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130-620: Founder and first head of the Order Carl Kellner wanted to create an Academia Masonica wherein various rites of high-degree Freemasonry could be conferred within German-speaking countries. During the course of his esoteric studies across the globe and from many traditions, Kellner believed that he had discovered a key which offered a clear explanation of all the complex symbolism of Freemasonry and of nature itself. Kellner intended that O.T.O. preserve and confer this key. After

260-694: A Russian émigré living in the United States who founded the religion of Theosophy . The article was published in the American Spiritualist magazine, Spiritual Scientist . Various twentieth-century writers on the subject used the term occultism in different ways. Some writers, such as the German philosopher Theodor W. Adorno in his "Theses Against Occultism", employed the term as a broad synonym for irrationality . In his 1950 book L'occultisme , Robert Amadou  [ fr ] used

390-798: A century. In 1354, though in exile and without control of his ancestral lands, John, the MacDougall heir , quitclaimed any rights he had over Mull and Iona to the Lord of the Isles (though this had no meaningful effect at the time). When Robert's son, David II , became king, he spent some time in English captivity; following his release, in 1357, he restored MacDougall authority over Lorn. The 1354 quitclaim, which seems to have been an attempt to ensure peace in just such an eventuality, took automatic effect, splitting Mull and Iona from Lorn, and making it subject to

520-555: A charter to run an O.T.O. Camp in England to Kenneth Grant , who had briefly served as Crowley's secretary during the 1940s. Grant was to be expelled and his charter revoked in 1955 however, and from that time onwards O.T.O.'s representative in the UK was a IX° member, Noel Fitzgerald. Germer died in 1962 without naming a successor. It was not until 1969 that Grady McMurtry invoked his letter of emergency authorization from Crowley and became

650-461: A disenchanted world or, alternatively, by people in general to make sense of esotericism from the perspective of a disenchanted secular world". Hanegraaff noted that this etic usage of the term would be independent of emic usages of the term employed by occultists and other esotericists themselves. In this definition, occultism covers many esoteric currents that have developed from the mid-nineteenth century onward, including Spiritualism, Theosophy,

780-677: A masonic journal, The Oriflamme , as the organ of these collected rites. Reuss's rites aroused some degree of curiosity in the German-speaking Masonic milieu, as high degree Freemasonry had not been very widespread in Germany during the 1800s. O.T.O. had several hundred members and affiliates at its peak, but by 1905 and after Kellner's death, Reuss began to lose his supporters. He was attacked in Masonic periodicals for his alleged lack of Masonic regularity and credentials, and for

910-473: A number of 13th century ruins, including a church and cloister. By the 1760s little more of the nunnery remained standing than at present, though it is the most complete remnant of a medieval nunnery in Scotland. After a visit in 1773, the English writer Samuel Johnson remarked: He estimated the population of the village at 70 families or perhaps 350 inhabitants. In the 19th century, green-streaked marble

1040-469: A permit under certain exemptions". Visitors will find the village, the shops, the post office, the cafe, the hotels and the abbey are all within walking distance. Bike hire is available at the pier, and on Mull. Taxi service is also available. Conde Nast Traveller recommends the island for its "peaceful atmosphere ... a popular place for spiritual retreats" but also recommends the "sandy beaches, cliffs, rocks, fields and bogs ... "wildflowers and birds such as

1170-693: A priest or priestess in Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica ). There are thirteen numbered degrees and twelve un-numbered degrees which are divided into three grades or "triads"—the Hermit, the Lover, and the Man of Earth. Admittance to each degree of O.T.O. involves an initiation and the swearing of an oath which according to O.T.O is similar to those used in Freemasonry. Advancement through

1300-639: A result of his involvement in the Battle of Cul Dreimhne . Columba and twelve companions went into exile on Iona and founded a monastery there. The monastery was hugely successful and may have played a role in the conversion to Christianity of the Picts and Gaels of present-day Scotland in the late 6th century, and was certainly central to the conversion of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria in 635. Many satellite institutions were founded, and Iona became

1430-512: A substantivized adjective as "the occult", a term that has been particularly widely used among journalists and sociologists . This term was popularised by the publication of Colin Wilson 's 1971 book The Occult . This term has been used as an "intellectual waste-basket" into which a wide array of beliefs and practices have been placed because they do not fit readily into the categories of religion or science. According to Hanegraaff, "the occult"

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1560-517: A wealth of fine architectural detail and monuments of many periods. The enabling endowments, the core economic strength and life-blood of the Abbey came from successive Clan Donald Lords of the Isles and for 300 years were regularly confirmed, honoured, protected, increased and expanded. Endowments had "carta confirmations" and additional ones made by them during the 14th and 15th centuries as late as 1440 and 1485. Donald of Harlaw (1386-1421): "gave lands to

1690-537: Is "Columba".) This confusion would have arisen because ì , the original name of the island, would have been confused with the now-obsolete Gaelic noun ì , meaning "island", which was derived from the Old Norse word for island ( ey ). Eilean Idhe means "the isle of Iona", also known as Ì nam ban bòidheach ("the isle of beautiful women"). The modern English name comes from yet another variant, Ioua , which arose either from Adomnán 's 7th century attempt to make

1820-581: Is Frater Shiva X°. The Croatian Grand Lodge is the governing body of O.T.O. in Croatia and its territories, chartered in May 2014. The C.G.L. National Grand Master is Frater Abrasax X°. The Italian Grand Lodge is the governing body of O.T.O. in Italy and its territories, chartered in May 2014. The I.G.L. National Grand Master is Frater Phanes X°. Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica, also called the "Gnostic Catholic Church",

1950-459: Is a category into which gets placed a range of beliefs from "spirits or fairies to parapsychological experiments, from UFO-abductions to Oriental mysticism, from vampire legends to channelling, and so on". The neologism occulture used within the industrial music scene of the late twentieth century was probably coined by one of its central figures, the musician and occultist Genesis P-Orridge . The scholar of religion Christopher Partridge used

2080-676: Is a category of esoteric or supernatural beliefs and practices which generally fall outside the scope of organized religion and science, encompassing phenomena involving a 'hidden' or 'secret' agency, such as magic and mysticism . It can also refer to paranormal ideas such as extra-sensory perception and parapsychology . The term occult sciences was used in 16th-century Europe to refer to astrology , alchemy , and natural magic . The term occultism emerged in 19th-century France , among figures such as Antoine Court de Gébelin . It came to be associated with various French esoteric groups connected to Éliphas Lévi and Papus , and in 1875

2210-646: Is an island in the Inner Hebrides , off the Ross of Mull on the western coast of Scotland . It is mainly known for Iona Abbey , though there are other buildings on the island. Iona Abbey was a centre of Gaelic monasticism for three centuries and is today known for its relative tranquility and natural environment. It is a tourist destination and a place for spiritual retreats . Its modern Scottish Gaelic name means "Iona of (Saint) Columba " (formerly anglicised as "Icolmkill"). In 2019, Iona's estimated population

2340-634: Is as follows: Ordo Templi Orientis U.S.A. is the U.S. Grand Lodge (National Section) of Ordo Templi Orientis, a hierarchical, religious membership organization. Our mission is to effect and promote the doctrines and practices of the philosophical and religious system known as Thelema, with particular emphasis on cultivating the ideals of individual liberty, self-discipline, self-knowledge, and universal brotherhood. To this end, we conduct sacramental and initiatory rites, offer guidance and instruction to our members, organize social events, and engage in educational and community service activities at locations throughout

2470-493: Is as follows: The governing bodies of O.T.O. include: O.T.O. has a federally recognized tax-exempt status in the United States under IRS section 501c(3). It also has California charitable corporation status. The US Grand Lodge is the governing body of O.T.O. in the United States. The U.S. National Grand Master is Sabazius X°, who was appointed in 1996. According to its website, the Mission Statement of U.S.G.L.

2600-451: Is based upon a system of initiation ceremonies (or degrees ) that use ritual drama to establish fraternal bonds between members as well as impart spiritual and philosophical teachings. The degrees serve an organizational function, in that certain degrees must be attained before taking on various forms of service in the Order (e.g. taking the degree of K.E.W. is a requirement for ordination as

2730-451: Is in possession of one supreme secret. The whole of its system [is] directed towards communicating to its members, by progressively plain hints, this all-important instruction. Of the first set of initiations, he wrote: ... the main objects of the instruction [are] two. It [is] firstly necessary to explain the universe and the relations of human life therewith. Secondly, to instruct every man [and woman] how best to adapt his [or her] life to

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2860-481: Is no evidence for or against it, and no other candidate stepped forward to refute Crowley by offering proof of succession. In 1925, during a tumultuous Conference of Grand Masters, Crowley was officially elected as Outer Head of the Order (or O.H.O.) by the remaining administrative heads of O.T.O. During this period, O.T.O. members outside of the USA rarely came into contact with one another.: I am arranging to send you

2990-459: Is no evidence in support of this, and suggests that Reuss acquired sexual ideas and techniques from Yarker, who had in his possession certain unpublished writings by Randolph. Reuss met Aleister Crowley and in 1910 admitted him to the first three degrees of O.T.O. Two years later, Crowley was placed in charge of Great Britain and Ireland, and was advanced to the X° (tenth degree). The appointment included

3120-458: Is not anybody else’s, and undirected chatter is the worst poisonous element in a humane society. Since the total membership of O.T.O. at that time was counted in the dozens rather than in hundreds or thousands, this may simply have been Crowley's attempt at disguising the low numbers. During World War II, the European branches of O.T.O. were either destroyed or driven underground. By the end of

3250-452: Is the ecclesiastical arm of O.T.O. Its central activity is the celebration of Liber XV, The Gnostic Mass . In recent years, other rites have been written and approved for use within the church. These include baptism, confirmation (into the laity), and ordination (for deacons, priests, priestesses, and bishops), and last rites. Occultist The occult (from Latin : occultus , lit.   ' hidden ' or ' secret ' )

3380-537: Is thus often used to categorise such esoteric traditions as Qabalah , Spiritualism , Theosophy , Anthroposophy , Wicca , the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn , New Age , and the left-hand path and right-hand path . Use of the term as a nominalized adjective ('the occult') has developed especially since the late twentieth century. In that same period, occult and culture were combined to form

3510-556: The Cenél Loairn (i.e. Lorn , as it was then). The island was the site of a highly important monastery (see Iona Abbey ) during the Early Middle Ages . The monastery was founded in 563 by the monk Columba , also known as Colm Cille, who sailed here from Ireland to live the monastic life. Much later legends (a thousand years later, and without any good evidence) said that he had been exiled from his native Ireland as

3640-765: The German Empire , Austria-Hungary , and the Kingdom of Italy . Unlike older forms of esotericism, occultism does not necessarily reject "scientific progress or modernity". Lévi had stressed the need to solve the conflict between science and religion, something that he believed could be achieved by turning to what he thought was the ancient wisdom found in magic. The French scholar of Western esotericism Antoine Faivre noted that rather than outright accepting "the triumph of scientism", occultists sought "an alternative solution", trying to integrate "scientific progress or modernity" with "a global vision that will serve to make

3770-552: The Middle Ages , for example, magnetism was considered an occult quality. Aether is another such element. Newton 's contemporaries severely criticized his theory that gravity was effected through "action at a distance", as occult. In the English-speaking world, notable figures in the development of occultism included Helena Blavatsky and other figures associated with her Theosophical Society, senior figures in

3900-504: The New Statistical Account and it may arise from a misunderstanding of the name Cladh nan Druineach , which means 'burial ground of the embroideresses or artificers' – a cemetery on the east shore of the island. He also repeats a Gaelic story (which he admits is apocryphal) that as Columba's coracle first drew close to the island one of his companions cried out "Chì mi i " meaning "I see her" and that Columba's response

4030-539: The Nunnery are here. The Abbey and MacLeod Centre are a short walk to the north. Port Bàn (white port) beach on the west side of the island is home to the Iona Beach Party. There are numerous offshore islets and skerries : Eilean Annraidh (island of storm) and Eilean Chalbha (calf island) to the north, Rèidh Eilean and Stac MhicMhurchaidh to the west and Eilean Mùsimul (mouse holm island) and Soa Island to

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4160-762: The Swedenborg Rite formed the core of the newly established Order. Kellner, Reuss, Hartmann, and Klein acquired authority to operate the rites of the Martinist Order from French occultist Gérard Encausse and a clandestine form of the Scottish Rite deriving from Joseph Cerneau. From William Wynn Westcott , Reuss acquired a warrant to start a college of the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia in Germany. In 1902, Reuss began publishing

4290-475: The neologism occulture . The occult (from the Latin word occultus ; lit. 'clandestine', 'hidden', 'secret') is "knowledge of the hidden". In common usage, occult refers to "knowledge of the paranormal ", as opposed to "knowledge of the measurable ", usually referred to as science. The terms esoteric and arcane can also be used to describe the occult, in addition to their meanings unrelated to

4420-518: The "traditional esotericism" which accepted the premise of an "enchanted" world. According to the British historian of Western esotericism Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke , occultist groups typically seek "proofs and demonstrations by recourse to scientific tests or terminology". In his work about Lévi, the German historian of religion Julian Strube has argued that the occultist wish for a "synthesis" of religion, science, and philosophy directly resulted from

4550-545: The Abbey and other ecclesiastical properties and the marble quarry or to enjoy the nine beaches that are within walking distance of the main area. Not to be confused with the local island community, Iona (Abbey) Community is based within Iona Abbey. In 1938 George MacLeod founded the Iona Community, an ecumenical Christian community of men and women from different walks of life and different traditions in

4680-616: The Augustinian nunnery, "the most complete nunnery complex to survive in Scotland". The nunnery was founded by Somerled's son, Reginald, as was Iona Abbey and Saddell Abbey. Reginald's sister, Beathag, was the first Prioress of the Iona Nunnery. The nunnery declined after the Scottish Reformation but was still used as a burial place for women. In front of the Abbey stands the 9th century St Martin's Cross, one of

4810-581: The Christian church committed to seeking new ways of living the Gospel of Jesus in today's world. This community is a leading force in the present Celtic Christian revival. The Iona Community runs three residential centres on the Isle of Iona and on Mull , where one can live together in community with people of every background from all over the world. Weeks at the centres often follow a programme related to

4940-578: The Duke of Argyll by Hugh Fraser in 1979 and donated to the National Trust for Scotland . In 2001 Iona's population was 125 and by the time of the 2011 census this had grown to 177 usual residents. During the same period Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4% to 103,702. The estimated permanent population in 2020 was 120. The island's tourism bureau estimated that roughly 130,000 visitors arrived each year. Many tourists come to visit

5070-562: The Frater Superior of O.T.O. McMurtry did not claim the title of Outer Head of the Order, stating in 1974 that "There is at present no Outer Head of the Order for Aleister Crowley's Ordo Templi Orientis. The Outer Head of the Order is an international office (see p. 201, The Blue Equinox) and Aleister Crowley's Ordo Templi Orientis is not at this time established organizationally to fulfill the requirements of its Constitution in this respect." He began performing initiations in 1970. O.T.O.

5200-533: The Gaelic name fit Latin grammar, or spontaneously, as a derivative of Ivova ("yew place"). The change in the island's name from Ioua' to Iona , which is attested from c. 1274, resulted from a transcription error due to the similarity of "n" and "u" in Insular Minuscule script. Despite the continuity of forms in Gaelic from the pre-Norse to the post-Norse era, Haswell-Smith (2004) speculates that

5330-679: The Great Work of realizing the divine in the human. O.T.O. has two core areas of ritual activity: initiation into the Mysteries, and the celebration of Liber XV, the Gnostic Mass. In addition, the Order organizes lectures, classes, social events, theatrical productions and artistic exhibitions, publishes books and journals, and provides instruction in Hermetic science, yoga , and magick . Crowley wrote in his Confessions : ... O.T.O.

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5460-518: The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn like William Wynn Westcott and Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers , as well as other individuals such as Paschal Beverly Randolph , Emma Hardinge Britten , Arthur Edward Waite , and – in the early twentieth century – Aleister Crowley , Dion Fortune , and Israel Regardie . By the end of the nineteenth century, occultist ideas had also spread into other parts of Europe, such as

5590-568: The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and the New Age. Employing this etic understanding of "occultism", Hanegraaff argued that its development could begin to be seen in the work of the Swedish esotericist Emanuel Swedenborg and in the Mesmerist movement of the eighteenth century, although added that occultism only emerged in "fully-developed form" as Spiritualism, a movement that developed in

5720-567: The Lordship of the Isles. Iona remained part of the Lordship of the Isles for the next century and a half. Following the 1491 Raid on Ross , the Lordship of the Isles was dismantled, and Scotland gained full control of Iona for the second time. The monastery and nunnery continued to be active until the Reformation , when buildings were demolished and all but three of the 360 carved crosses destroyed. The Augustine nunnery now only survives as

5850-516: The Man of Earth triad requires sponsorship from ranking members. Advancement into the degree of the Knight of the East and West and beyond requires one to be invited by ranking members. The ultimate goal of initiation in O.T.O. is "to instruct the individual by allegory and symbol in the profound mysteries of Nature, and thereby to assist each to discover his or her own true Identity". The entire system

5980-588: The M∴M∴M∴. In 1917, Reuss wrote a Synopsis of Degrees of O.T.O. in which the third degree was listed as "Craft of Masonry" and listed the initiations involved as " Entered Apprentice , Fellow Craft , Master Mason" and elaborated on this with "Full instruction in Craft Masonry, including the Catechism of the first three degrees, and an explanation of all the various Masonic systems". The same document shows that

6110-485: The Norse domination of the west coast of Scotland advanced, Iona became part of the Kingdom of the Isles . The Norse Rex plurimarum insularum Amlaíb Cuarán died in 980 or 981 whilst in "religious retirement" on Iona. Nonetheless, the island was sacked twice by his successors, on Christmas night 986 and again in 987. Although Iona was never again important to Ireland, it rose to prominence once more in Scotland following

6240-564: The Ocean and Càrn Cùl ri Éirinn (the Hill/ Cairn of [turning the] Back to Ireland), said to be adjacent to the beach where St. Columba first landed. The main settlement, located at St. Ronan's Bay on the eastern side of the island, is called Baile Mòr and is also known locally as "The Village". The primary school, post office, the island's two hotels, the Bishop's House and the ruins of

6370-652: The Order being linked to the E.G.C, and subsequently portray the E.G.C. of O.T.O. as being autonomous with respect to Bricaud 's organization. The sex magic of the higher O.T.O. degrees appears to be based on the writings of the American occultist Paschal Beverly Randolph (1825–1875), which were adopted by the Hermetic Brotherhood of Luxor (or of Light), another group with which Kellner had been in contact and whose teachings he said he had incorporated into O.T.O. Scholar Marco Pasi notes, however, that there

6500-616: The Order, and Germer filled the office after the death of Crowley in 1947. After Crowley's death, Germer attempted to keep O.T.O. running, with questionable success. Crowley had granted a charter to run an O.T.O. Camp in England to Gerald Gardner , and Germer acknowledged Gardner as O.T.O.'s main representative in Europe. The two men met in 1948 in New York to discuss plans, but Gardner's continuing ill health led to Germer replacing him with Frederic Mellinger in 1951. Also in 1951, Germer granted

6630-509: The Order. O.T.O. was described by Crowley as the "first of the great Old Æon orders to accept The Book of the Law ". O.T.O. originally borrowed ritual material from irregular Masonic organizations, and although some related symbolism and language remains in use, the context has changed to Thelema and its tenets. The Order offers esoteric instruction through dramatic ritual, guidance in a system of illuminated ethics, and fellowship among aspirants to

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6760-618: The Ross of Mull pluton cross the sound to the east. Numerous geological faults cross the island, many in an E-W or NW-SE alignment. Devonian aged micro diorite dykes are found in places and some of these are themselves cut by Palaeocene age camptonite and monchiquite dykes ascribed to the "Iona-Ross of Mull dyke swarm ". More recent sedimentary deposits of Quaternary age include both present day beach deposits and raised marine deposits around Iona as well as some restricted areas of blown sand. Iona lies about 2 kilometres (1 mile) from

6890-494: The United States during the mid-nineteenth century. Marco Pasi suggested that the use of Hanegraaff's definition might cause confusion by presenting a group of nineteenth-century esotericists who called themselves "occultists" as just one part of a broader category of esotericists whom scholars would call "occultists". Following these discussions, Julian Strube argued that Lévi and other contemporary authors who would now be regarded as esotericists developed their ideas not against

7020-457: The United States, and Austria. There were ten degrees, of which the first five were Masonic. In 1902, Reuss, along with Franz Hartmann and Henry Klein, purchased the right to perform the Rite of Memphis and Mizraim of Freemasonry from English Freemason John Yarker , the authority of which was confirmed in 1904 and again in 1905. Although these rites are considered to be irregular, they, along with

7150-670: The United States. As of Feb 28, 2014, US Grand Lodge had 1,508 members in 62 local bodies. The UK Grand Lodge is the governing body of O.T.O. in the United Kingdom. The UK National Grand Master is Frater Hyperion X°, who was appointed in 2005 (93 years after the last Grand Master for the UK, Aleister Crowley, was elevated to that office). The Australian Grand Lodge is the governing body of O.T.O. in Australia and its territories were chartered in April 2006. The A.G.L. National Grand Master

7280-508: The alleged homosexual elements in Reuss's initiations. Reuss left Germany and moved to London in 1906, and lost control of most of the lodges previously belonging to the O.T.O. network. In 1908, Encausse invited to Reuss to an "International Masonic Conference", where he probably met Joanny Bricaud and was introduced to his Gnostic Catholic Church (E.G.C.), an off-shoot of Jules Doinel 's Église Gnostique . Later O.T.O. documents would present

7410-468: The background of an esoteric tradition in the first place. Rather, Lévi's notion of occultism emerged in the context of highly influential radical socialist movements and widespread progressive, so-called neo-Catholic ideas. This further complicates Hanegraaff's characteristics of occultism, since, throughout the nineteenth century, they apply to these reformist movements rather than to a supposed group of esotericists. The term occult has also been used as

7540-580: The best-preserved Celtic crosses in the British Isles , and a replica of the 8th century St John's Cross (original fragments in the Abbey museum). The ancient burial ground, called the Rèilig Odhrain (Eng: Oran's "burial place" or "cemetery"), contains the 12th century chapel built by Somerled where the Lords of the Isles were buried and named after St Odhrán (said to be Columba 's uncle). It

7670-442: The centre of one of the most important monastic systems in Great Britain and Ireland. Iona became a renowned centre of learning, and its scriptorium produced highly important documents, probably including the original texts of the Iona Chronicle, thought to be the source for the early Irish annals . The monastery is often associated with the distinctive practices and traditions known as Celtic Christianity . In particular, Iona

7800-495: The cloister arcade of the Abbey, and the Abbey museum (in the medieval infirmary). The ancient buildings of Iona Abbey are now cared for by Historic Environment Scotland (there is an entrance charge to visit them). The remains of a marble quarrying enterprise are present in a small bay on the south-east shore of Iona. The quarry is the source of "Iona Marble", a translucent green and white stone, much used in brooches and other jewellery. The stone has been known of for centuries and

7930-403: The coast of Mull . It is about 2 km (1 mi) wide and 6 km (4 mi) long with a resident population of 125. Like other places swept by ocean breezes, there are few trees; most of them are near the parish church. Iona's highest point is Dùn Ì, 101 m (331 ft), an Iron Age hill fort dating from 100 BC – A.D. 200. Iona's geographical features include the Bay at the Back of

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8060-440: The concept of science. From that point on, use of "occult science(s)" implied a conscious polemic against mainstream science. Nevertheless, the philosopher and card game historian Michael Dummett , whose analysis of the historical evidence suggested that fortune-telling and occult interpretations using cards were unknown before the 18th century, said that the term occult science was not misplaced because "people who believe in

8190-413: The concerns of the Iona Community. The 8 tonne Fallen Christ sculpture by Ronald Rae was permanently situated outside the MacLeod Centre in February 2008. Visitors can reach Iona by the 10 minute ferry trip across the Sound of Iona from Fionnphort on Mull . The most common route from the mainland is via Oban in Argyll and Bute , where regular ferries connect to Craignure on Mull, from where

8320-401: The context of contemporary socialism and progressive Catholicism . Similar to spiritualism, but in declared opposition to it, the emergence of occultism should thus be seen within the context of radical social reform, which was often concerned with establishing new forms of "scientific religion" while at the same time propagating the revival of an ancient tradition of "true religion". Indeed,

8450-404: The context of theoretical frameworks that relied heavily on a belief in occult qualities, virtues or forces." Although there are areas of overlap between these different occult sciences, they are separate and in some cases practitioners of one would reject the others as being illegitimate. During the Age of Enlightenment , occultism increasingly came to be seen as intrinsically incompatible with

8580-545: The cosmos and to develop his faculties to the utmost advantage. I accordingly constructed a series of rituals, Minerval, Man, Magician, Master-Magician, Perfect Magician and Perfect Initiate, which should illustrate the course of human life in its largest philosophical aspect. The initiation rituals after the V° (fifth degree) are such that: the candidate is instructed in the value of discretion, loyalty, independence, truthfulness, courage, self-control, indifference to circumstance, impartiality, skepticism, and other virtues, and at

8710-600: The death of Reuss, English writer and occultist Aleister Crowley assumed control of the Order. Crowley had been inducted into O.T.O. by Reuss in the early 1910s. While maintaining many core elements of Freemasonry and the intentions of both Kellner and Reuss, O.T.O. was drastically changed by Crowley. The guiding philosophy of O.T.O. from this point on became Crowley's self-created occult system, Thelema . With this change O.T.O. ceased its bestowal of Masonic degrees and membership requirements. After Crowley's death in 1947, four main branches of O.T.O. claimed exclusive descent from

8840-440: The earliest recorded names of the island meant something like "yew-place". The element Ivo- , denoting " yew ", occurs in inscriptions in the ogham alphabet ( Iva-cattos [genitive], Iva-geni [genitive]) and in Gaulish names ( Ivo-rix , Ivo-magus ); it may also be the basis of early Gaelic names like Eógan (ogham: Ivo-genos ). The island's name may also be related to the name of a mythological figure, Fer hÍ mac Eogabail ,

8970-425: The early 8th century. Iona itself did not adopt the Roman system until 715, according to the Anglo-Saxon historian Bede . Iona's prominence was further diminished over the next centuries as a result of Viking raids and the rise of other powerful monasteries in the system, such as the Abbey of Kells . The Book of Kells may have been produced or begun on Iona towards the end of the 8th century. Around this time

9100-441: The early modern Lutheran thinker Jakob Bohme , and seeking to integrate ideas from Bohmian theosophy and occultism. It has been noted, however, that this distancing from the Theosophical Society should be understood in the light of polemical identity formations among esotericists towards the end of the nineteenth century. In the mid-1990s, a new definition of "occultism" was put forth by Wouter Hanegraaff. According to Hanegraaff,

9230-444: The eastern coast facing Mull are steeply dipping Neoproterozoic age metaconglomerates , metasandstones , meta mudstones and hornfelsed meta siltstones ascribed to the Iona Group , described traditionally as Torridonian . In the southwest and on parts of the west coast are pelites and semipelites of Archaean to Proterozoic age. There are small outcrops of Silurian age pink granite on southeastern beaches, similar to those of

9360-722: The emergence of both modern esotericism and socialism in July Monarchy France have been inherently intertwined. Another feature of occultists is that – unlike earlier esotericists – they often openly distanced themselves from Christianity, in some cases (like that of Crowley) even adopting explicitly anti-Christian stances. This reflected how pervasive the influence of secularisation had been on all areas of European society. In rejecting Christianity, these occultists sometimes turned towards pre-Christian belief systems and embraced forms of Modern Paganism , while others instead took influence from

9490-425: The establishment of the Kingdom of Scotland in the later 9th century; the ruling dynasty of Scotland traced its origin to Iona, and the island thus became an important spiritual centre for the new kingdom, with many of its early kings buried there. However, a campaign by Magnus Barelegs led to the formal acknowledgement of Norwegian control of Argyll, in 1098. Somerled , the brother-in-law of Norway's governor of

9620-608: The foster-son of Manannán , whose forename meaning "man of the yew". Coates (2006) disputes the "yew" interpretation due to a lack of archeological evidence for yew on the island. Coates instead compares the Punic term ’y ("island, isolated place"). Mac an Tàilleir (2003) has analyzed the more recent Gaelic names of Ì , Ì Chaluim Chille and Eilean Idhe . He notes that the name Ì was "generally lengthened to avoid confusion" to Ì Chaluim Chille , which means "Calum's Iona" or "island of Calum's monastery". ("Calum"'s latinized form

9750-637: The fourth degree of O.T.O. is also known as the Holy Royal Arch of Enoch. It was summarized by Reuss as the Degree of "Scotch Masonry", equivalent to "Scotch Mason, Knight of St. Andrew, Royal Arch", and he described it as "Full instruction in the Scottish degrees of Ancient and Accepted Masonry". In 1919, Crowley attempted to work this Masonic-based O.T.O. in Detroit, Michigan. The result was that he

9880-414: The island's exemplary high crosses were sculpted; these may be the first such crosses to contain the ring around the intersection that became characteristic of the " Celtic cross ". The series of Viking raids on Iona began in 794 and, after its treasures had been plundered many times, Columba's relics were removed and divided two ways between Scotland and Ireland in 849 as the monastery was abandoned. As

10010-479: The island's name may be connected with the Norse word Hiōe , meaning "island of the den of the brown bear". The medieval English-language version of the name was "Icolmkill" (and variants thereof). Murray (1966) claims that the "ancient" Gaelic name was Innis nan Druinich ("the isle of Druidic hermits"), but there is no evidence for the "ancient" use of such a name before the nineteenth century when it appears in

10140-400: The island. The C20, however, saw the greatest period of influence on landscape painting, in particular through the many paintings of the island produced by F. C. B. Cadell and S. J. Peploe , two of the " Scottish Colourists ". As with many artists, both professional and amateur, they were attracted by the unique quality of light, the white sandy beaches, the aquamarine colours of the sea and

10270-512: The landscape of rich greens and rocky outcrops. While Cadell and Peploe are perhaps best known, many major Scottish painters of the C20 worked on Iona and visited many times – for example George Houston , D. Y. Cameron , James Shearer , John Duncan and John Maclauchlan Milne, among many. Samuel Johnson wrote "That man is little to be envied whose patriotism would not gain force upon the plains of Marathon or whose piety would not grow warmer amid

10400-603: The local taxi. The island of Iona has played an important role in Scottish landscape painting, especially during the Twentieth Century. As travel to north and west Scotland became easier from the mid C18 on, artists' visits to the island steadily increased. The Abbey remains in particular became frequently recorded during this early period. Many of the artists are listed and illustrated in the valuable book, "Iona Portrayed – The Island through Artists' Eyes 1760–1960" , which lists over 170 artists known to have painted on

10530-548: The mid-19th century and their descendants. Occultism is thus often used to categorise such esoteric traditions as Spiritualism, Theosophy, Anthroposophy, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and New Age. A different division was used by the Traditionalist author René Guénon , who used esotericism to describe what he believed was the Traditionalist, inner teaching at the heart of most religions, while occultism

10660-501: The monastery of Iona, and every immunity which the monastery of Iona had from his ancestors before him" – MacVurich. It might be expressed that Iona Abbey had been acting as a "(holy owned) land trust" for Clan Donald from Somerled who built St. Oran's Chapel. The 8th Duke of Argyll presented the sacred buildings and sites of the island to the Iona Cathedral trust in 1899. Historic Environment Scotland also recommends visiting

10790-461: The name Hymenaeus Beta . In the Fall 1995 issue of The Magical Link , he is designated "Hymenaeus Beta X°"; in the Fall 1997 issue of The Magical Link , he is designated "Hymenaeus Beta XI°"; by May 2005, he is designated "O.H.O. Hymenaeus Beta XII°" on the O.T.O. website. In 1996, Sabazius X° was appointed as National Grand Master General (G.M.G.) for the U.S. Grand Lodge. In 2005, Frater Hyperion X°

10920-749: The nineteenth century and their twentieth-century derivations. In a descriptive sense, it has been used to describe forms of esotericism which developed in nineteenth-century France, especially in the Neo-Martinist environment. According to the historian of esotericism Antoine Faivre , it is with the esotericist Éliphas Lévi that "the occultist current properly so-called" first appears. Other prominent French esotericists involved in developing occultism included Papus , Stanislas de Guaita , Joséphin Péladan , Georges-Albert Puyou de Pouvourville , and Jean Bricaud . The idea of occult sciences developed in

11050-474: The noblest work of God". Limited archaeological investigations commissioned by the National Trust for Scotland found some evidence for ancient burials in 2013. The excavations, conducted in the area of Martyrs Bay , revealed burials from the 6th–8th centuries, probably jumbled up and reburied in the 13–15th centuries. Other early Christian and medieval monuments have been removed for preservation to

11180-452: The official papers connected to the O.T.O. but the idea that you should meet other members first is quite impossible. Even after affiliation, you would not meet anyone unless it were necessary for you to work in cooperation with them. I am afraid you have still got the idea that the Great Work is a tea party. Contact with other students only means that you criticize their hats, and then their morals; and I am not going to encourage this. Your work

11310-519: The older term occult , much as the term esotericism derives from the older term esoteric . However, the historian of esotericism Wouter Hanegraaff stated that it was important to distinguish between the meanings of the term occult and occultism . Occultism is not a homogenous movement and is widely diverse. Over the course of its history, the term occultism has been used in various different ways. However, in contemporary uses, occultism commonly refers to forms of esotericism that developed in

11440-751: The opening of the British section of O.T.O., which was called the Mysteria Mystica Maxima or the M∴M∴M∴. Crowley then went to Berlin to obtain instructional manuscripts and the title of Supreme and Holy King of Ireland, Iona and all the Britains within the Sanctuary of the Gnosis . Within the year, Crowley had written the Manifesto of the M∴M∴M∴ which described its basic ten-degree system with Kellner's three degree Academia Masonica forming

11570-495: The original organization and primacy over the other ones. Courts have ruled that the organization incorporated by Crowley's student Grady McMurtry in 1979 is the legal continuation of the Order and is the exclusive owner of the names, trademarks, copyrights and other assets of Crowley's O.T.O. The early history of O.T.O. is difficult to trace reliably. It originated in Germany or Austria between 1895 and 1906. Its apparent founder

11700-638: The orthodox Masonry of the Lodges. Crowley subsequently rewrote the initiation rituals of the first three degrees, and in doing so removed most of those rituals' ties to Masonry. He did not, however, rewrite the fourth degree ritual, which remains in its form and structure related to the various Royal Arch rituals of Masonry. Crowley wrote that Theodore Reuss suffered a stroke in the spring of 1920. In correspondence with one of Reuss' officers, Crowley expressed doubts about Reuss' competence to remain in office. Relations between Reuss and Crowley began to deteriorate, and

11830-457: The perspective of cybernetics and information technologies. Philosopher Eugene Thacker discusses Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa 's Three Books of Occult Philosophy in his book In The Dust Of This Planet , where he shows how the horror genre utilizes occult themes to reveal hidden realities. Iona Iona ( / aɪ ˈ oʊ n ə / ; Scottish Gaelic : Ì Chaluim Chille [ˈiː ˈxal̪ˠɪm ˈçiʎə] , sometimes simply Ì )

11960-469: The possibility of unveiling the future or of exercising supernormal powers do so because the efficacy of the methods they employ coheres with some systematic conception which they hold of the way the universe functions...however flimsy its empirical basis." In his 1871 book Primitive Culture , the anthropologist Edward Tylor used the term "occult science" as a synonym for magic . Occult qualities are properties that have no known rational explanation; in

12090-536: The quarry, with little quarrying after 1914 and the operation finally closed in 1919. A painting showing the quarry in operation, The Marble Quarry, Iona (1909) by David Young Cameron , is in the collection of Cartwright Hall art gallery in Bradford. The site has been designated as a Scheduled Ancient Monument. The island, other than the land owned by the Iona Cathedral Trust, was purchased from

12220-423: The rare corncrake and puffins" as well as the "abundance of sea life". The Iona Council advises visitors that they can find a campsite (at Cnoc Oran), a hostel (at Lagandorain), family run bed and breakfasts and two hotels on the island in addition to several self-catering houses. The agency also mentions that distances are short, with the Abbey a mere 10 minutes walk from the pier. Tourists can rent bikes or use

12350-417: The recent socialist teachings of Charles Fourier . The French esotericist Éliphas Lévi then used the term in his influential book on ritual magic , Dogme et rituel de la haute magie , first published in 1856. Lévi was familiar with that work and might have borrowed the term from there. In any case, Lévi also claimed to be a representative of an older tradition of occult science or occult philosophy. It

12480-602: The region (the King of the Isles ), launched a revolt and made the kingdom independent. A convent for Augustinian nuns was established in about 1208, with Bethóc , Somerled's daughter, as first prioress. The present buildings are of the Benedictine abbey , Iona Abbey , from about 1203, dissolved at the Reformation . On Somerled's death, nominal Norwegian overlordship of the Kingdom was re-established, but de facto control

12610-470: The religions of Asia, such as Hinduism and Buddhism . In various cases, certain occultists did both. Another characteristic of these occultists was the emphasis that they placed on "the spiritual realization of the individual", an idea that would strongly influence the twentieth-century New Age and Human Potential Movement . This spiritual realization was encouraged both through traditional Western 'occult sciences' like alchemy and ceremonial magic , but by

12740-436: The religious or philosophical belief systems on which such practices are based. This division was initially adopted by the early academic scholar of esotericism, Antoine Faivre, although he later abandoned it; it has been rejected by most scholars who study esotericism. By the 21st century the term was commonly employed – including by academic scholars of esotericism – to refer to a range of esoteric currents that developed in

12870-478: The same time assisted him to discover for himself the nature of [the supreme] secret, the proper object of its employment and the best means for insuring success for its use. Of the entire system of O.T.O., Crowley wrote in Confessions : It offers a rational basis for universal brotherhood and for universal religion. It puts forward a scientific statement which is a summary of all that is at present known about

13000-474: The scenic road runs 37 miles (60 kilometres) to Fionnphort. Tourist coaches and local bus services meet the ferries. Car ownership is lightly regulated, with no requirement for a MOT Certificate or payment of Road Tax for cars kept permanently on the island, but vehicular access is restricted to permanent residents and there are few cars. Visitors are not allowed to bring vehicles onto the island although "blue badge holders with restricted mobility ... may apply for

13130-463: The seventh, eighth and ninth degrees. In 1913, Crowley composed the Gnostic Mass while in Moscow, which he described as being the Order's "central ceremony of its public and private celebration". In 1914, soon after World War I broke out, he moved to the United States. It was around this time that Crowley decided to integrate Thelema into the O.T.O. system, and in 1915 prepared revised rituals for use in

13260-507: The sixteenth century. The term usually encompassed three practices – astrology, alchemy, and natural magic – although sometimes various forms of divination were also included rather than being subsumed under natural magic. These were grouped together because, according to the Dutch scholar of hermeticism Wouter Hanegraaff , "each one of them engaged in a systematic investigation of nature and natural processes, in

13390-451: The south are amongst the largest. The steamer Cathcart Park carrying a cargo of salt from Runcorn to Wick ran aground on Soa on 15 April 1912, the crew of 11 escaping in two boats. On a map of 1874, the following territorial subdivision is indicated (from north to south): In the early Historic Period Iona lay within the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata , in the region controlled by

13520-411: The start of the twentieth century had also begun to include practices drawn from non-Western contexts, such as yoga . Although occultism is distinguished from earlier forms of esotericism, many occultists have also been involved in older esoteric currents. For instance, occultists like François-Charles Barlet  [ fr ] and Rudolf Steiner were also theosophers , adhering to the ideas of

13650-563: The supernatural. The term occult sciences was used in the 16th century to refer to astrology , alchemy , and natural magic . The earliest known usage of the term occultism is in the French language, as l'occultisme . In this form it appears in A. de Lestrange's article that was published in Dictionnaire des mots nouveaux ("Dictionary of new words") by Jean-Baptiste Richard de Radonvilliers  [ fr ] in 1842. However, it

13780-461: The term occultism can be used not only for the nineteenth-century groups which openly self-described using that term but can also be used in reference to "the type of esotericism that they represent". Seeking to define occultism so that the term would be suitable "as an etic category" for scholars, Hanegraaff devised the following definition: "a category in the study of religions, which comprises "all attempts by esotericists to come to terms with

13910-427: The term as a synonym for esotericism, an approach that the later scholar of esotericism Marco Pasi suggested left the term superfluous. Unlike Amadou, other writers saw occultism and esotericism as different, albeit related, phenomena. In the 1970s, the sociologist Edward A. Tiryakian distinguished between occultism, which he used in reference to practices, techniques, and procedures, and esotericism, which he defined as

14040-723: The term in an academic sense, stating that occulture was "the new spiritual environment in the West; the reservoir feeding new spiritual springs; the soil in which new spiritualities are growing". Recently scholars have offered perspectives on the occult as intertwined with media and technology. Examples include the work of film and media theorist Jeffrey Sconce and religious studies scholar John Durham Peters , both of whom suggest that occult movements historically utilize media and apparatuses as tools to reveal hidden aspects of reality or laws of nature. Erik Davis in his book Techgnosis gives an overview of occultism both ancient and modern from

14170-465: The two exchanged angry letters in November 1921. Crowley informed Reuss that he was availing himself of Reuss' abdication from office and proclaiming himself Outer Head of the Order. Reuss died on October 28, 1923, without designating a successor, though Crowley wrote in later correspondence that Reuss had designated him. Crowley's biographer Lawrence Sutin, among others, casts doubt on this, though there

14300-414: The universe by means of a simple, yet sublime symbolism, artistically arranged. It also enables each man to discover for himself his personal destiny, indicates the moral and intellectual qualities which he requires in order to fulfill it freely, and finally puts in his hands an unimaginably powerful weapon that he may use to develop in himself every faculty which he may need in his work. Membership in O.T.O.

14430-401: The vacuousness of materialism more apparent". The Dutch scholar of hermeticism Wouter Hanegraaff remarked that occultism was "essentially an attempt to adapt esotericism" to the " disenchanted world ", a post-Enlightenment society in which growing scientific discovery had eradicated the "dimension of irreducible mystery" previously present. In doing so, he noted, occultism distanced itself from

14560-464: The war, the only surviving O.T.O. body was Agapé Lodge in California, although there were various initiates in different countries. Very few initiations were being performed. At this time, Karl Germer , who had been Crowley's representative in Germany, migrated to the United States after being released from Nazi confinement. On March 14, 1942, Crowley appointed him as his successor as Outer Head of

14690-537: The year 563 to establish the Abbey, which still stands". Because the Hebrides have been successively occupied by speakers of several languages since the Iron Age , many of its islands' names have more than one possible meaning. Nonetheless, few, if any, have accumulated as many different names over the centuries as the island now known in English as "Iona". The place-name scholar William J. Watson has shown that

14820-600: Was "Henceforth we shall call her Ì". The geology of Iona is quite complex given the island's size and quite distinct from that of nearby Mull. About half of the island's bedrock is Scourian gneiss assigned to the Lewisian complex and dating from the Archaean eon making it some of the oldest rock in Britain and indeed Europe. Closely associated with these gneisses are mylonite and meta-anorthosite and melagabbro. Along

14950-517: Was 120. In March 1980, the Hugh Fraser Foundation donated much of the main island (and its off-lying islands) to the current owner, the National Trust for Scotland . The abbey and some church buildings are owned by the Iona Cathedral Trust. One publication, describing the religious significance of the island, says that the island is "known as the birthplace of Celtic Christianity in Scotland,” and notes that “St Columba came here in

15080-592: Was Carl Kellner (1851–1905) (probably with the German spelling Karl), a wealthy Austrian industrialist, in 1895 (although nothing verifiable is known of the Order until 1904). Kellner wanted to establish an Academia Masonica within which high-grade Freemasonic degrees could be conferred in German-speaking nations. Theodor Reuss (1855–1923) collaborated with Kellner in creating O.T.O. and succeeded him as head of O.T.O. after Kellner's death. Under Reuss, charters were given to occult brotherhoods in France, Denmark, Switzerland,

15210-686: Was a major supporter of the "Celtic" system for calculating the date of Easter at the time of the Easter controversy , which pitted supporters of the Celtic system against those favoring the "Roman" system used elsewhere in Western Christianity. The controversy weakened Iona's ties to Northumbria, which adopted the Roman system at the Synod of Whitby in 664, and to Pictland, which followed suit in

15340-585: Was appointed the National G.M.G. of the newly formed UK Grand Lodge. Frater Shiva X° was appointed the G.M.G. of the Australia Grand Lodge in 2006. In 2014, Frater Abrasax X° was appointed the National G.M.G. of the newly formed Grand Lodge of Croatia, and Frater Phanes X° was appointed the National G.M.G. of the newly formed Grand Lodge of Italy. On October 14, 2014, these five National Grand Masters elected Hymenaeus Beta as "de jure" Outer Head of

15470-660: Was commercially mined in the south-east of Iona; the quarry and machinery survive, see "Marble Quarry remains" below. Iona Abbey, now an ecumenical church, is of particular historical and religious interest to pilgrims and visitors alike. It is the most elaborate and best-preserved ecclesiastical building surviving from the Middle Ages in the Western Isles of Scotland . Though modest in scale in comparison to medieval abbeys elsewhere in Western Europe , it has

15600-481: Was credited with healing and other powers. While the quarry had been used in a small way, it was not until around the end of the 18th century when it was opened up on a more industrial scale by the Duke of Argyle. The difficulties of extracting the hard stone and transporting it meant that the scheme was short lived. Another attempt was started in 1907, this time more successful with considerable quantities of stone extracted and indeed exported. The First World War impacted

15730-715: Was defeated by Bruce, the latter exiled the MacDougalls and transferred their island territories to the MacDonalds; by marrying the heir of the MacRorys , the heir of the MacDonalds re-unified most of Somerled's realm, creating the Lordship of the Isles , under nominal Scottish authority. Iona, which had been a MacDougall territory (together with the rest of Lorn), was given to the Campbells , where it remained for half

15860-503: Was from his usage of the term occultisme that it gained wider usage; according to Faivre, Lévi was "the principal exponent of esotericism in Europe and the United States" at that time. The term occultism emerged in 19th-century France, where it came to be associated with various French esoteric groups connected to Éliphas Lévi and Papus , The earliest use of the term occultism in the English language appears to be in "A Few Questions to 'Hiraf'", an 1875 article by Helena Blavatsky ,

15990-589: Was incorporated under the laws of the State of California on March 26, 1979. The corporation attained federal tax exemption as a religious entity under IRS Code 501(c)3 in 1982. Grady McMurtry died in 1985. McMurtry requested that members of the Sovereign Sanctuary of the Gnosis (i.e. the members of the Ninth Degree) elect the next Caliph, which they did in 1985. William Breeze was elected, taking

16120-445: Was introduced into the English language by the esotericist Helena Blavatsky . Throughout the 20th century, the term 'occult' was used idiosyncratically by a range of different authors. By the 21st century the term 'occultism' was commonly employed –including by academic scholars in the field of Western esotericism studies – to refer to a range of esoteric currents that developed in the mid-19th century and their descendants. Occultism

16250-590: Was not related, at this point, to the notion of Ésotérisme chrétien , as has been claimed by Hanegraaff, but to describe a political "system of occulticity" that was directed against priests and aristocrats. In 1853, the Freemasonic author Jean-Marie Ragon had already used occultisme in his popular work Maçonnerie occulte , relating it to earlier practices that, since the Renaissance , had been termed "occult sciences" or "occult philosophy", but also to

16380-554: Was rebuffed by the Council of the Scottish Rite on the basis that O.T.O. rituals were too similar to orthodox Masonry. He described this in a 1930 letter to Arnold Krumm-Heller : However, when it came to the considerations of the practical details of the rituals to be worked, the general Council of the Scottish Rite could not see its way to tolerate them, on the ground that the symbolism in some places touched too nearly that of

16510-406: Was recorded. None of these graves are now identifiable (their inscriptions were reported to have worn away at the end of the 17th century). Saint Baithin and Saint Failbhe may also be buried on the island. The Abbey graveyard is also the final resting place of John Smith , the former Labour Party leader, who loved Iona. His grave is marked with an epitaph quoting Alexander Pope : "An honest man's

16640-409: Was restored at the same time as the Abbey itself. It contains a number of medieval grave monuments. The abbey graveyard is said to contain the graves of many early Scottish Kings , as well as Norse kings from Ireland and Norway. Iona became the burial site for the kings of Dál Riata and their successors. Notable burials there include: In 1549 an inventory of 48 Scottish, 8 Norwegian and 4 Irish kings

16770-589: Was split between Somerled's sons, and his brother-in-law. Following the 1266 Treaty of Perth the Hebrides were transferred from Norwegian to Scottish overlordship. At the end of the century, King John Balliol was challenged for the throne by Robert the Bruce . By this point, Somerled's descendants had split into three groups, the MacRory , MacDougalls , and MacDonalds . The MacDougalls backed Balliol, so when he

16900-427: Was used pejoratively to describe new religions and movements that he disapproved of, such as Spiritualism, Theosophy, and various secret societies . Guénon's use of this terminology was adopted by later writers like Serge Hutin and Luc Benoist . As noted by Hanegraaff, Guénon's use of these terms are rooted in his Traditionalist beliefs and "cannot be accepted as scholarly valid". The term occultism derives from

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