallinn on
7373-673: The others being Czech orthography and Croatian orthography , the last of these being a 19th-century invention trying to make a compromise between the first two. Kashubian uses a Polish-based system, Slovak uses a Czech-based system, and Slovene follows the Croatian one; the Sorbian languages blend the Polish and the Czech ones. Historically, Poland's once diverse and multi-ethnic population utilized many forms of scripture to write Polish. For instance, Lipka Tatars and Muslims inhabiting
7474-401: The palatal sounds / ɕ / , / ʑ / , / tɕ / , / dʑ / and / ɲ / is as follows: before the vowel i the plain letters s, z, c, dz, n are used; before other vowels the combinations si, zi, ci, dzi, ni are used; when not followed by a vowel the diacritic forms ś, ź, ć, dź, ń are used. For example, the s in siwy ("grey-haired"), the si in siarka ("sulfur") and
7575-520: The previously Polish-ruled territories in the east that were annexed by the USSR , resulting in the present-day Polish-speaking communities in Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine, although many Poles were expelled from those areas to areas within Poland's new borders. To the east of Poland, the most significant Polish minority lives in a long strip along either side of the Lithuania - Belarus border. Meanwhile,
7676-400: The rest of the year. The ship spent most of 1943 in the northern Norway although she was mostly inactive because of fuel shortages. Ihn was ordered home for a long refit late in the year and she was sent to southern Norway upon its completion in mid-1944. The ship remained there for the rest of the war, although she made several trips to evacuate refugees from East Prussia in the last days of
7777-525: The returning Convoy QP 8 and the Russia-bound PQ ;12 as part of Operation Sportpalast (Sports Palace). That night the weather worsened and Ihn suffered some damage to her bridge and forward gun mount from high waves. The following morning, Admiral Otto Ciliax , commanding the operation, ordered the destroyers to search independently for Allied ships and they stumbled across the 2,815 GRT Soviet freighter SS Ijora ,
7878-540: The same applies to the first and second person plural past tense endings -śmy, -ście , although this rule is often ignored in colloquial speech (so zro bi liśmy 'we did' should be prescriptively stressed on the second syllable, although in practice it is commonly stressed on the third as zrobi li śmy ). These irregular stress patterns are explained by the fact that these endings are detachable clitics rather than true verbal inflections: for example, instead of ko go zoba czy liście? ('whom did you see?') it
7979-410: The series of affricate and palatal consonants that resulted from four Proto-Slavic palatalizations and two further palatalizations that took place in Polish. The full set of consonants, together with their most common spellings, can be presented as follows (although other phonological analyses exist): Neutralization occurs between voiced – voiceless consonant pairs in certain environments, at
8080-415: The ship joined four other destroyers in escorting Prinz Eugen and the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer to Trondheim , Norway. Heavy weather forced Ihn and two other destroyers to return to port before reaching Trondheim and Prinz Eugen was badly damaged by a British submarine after their separation. On 6 March, the battleship Tirpitz , escorted by Ihn and three other destroyers, sortied to attack
8181-737: The shortage of fuel severely limited her activities in the Arctic. She was ordered home to refit in November, a lengthy one that lasted until June 1944. She was then stationed at Horten, Norway for the rest of the year, where she was employed on convoy escort and minelaying duties, mainly in the Skagerrak. The ship received a brief refit at Swinemünde in November that augmented her anti-aircraft armament and returned to Horten where she remained until May 1945. On 5 May, Ihn sailed from Denmark to Hela where she loaded refugees that she ferried to Copenhagen
8282-430: The sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern. Sufficient depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of sixteen charges each. Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of sixty mines . 'GHG' ( Gruppenhorchgerät ) passive hydrophones were fitted to detect submarines and an active sonar system
8383-506: The six of standard Polish) and (in the northern dialects) phonemic word stress, an archaic feature preserved from Common Slavic times and not found anywhere else among the West Slavic languages . However, it was described by some linguists as lacking most of the linguistic and social determinants of language-hood. Many linguistic sources categorize Silesian as a regional language separate from Polish, while some consider Silesian to be
8484-494: The stress normally becomes regular. For example, uniwersytet ( /uɲiˈvɛrsɨtɛt/ , 'university') has irregular stress on the third (or antepenultimate) syllable, but the genitive uniwersytetu ( /uɲivɛrsɨˈtɛtu/ ) and derived adjective uniwersytecki ( /uɲivɛrsɨˈtɛt͡skʲi/ ) have regular stress on the penultimate syllables. Loanwords generally become nativized to have penultimate stress. In psycholinguistic experiments, speakers of Polish have been demonstrated to be sensitive to
8585-517: The submarines had to approach their positions submerged. Orzel was ordered to attack the Schleswig-Holstein , should the pre-dreadnought leave Danzig . By the evening of the same day the last submarine ( Sęp ) arrived in its sector. On the morning of 2 September Wilk attempted an attack on the German destroyer Z15 Erich Steinbrinck , but was forced to withdraw after being attacked by supporting vessels. Later that day Sep launched
8686-454: The submarines were to operate in the Baltic before evacuating to Britain. If that wasn't possible, the plan called for them to seek internment in a neutral port. Orzeł was to take the position furthest inside Danzig Bay, from Jastarnia to the estuary of the Vistula river. East of Orzeł , in the entry to the Bay, was the place for Wilk . The remaining three submarines were to operate north of
8787-563: The vowel i is changed to y , e.g. Syria , Sybir , synchronizacja , Syrakuzy . The following table shows the correspondence between the sounds and spelling: Digraphs and trigraphs are used: Similar principles apply to / kʲ / , / ɡʲ / , / xʲ / and /lʲ/ , except that these can only occur before vowels, so the spellings are k, g, (c)h, l before i , and ki, gi, (c)hi, li otherwise. Most Polish speakers, however, do not consider palatalization of k, g, (c)h or l as creating new sounds. Except in
8888-560: The war. Ihn was eventually allocated to the Soviets when the surviving warships were divided between the Allies after the war. Little is known about her service with the Soviet Navy and she was probably scrapped sometime in the 1960s. Friedrich Ihn had an overall length of 119 meters (390 ft 5 in) and was 114 meters (374 ft) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11.30 meters (37 ft 1 in), and
8989-443: The word, the phoneme / x / can be spelt h or ch , the phoneme / ʐ / can be spelt ż or rz , and / u / can be spelt u or ó . In several cases it determines the meaning, for example: może ("maybe") and morze ("sea"). In occasional words, letters that normally form a digraph are pronounced separately. For example, rz represents /rz/ , not / ʐ / , in words like zamarzać ("freeze") and in
9090-470: Was also a plan of actions on the sea routes between harbors of Germany and the Swedish port of Luleå As a result, Polish submarines deployed along Polish coast, in proximity to their own naval base, were deprived of chances to find targets – while they were exposed there to operations of German air and light naval antisubmarine units. Therefore, although no Polish submarine was sunk in this stage of war,
9191-437: Was cancelled when one of the other destroyers assigned to participate suffered machinery problems from contaminated fuel oil. On the night of 12/13 December, German destroyers sortied to lay minefields off the British coast. Under the command of Commodore ( Kommodore ) Friedrich Bonte in his flagship Hermann Künne , Friedrich Ihn , Bruno Heinemann , Richard Beitzen , and Erich Steinbrinck laid 240 mines off
9292-414: Was carried on top of the rear deckhouse. Her anti-aircraft armament consisted of four 3.7 cm SK C/30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C/30 guns in single mounts. The ship carried eight above-water 53.3-centimeter (21.0 in) torpedo tubes in two power-operated mounts. A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount. Four depth charge throwers were mounted on
9393-600: Was flagship of Captain Fritz Berger of the 5th Destroyer Flotilla and she was assigned to escort Tirpitz during Operation Rösselsprung ( Knight's Move ), the attack on the Russia-bound Convoy PQ 17 . The ships sailed from Trondheim on 2 July for the first stage of the operation, although all three of the other destroyers assigned to Tirpitz ' s escort ran aground in the dark and heavy fog and were forced to return to port for repairs. Tirpitz ,
9494-421: Was forced to abort in the face of an attack by German vessels. After this, its captain, Lieutenant Commander Krawczyk decided to withdraw northward. On 7 September the German submarine U-22 made a failed torpedo attack on the Żbik . On 11 September Wilk prepared to attack the German cruiser Admiral Hipper , but the ship made an unexpected course change and the submarine wasn't able to proceed. Later that day,
9595-475: Was from then on interned. Ryś , damaged and unable to engage German units, eventually was interned in a Swedish port from 18 September. Wilk successfully navigated the Danish straits and arrived in the United Kingdom on 20 September. The submarine survived the war. Żbik was low on provisions and the crew interned the submarine in a Swedish port on 25 September. The Germans had no intention to carry out
9696-561: Was ineffectually attacked by British motor torpedo boats (MTB) off Calais that same day. The ship remained in German waters for the rest of the year after completing her refit. She was sent to Brest in February 1942 to escort the battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst , as well as Prinz Eugen through the English Channel back to Germany (Operation Cerberus). During the voyage, Ihn twice engaged British MTBs and shot down two Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers . Shortly afterwards,
9797-546: Was initially deployed in the Baltic to operate against the Polish Navy and to enforce a blockade of Poland, but she was soon transferred to the German Bight where she joined her sister ships in laying defensive minefields. She also patrolled the Skagerrak to inspect neutral shipping for contraband goods in October. The ship was scheduled to conduct a minelaying operation off the British coast in early November, but it
9898-422: Was installed by February 1941. During the war the ship's light anti-aircraft armament was augmented several times. In April 1941, improved 2 cm C/38 guns replaced the original C/30 guns and three additional guns were added. The two guns on the aft shelter deck were replaced at some point by a single 2 cm quadruple Flakvierling mount, probably in 1942. Sometime in 1944–45, Z14 Friedrich Ihn received
9999-601: Was near-missed. Now based at Brest the flotilla laid a minefield in Falmouth Bay during the night of 28/29 September. Five ships totalling only 2,026 GRT were sunk by this minefield. Led by Kapitän zur See Erich Bey , Ihn and four other destroyers sortied for the Southwest Approaches on 17 October and were intercepted by a British force of two light cruisers and five destroyers. The British opened fire at extreme range and were forced to disengage in
10100-525: Was primarily occupied with escorting returning commerce raiders, warships and supply ships through the Bay of Biscay to bases in France. These included the raider Thor on 22 April, the supply ship Nordland , and the fleet oiler Ermland in late May. The heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen was escorted to Brest in early June after separating from the battleship Bismarck during Operation Rheinübung . Ihn sailed from Brest on 27 July for another refit and
10201-579: Was under repairs during Operation Weserübung in April and did not leave the dockyard until May when she began working up as part of the 5th Destroyer Flotilla . The flotilla was transferred to the Atlantic Coast of France in early September and was attacked by Bristol Blenheim bombers of the Royal Air Force on 11 September while crossing the Baie de la Seine without result, although Ihn
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