Archduke Friedrich Admiral Robert Stopford
138-425: [REDACTED] Muhammad Ali Pasha The Oriental Crisis of 1840 was an episode in the Egyptian–Ottoman War in the eastern Mediterranean , triggered by the self-declared Khedive of Egypt and Sudan Muhammad Ali Pasha 's aims to establish a personal empire in Ottoman Egypt . In the preceding decades, Muhammad Ali had expanded and strengthened his hold on Ottoman territory, beginning with Egypt, where he acted as
276-736: A firman was issued by the sultan and confirmed Muhammad Ali's rule over Egypt and the Sudan. Muhammad Ali withdrew from Syria , the Hijaz, the Holy Land, Adana and Crete and handed back the Ottoman fleet. Ecologist Andreas Malm marked the intervention as the pivotal event in the history of the Middle East and the climate system , suggesting that the British ability to project power led to
414-411: A European Union study has been devised to promote a modern highway to connect the northern and southern parts of the island via a tunnel . The study proposal includes a 15.7 km (9.8 mi) section of road between the villages of Agia Varvara and Agia Deka in central Crete. The new road section forms part of the route between Messara in the south and Crete's largest city Heraklion , which houses
552-545: A steam jack driven by a rudimentary steam turbine , it was under Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century that steam engines were introduced to Egyptian industrial manufacturing. While there was a lack of coal deposits in Egypt, prospectors searched for coal deposits there, and manufactured boilers which were installed in Egyptian industries such as ironworks , textile manufacturing , paper mills and hulling mills. Coal
690-938: A coastline of 1,046 km (650 mi); to the north, it broaches the Sea of Crete (Greek: Κρητικό Πέλαγος ); to the south, the Libyan Sea (Greek: Λιβυκό Πέλαγος ); in the west, the Myrtoan Sea , and toward the east the Carpathian Sea. It lies approximately 160 km (99 mi) south of the Greek mainland. There are a number of peninsulas and gulfs on the north side of Crete, from west to east these include: Gramvousa peninsula, gulf of Kissamos, Rodopos peninsula, gulf of Chania , Akrotiri peninsula, Souda Bay , Apokoronas cape, gulf of Almiros , gulf of Heraklion , Aforesmenos cape, gulf of Mirabello , gulf of Sitia and
828-507: A deathblow to the system of monopolies, though the application of the treaty to Egypt was delayed for some years. Another notable fact in the economic progress of the country was the development of the cultivation of cotton in the Delta in 1822 and onwards. The cotton grown previously had been brought from the Sudan by Maho Bey . By organizing the new industry, within a few years Muhammad Ali
966-653: A difficult province for the Ottoman Sultans to control, due in part to the continuing power and influence of the Mamluks , the Egyptian military caste who had ruled the country for centuries. As such, Egypt remained semi-autonomous under the Mamluks until Napoleon Bonaparte 's French forces invaded in 1798. After Anglo-Turkish forces expelled the French in 1801, Muhammad Ali Pasha , an Albanian military commander of
1104-547: A disc shaped symbol as their banner. By the end of the Century these factions were well established and wielded a significant amount of influence over Ottoman governors. By the 18th century, the importance of the pasha was superseded by that of the Mameluk beys; two offices, those of Shaykh al-Balad and Amir al-hajj —which were held by Mamluks—represented the real headship of the community. The process by which this came about
1242-573: A fleet and in training, under the supervision of French instructors, native officers and artificers. By 1823, he had succeeded in carrying out the reorganization of his army on European lines, the turbulent Turkish and Albanian elements being replaced by Sudanese and fellahin . The effectiveness of the new force was demonstrated in the suppression of an 1823 revolt of the Albanians in Cairo by six disciplined Sudanese regiments; after which Muhammad Ali
1380-659: A force of 12,000 men, to be employed by the Porte in the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 . It was suggested at Constantinople, however, that Ali would employ securing his own independence, and a messenger was sent by the Porte to the pasha with orders for Ali's execution. Ali, being apprised of the despatch of this messenger by his agents in Constantinople, ordered that the messenger be waylaid and killed. The despatches were seized and read by Ali before an assembly of
1518-485: A joint attack on Cairo, but Bonaparte arrived in time to defeat it. In the last week of July, he inflicted a crushing defeat on the Turkish army that had landed at Aboukir , aided by the British fleet commanded by Sir Sidney Smith . Shortly after his victory, Bonaparte left Egypt, having appointed Kléber to govern in his absence—which he informed the sheiks of Cairo was not to last more than three months. Kléber regarded
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#17327651447031656-614: A new airport at Kasteli , where there is presently an air force base, and the new Kasteli Airport is due to open by 2027. The island is well served by ferries, mostly from Piraeus , by ferry companies such as Minoan Lines and ANEK Lines with links to the Cyclades and Dodecanese islands. Seajets also operates routes to Cyclades . The main ports from west to east are at Kissamos (ferry link to Peloponnese), Souda (Chania), Rethymno , Heraklion (links to Cyclades), Agios Nikolaos and Sitia (link to Dodecanese). Most of Crete
1794-846: A quasi-independent state under Ottoman suzerainty until the British occupation of 1882. Nevertheless, the Khedivate of Egypt (1867–1914) remained a de jure Ottoman province until 5 November 1914, when the Sultanate of Egypt was declared a British protectorate in reaction to the Young Turks of the Ottoman Empire joining the First World War on the side of the Central Powers (October–November 1914). After
1932-449: A rejoinder came in the same style as the first message, he had the leader of the deputation arrested and imprisoned. The garrison of Alexandria then attacked the castle and rescued the prisoner, whereupon Çeşteci Ali Pasha was compelled to reembark on his ship and escape. Shortly thereafter, a rescript arrived from Constantinople confirming Kara Mustafa Pasha in the governorship. Mustafa was succeeded by Bayram Pasha in 1626. Officers in
2070-459: A second conquest of Egypt for the Ottomans. A great financial reform was then effected by Kara Mehmed Pasha, who readjusted the burdens imposed on the different communities of Egypt in accordance with their means. With the troubles that beset the metropolis of the Ottoman Empire, the local Mamluk beys began to dominate the Egyptian administration, being placed in charge of the treasury and given
2208-527: A significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece, while retaining its own local cultural traits (such as its own poetry and music ). The Nikos Kazantzakis airport at Heraklion and the Daskalogiannis airport at Chania serve international travelers. The Minoan palace at Knossos is also located in Heraklion. The earliest references to the island of Crete come from texts from
2346-812: A small landing party of Austrian, British and Ottoman troops, which were led personally by the Austrian fleet commander, Archduke Friedrich , took the citadel after Muhammad Ali's Egyptian garrison in Acre had fled. After the surrender of Acre, Muhammad Ali finally accepted the terms of the Convention on 27 November 1840. He renounced his claims over Crete and the Hijaz and agreed to downsize his naval forces and his standing army to 18,000 men if he and his descendants would enjoy hereditary rule over Egypt and Sudan , an unheard-of status for an Ottoman viceroy . Indeed,
2484-455: A terrible plague raged in Cairo and elsewhere in Egypt, to which Ismail Bey and most of his family fell victims. Owing to the need for competent rulers, Ibrahim Bey and Murad Bey were sent for, and resumed their dual government. They were still in office in 1798 when Napoleon Bonaparte entered Egypt. The ostensible object of the French expedition to Egypt was to reinstate the authority of
2622-661: A viceroy for the Sultan. Called upon to assist the Ottomans in the Greek War of Independence , Muhammad Ali in return demanded parts of Ottoman Syria to be transferred to his personal rule. When the war ended and the Porte failed to keep its promise, Muhammad Ali launched a military campaign against his Ottoman masters and easily took most of the Syrian lands. In 1839, the Ottoman Empire attempted to retake Syria from Muhammad Ali but
2760-537: A virtual monopoly over the various provincial administrations. In addition, Mamluk beys came to hold important military positions within Egypt, giving them a power source with which to challenge Ottoman-appointed governors. The governors appointed thence came to be treated by the Egyptians with continually decreasing respect. In July 1623, an order came from the Porte dismissing Kara Mustafa Pasha , and appointing Çeşteci Ali Pasha governor in his place. The officers met
2898-472: Is a competition for power between the Mamluks and the representatives of the Ottoman Sultan . The register by which a great portion of the land was a fief of the Mamluks was left unchanged, allowing the Mamluks to quickly return to positions of great influence. The Mamluk emirs were to be retained in office as heads of 12 sanjaks , into which Egypt was divided; and under the next sultan, Suleiman
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#17327651447033036-573: Is fairly mild. Snowfall is common on the mountains between November and May, but rare in the low-lying areas. The south coast, including the Mesara Plain and Asterousia Mountains , falls in the North African climatic zone, enjoying significantly more sunny days and high temperatures throughout the year. There, date palms bear fruit, and swallows remain year-round rather than migrate to Africa . The fertile region around Ierapetra , on
3174-535: Is obscure, owing to the want of good chronicles for the Turkish period of Egyptian history. In 1707, the shaykh al-balad, Qasim Iywaz , was the head of one of two Mameluke factions, the Qasimites and the Fiqarites , between whom the seeds of enmity were sown by the pasha of the time, with the result that a fight took place between the factions outside Cairo, lasting eighty days. At the end of that time, Qasim Iywaz
3312-425: Is one of the few Greek islands that can support itself without a tourism industry. The economy began to change visibly during the 1970s as tourism gained in importance. Although an emphasis remains on agriculture and stock breeding, because of the climate and terrain of the island, there has been a drop in manufacturing, and an observable expansion in its service industries (mainly tourism-related). All three sectors of
3450-452: Is served by the road network. A modern highway is currently being upgraded along the north coast connecting the four major cities ( A90 motorway ), the sections bypassing the main cities (Heraklion to Malia, Rethymno, Chania to Kolymvari) are at motorway standard, while the sections in between, and west to Kissamos and east to Sitia, should be completed by 2028. A link will also connect to the new Kasteli international airport . In addition,
3588-647: Is the Linear B archive from Knossos, dated approximately to 1425–1375 BC. After the Bronze Age collapse , Crete was settled by new waves of Greeks from the mainland. A number of city states developed in the Archaic period . There was limited contact with mainland Greece, and Greek historiography shows little interest in Crete, as a result, there are few literary sources. During the 6th to 4th centuries BC, Crete
3726-767: Is to expropriate 850 ha (2,100 acres) of land. The port would handle two million containers per year, but the project has not been universally welcomed because of its environmental, economic and cultural impact. As of January 2013, the project has still not been confirmed, although there is mounting pressure to approve it, arising from Greece's difficult economic situation. There are plans for underwater cables going from mainland Greece to Israel and Egypt passing by Crete and Cyprus: EuroAfrica Interconnector and EuroAsia Interconnector . They would connect Crete electrically with mainland Greece, ending energy isolation of Crete. At present Greece covers electricity cost differences for Crete of around €300 million per year. In
3864-673: The Austrian Empire , Prussia and Russia decided to intervene on behalf of the young Sultan Abdülmecid I . By the Convention of London , signed on 15 July 1840, the Great Powers offered Muhammad Ali and his heirs permanent control over Egypt, Sudan, and the Eyalet of Acre if those territories would nominally remain part of the Ottoman Empire. If he did not accept the withdrawal of his forces within ten days, he would lose
4002-537: The Battle of the Pyramids ), at which the forces of both Murad Bey and Ibrahim Bey were dispersed, the populace readily plundered the houses of the beys. A deputation was sent from Al-Azhar Mosque to Bonaparte to ascertain his intentions; these proved to be a repetition of the terms of his proclamation, and—though the combination of loyalty to the French with loyalty to the sultan was incompatible—a good understanding
4140-653: The Cretan State . Crete became part of Greece in December 1913. The island is mostly mountainous, and its character is defined by a high mountain range crossing from west to east. It includes Crete's highest point, Mount Ida , and the range of the White Mountains (Lefka Ori) with 30 summits above 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) in altitude and the Samaria Gorge , a World Biosphere Reserve . Crete forms
4278-632: The Crete Region ( Greek : Περιφέρεια Κρήτης , Periféria Krítis , [periˈferia ˈkritis] ), one of the 13 regions of Greece which were established in the 1987 administrative reform. Under the 2010 Kallikratis plan , the powers and authority of the regions were redefined and extended. The region is based at Heraklion and is divided into four regional units (pre-Kallikratis prefectures ). From west to east these are: Chania , Rethymno , Heraklion , and Lasithi . These are further subdivided into 24 municipalities . Since 1 January 2011,
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4416-582: The Mediterranean , and Minoan cultural influence extended to Cyprus , Canaan , and Egypt . Some scholars have speculated that legends such as that of the minotaur have a historical basis in Minoan times. In 1420 BC, the Minoan civilization was subsumed by the Mycenaean civilization from mainland Greece. The oldest samples of writing in the Greek language, as identified by Michael Ventris ,
4554-660: The Minoans , from 2700 to 1420 BC. The Minoan civilization was overrun by the Mycenaean civilization from mainland Greece. Crete was later ruled by Rome, then successively by the Byzantine Empire , Andalusian Arabs, the Venetian Republic , and the Ottoman Empire . In 1898 Crete, whose people had for some time wanted to join the Greek state, achieved independence from the Ottomans, formally becoming
4692-493: The Sea of Crete (or North Cretan Sea) to the north and the Libyan Sea (or South Cretan Sea) to the south. Crete covers 260 km from west to east but is narrow from north to south, spanning three longitudes but only half a latitude. Crete and a number of islands and islets that surround it constitute the Region of Crete (Greek: Περιφέρεια Κρήτης ), which is the southernmost of the 13 top-level administrative units of Greece , and
4830-515: The Sideros peninsula. On the south side of Crete is the gulf of Messaras and Cape Lithinon . Crete is mountainous, and its character is defined by a high mountain range crossing from west to east, formed by six different groups of mountains: These mountains lavish Crete with valleys, such as Amari valley , fertile plateaus, such as Lasithi plateau , Omalos and Nidha ; caves, such as Gourgouthakas , Diktaion , and Idaion (the birthplace of
4968-722: The Syrian city of Mari dating from the 18th century BC, where the island is referred to as Kaptara . This is repeated later in Neo-Assyrian records and the Bible ( Caphtor ). It was known in ancient Egyptian as Keftiu or kftı͗w , strongly suggesting a similar Minoan name for the island. The current name Crete is first attested in the 15th century BC in Mycenaean Greek texts, written in Linear B , through
5106-537: The ancient Greek word "κραταιή" (krataie̅) , meaning strong or powerful, the reasoning being that Crete was the strongest thalassocracy during ancient times. In Latin , the name of the island became Creta . The original Arabic name of Crete was Iqrīṭiš ( Arabic : اقريطش < (τῆς) Κρήτης) , but after the Emirate of Crete 's establishment of its new capital at ربض الخندق Rabḍ al-Ḫandaq (modern Heraklion ; Greek : Ηράκλειο , Irákleio ), both
5244-418: The conquest of Mamluk Egypt by the Ottomans in 1517. The Ottomans administered Egypt as a province ( eyalet ) of their empire ( Ottoman Turkish : ایالت مصر , romanized : Eyālet-i Mıṣr ). It remained formally an Ottoman province until 1914, though in practice it became increasingly autonomous during the 19th century and was under de facto British control from 1882. Egypt always proved
5382-592: The fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea , after Sicily , Sardinia , Cyprus , and Corsica . Crete is located about 100 km (62 mi) south of the Peloponnese , and about 300 km (190 mi) southwest of Anatolia . Crete has an area of 8,450 km (3,260 sq mi) and a coastline of 1,046 km (650 mi). It bounds the southern border of the Aegean Sea , with
5520-419: The south and east have a hot semi-arid climate ( Köppen climate classification : BSh ). The higher elevations fall into the warm-summer Mediterranean climate category ( Csb ) while the mountain peaks (>2,000 meters) might feature a cold-summer Mediterranean climate ( Csc ) or a continental climate ( Dfb or Dfc ). The atmosphere can be quite humid, depending on the proximity to the sea, while winter
5658-461: The 1820s–1830s, as well as for the adoption of oil as a potential energy source for its steam engines later in the 19th century. Crete Crete ( / k r iː t / KREET ; Greek : Κρήτη , Modern : Kríti [ˈkriti] , Ancient : Krḗtē [krɛ̌ːtεː] ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands , the 88th largest island in the world and
Oriental Crisis of 1840 - Misplaced Pages Continue
5796-513: The Cretan economy (agriculture/farming, processing-packaging, services), are directly connected and interdependent. The island has a per capita income much higher than the Greek average, whereas unemployment is at approximately 4%, one-sixth of that of the country overall. As in many regions of Greece, viticulture and olive groves are significant; oranges , citrons and avocadoes are also cultivated. Until recently there were restrictions on
5934-549: The French evacuated Egypt, the country became the scene of more severe troubles, a consequence of the Ottomans' attempts to destroy the power of the Mamluks. In defiance of promises to the British Government, orders were transmitted from Constantinople to Hüseyin Pasha to ensnare and put to death the principal beys. According to the Egyptian contemporary historian al-Jabarti , they were invited to an entertainment on board
6072-460: The French fleet at the Battle of the Nile , and the failure of the French forces sent to Upper Egypt (where they reached the first cataract) to obtain possession of the person of Murad Bey, shook the faith of the Egyptians in their invincibility. In consequence of a series of unwelcome innovations, the relations between conquerors and conquered grew more strained daily, until at last—on the occasion of
6210-584: The Magnificent , two chambers were created, called the Greater Divan and Lesser Divan , in which both the army and the ecclesiastical authorities were represented, to aid the pasha by their deliberations. Six regiments were constituted by the conqueror Selim for the protection of Egypt; to those Suleiman added a seventh, of Circassians . It was the practice of the Sublime Porte to change
6348-489: The Mamluks had no great share. In the future, all posts in Egypt were to be open to all classes of the inhabitants; the conduct of affairs was to be committed to the men of talent, virtue, and learning; and to prove that the French were sincere Muslims, the overthrow of the papal authority in Rome was suggested. That there might be no doubt of the friendly feeling of the French to the Porte, villages and towns which capitulated to
6486-454: The Mamluks were not reinstated. The pasha, and ultimately Sultan Selim III , repeatedly tried to either ensnare them or to beguile them into submission. These efforts failing, Husrev took the field and a Turkish detachment 7,000 strong was dispatched against the Mamluks to Damanhur —whence they had descended from Upper Egypt—and was defeated by a small force under either al-Alfi or his lieutenant al-Bardisi . Their ammunition and guns fell into
6624-475: The Ottoman Egyptian army were appointed locally from the various militias, and had strong ties to the Egyptian aristocracy. Thus Ridwan Bey, a Mamluk emir , was able to exercise de facto authority over Egypt from 1631 to 1656. In 1630, Koca Musa Pasha was the newly appointed governor, when the army took it upon themselves to depose him, in indignation at his execution of Kits Bey , an officer who
6762-554: The Ottoman army in Egypt, seized power in 1805 , and established a quasi-independent state. Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty remained nominally an Ottoman province. In reality, it was practically independent and went to war twice with the empire—in 1831–33 and 1839–41 . The Ottoman sultan granted Egypt the status of an autonomous vassal state or Khedivate in 1867. Isma'il Pasha (Khedive from 1867 to 1879) and Tewfik Pasha (Khedive from 1879 to 1892) governed Egypt as
6900-642: The Sublime Porte and suppress the Mamluks ; in the proclamation, printed with the Arabic types brought from the Propaganda press and issued shortly after the taking of Alexandria, Bonaparte declared that he revered God, Muhammad , and the Qur'an far more than the Mamluks revered them, and argued that all men were equal except so far as they were distinguished by their intellectual and moral excellences—of which
7038-423: The Turkish flagship and then attacked; however, Sir Robert Wilson and M.F. Mengin stated that they were fired upon in open boats in Abu Qir Bay . They offered resistance, but were overpowered, and some killed; others were made prisoners. Among the prisoners was Osman Bey al-Bardisi , who was severely wounded. The British General Hutchinson, informed of this treachery, immediately took threatening measures against
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#17327651447037176-411: The Turks agreed to a convention on 24 January 1800, by virtue of which the French were to quit Egypt. The Turkish troops advanced to Bilbeis , where they were received by the sheiks from Cairo; the Mamluks also returned to Cairo from their hiding-places. Before the preparations for the departure of the French were completed, orders came to Smith from the British government forbidding the carrying-out of
7314-401: The Turks, causing them to surrender the killed, wounded, and imprisoned Egyptians to him. At the same time, Yusuf Pasha arrested all the beys in Cairo, but soon the British compelled him to release them. Koca Hüsrev Mehmed Pasha was the first Ottoman governor of Egypt after the expulsion of the French. The form of government, however, was not the same as that before the French invasion, for
7452-458: The Turks, was soon able to return to the capital. On 14 April he bombarded Bulaq, and proceeded to bombard Cairo itself, which was taken the following night. Order was soon restored, and a fine of 12 million francs was imposed upon the rioters. Murad Bey sought an interview with Kléber, and succeeded in obtaining the government of Upper Egypt from him. Murad Bey died shortly afterwards and was succeeded by Osman Bey al-Bardisi . On 14 June, Kléber
7590-412: The ancient Greek god Zeus ); and a number of gorges. The mountains have been seen as a key feature of the island's distinctiveness, especially since the time of Romantic travellers' writing. Contemporary Cretans distinguish between highlanders and lowlanders; the former often claim to reside in places affording a higher/better climatic and moral environment. In keeping with the legacy of Romantic authors,
7728-446: The army and the pasha, who had loyal regiments on his side and the Bedouins . The soldiers went so far as to choose a sultan, and to provisionally divide the regions of Cairo between them. They were defeated by the governor Kara Mehmed Pasha , who, on 5 February 1610, entered Cairo in triumph, executed the ringleaders, and banished others to Yemen , earning him the nickname Kul Kıran ("Slavebreaker"). Historians speak of this event as
7866-423: The army then devolved on General Jacques-Francois Menou , a man who had professed Islam , and who endeavoured to conciliate the Muslim population by various measures—such as excluding all Christians (with the exception of one Frenchman) from the divan , replacing Copts who were in government service with Muslims, and subjecting French residents to taxes. Whatever popularity might have been gained by these measures
8004-455: The beys were killed. Ibrahim and Rilwan escaped and compelled the pasha to resign his governorship and return to Constantinople. Ibrahim was assassinated shortly afterwards by someone who had aspired to occupy one of the vacant beyships, which had instead been conferred upon Ali—who, as Ali Bey al-Kabir , was destined to play an important part in the history of Egypt. The murder of Ibrahim Bey took place in 1755, and his colleague Ridwan perished in
8142-443: The beys, who were assured that the order for execution applied to all alike, and he urged them to fight for their lives. His proposals were received with enthusiasm by the beys whom he had created. Egypt was declared independent, and the pasha given 48 hours to quit the country. Zahir al-Umar, Pasha of Acre, to whom official information of the step taken by Ali Bey was sent, promised his aid and kept his word by compelling an army sent by
8280-433: The chief cities of Palestine and Syria, ending with Damascus , but at this point he appears to have entered into secret negotiations with the Porte, by which he undertook to restore Egypt to Ottoman suzerainty . He proceeded to evacuate Syria, and marched with all the forces he could collect to Upper Egypt, occupying Assiut in April 1772. Having collected additional troops from the Bedouins, he marched on Cairo. Ismail Bey
8418-423: The chief products of the country. He set up a number of factories and began digging in 1819 a new canal to Alexandria, called the Mahmudiya (after the reigning sultan of Turkey). The old canal had long fallen into decay, and the necessity of a safe channel between Alexandria and the Nile was much felt. The conclusion in 1838 of a commercial treaty with Turkey, negotiated by Sir Henry Bulwer (Lord Dalling), struck
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#17327651447038556-407: The chiefs of the insurgents, and Muhammad Ali ordered that the sufferers by the disturbances should receive compensation from the treasury. The project of the Nizam Gedid (New System) was, in consequence of this mutiny, abandoned for a time. While Ibrahim was engaged in the second Arabian campaign the pasha turned his attention to strengthening the Egyptian economy. He created state monopolies over
8694-423: The city and the island became known as Χάνδαξ ( Chandax ) or Χάνδακας ( Chandakas ), which gave Latin, Italian, and Venetian Candia , from which were derived French Candie and English Candy or Candia . Under Ottoman rule , in Ottoman Turkish , Crete was called Girit ( كريد ). In the Hebrew Bible, Crete is referred to as ( כְּרֵתִים ) "kretim". Crete is the largest island in Greece and
8832-532: The coast, at Aghios Nikolaos, was formerly a freshwater lake but is now connected to the sea, in Lasithi . Three artificial lakes created by dams also exist in Crete: the lake of Aposelemis Dam , the lake of Potamos Dam, and the lake of Mpramiana Dam. Download coordinates as: Download coordinates as: A large number of islands, islets , and rocks hug the coast of Crete. Many are visited by tourists, some are only visited by archaeologists and biologists . Some are environmentally protected . A small sample of
8970-475: The command of his son Tusun , a youth of sixteen, against the Saudis in the Ottoman–Saudi War . By the end of 1811, Tusun had received reinforcements and captured Medina after a prolonged siege. He next took Jeddah and Mecca , defeating the Saudi beyond the latter and capturing their general. After the death of the Saudi leader Saud , Muhammad Ali concluded a treaty with Saud's son and successor, Abdullah I in 1815. Tusun returned to Egypt on hearing of
9108-411: The condition of the French invaders as extremely perilous, and wrote to inform the French Republic of the facts. A double expedition was sent by the Porte shortly after Bonaparte's departure for the recovery of Egypt: one force being dispatched by sea to Damietta , while another under Yousuf Pasha took the land route from Damascus by al-Arish . The first force had some success, in consequence of which
9246-430: The conduct of affairs. The result was a complete defeat for his army, after which he declined to leave his tent; he was captured after a brave resistance and taken to Cairo, where he died seven days later. After Ali Bey's death, Egypt became once more a dependency of the Porte, governed by Abu-'l-Dhahab as Sheikh al-Balad with the title pasha . He shortly afterwards received permission from the Porte to invade Syria, with
9384-417: The confiscation, begun in 1808, of almost all the lands belonging to private individuals, who were forced to accept instead inadequate pensions. By this revolutionary method of land nationalization Muhammad Ali became proprietor of nearly all the soil of Egypt. The pasha also attempted to reorganize his troops on European lines, but this led to a formidable mutiny in Cairo. The revolt was reduced by presents to
9522-438: The conquest of Egypt in 1517, the Ottoman Sultan Selim I left the country. Grand Vizier Yunus Pasha was awarded the governorship of Egypt . However, the sultan soon discovered that Yunus Pasha had created an extortion and bribery syndicate, and gave the office to Hayır Bey , the former Mamluk governor of Aleppo , who had contributed to the Ottoman victory at the Battle of Marj Dabiq . The history of early Ottoman Egypt
9660-416: The convention unless the French army were treated as prisoners of war. When these orders were communicated to Kléber, he cancelled the orders previously given to the troops and proceeded to put the country in a state of defence. His departure, with most of the army, to attack the Turks at Mataria led to riots in Cairo. The national party was unable to gain possession of the citadel, and Kléber, having defeated
9798-405: The deputy of the newly appointed governor and demanded from him the customary gratuity; when the deputy refused, they sent letters to the Porte declaring that they wished to have Kara Mustafa Pasha, and not Çeşteci Ali Pasha, as governor. Meanwhile, Çeşteci Ali Pasha had arrived at Alexandria and was met by a deputation from Cairo telling him that he was not wanted. He returned a mild answer; when
9936-590: The eastern Mediterranean moved against Syria and Alexandria. Alexandria was the port where the defecting Ottoman fleet had withdrawn. After the Royal Navy and the Austrian Navy first blockaded the Nile delta coastline, they moved east to shell Sidon and Beirut on 11 September 1840. British and Austrian forces then attacked Acre . Following the bombardment of the city and the port on 3 November 1840
10074-533: The export of fossil fuel use across the world. In addition, the intervention left Egypt economically subordinate , undergoing the most extreme deindustrialization of any country in the 19th century, and the decisive bombardments by coal-powered steamships and reports of desolation in Palestine emboldened British and American Christian Zionists , whose interests coincided with the foreign policy interests of Lord Palmerston . Malm argues that this aftermath laid
10212-490: The fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea . It is located in the southern part of the Aegean Sea separating the Aegean from the Libyan Sea . The island has an elongated shape: it spans 260 km (160 mi) from east to west, is 60 km (37 mi) at its widest point, and narrows to as little as 12 km (7.5 mi) (close to Ierapetra ). Crete covers an area of 8,336 km (3,219 sq mi), with
10350-428: The fifth most populous of Greece's regions. Its capital and largest city is Heraklion , on the north shore of the island. As of 2021 , the region had a population of 624,408. The Dodecanese are located to the northeast of Crete, while the Cyclades are situated to the north, separated by the Sea of Crete . The Peloponnese is to the region's northwest. Crete was the center of Europe 's first advanced civilization,
10488-479: The fleet of the Kapudan Pasha Hüseyin . A combined English and Turkish force was sent to take Rashid . On 30 May, General A. D. Belliard , the French commander in Cairo, was assailed on two sides by British forces under General John Hely Hutchinson and Turks under Yusuf Pasha; after negotiations, Belliard agreed to evacuate Cairo and to sail with his 13,734 troops to France . On 30 August, Menou
10626-440: The friendship of the governor of Acre , Zahir al-Umar , who obtained for him the goodwill of the Porte and reinstatement in his post as Sheikh al-Balad. In 1766, after the death of his supporter, the grand vizier Raghib Pasha , he was again compelled to flee from Egypt to Yemen, but in the following year he was told that his party at Cairo was strong enough to permit his return. Resuming his office, he raised 18 of his friends to
10764-533: The governor of Egypt at very short intervals, after a year or less. The fourth governor, Hain Ahmed Pasha , hearing that orders for his execution had come from Constantinople , endeavoured to make himself an independent ruler and had coins struck in his own name. His schemes were frustrated by two of the emirs whom he had imprisoned and who, escaping from their confinement, attacked him in his bath and attempted to kill him; although Ahmed Pasha escaped wounded, he
10902-427: The graves of Sufi saints, sparking a religious movement that was not crushed for three years until 1714. In 1724, Ismail was assassinated through the machinations of the pasha, and Shirkas Bey —of the opposing faction—was elevated to the office of Sheikh al-Balad in his place. He was soon driven from his post by one of his own faction called Dhu-'l-Fiqar , and fled to Upper Egypt . After a short time, he returned at
11040-466: The groundwork for the later Zionist movement and began the first conception of a Jewish state as a " satellite colony " that would forward the political and economic interests of the West in the Middle East , which through the 20th and 21st century have been intertwined with the petroleum industry . Ottoman Egypt Ottoman Egypt was an administrative division of the Ottoman Empire after
11178-576: The hands of the Mamluks. This led to a long civil war between the Albanians, Mamluks, and Ottomans. One Mamluk, Al-Alfi was reported by al-Jabarti to marry Bedouin women many times, sending those back he did not like and keeping those that pleased him. Many Bedouin women mourned his death. Muhammad Ali took advantage of Al-Alfi's death to try to assert authority over the Bedouins. Two Ottoman era Mamluks, Iwaz Bey's Mamluk Yusuf Bey al-Jazzar and Jazzar Pasha were known for massacring Bedouins and given
11316-493: The head of an army, and in the last of the ensuing battles Shirkas Bey met his end by drowning. Dhu-'l-Fiqar was himself assassinated in 1730. His place was filled by Othman Bey , who had served as his general in this war. In 1743, Othman Bey was forced to flee from Egypt by the intrigues of two adventurers, Ibrahim and Ridwan Bey , who—when their scheme had succeeded—began a massacre of beys and others thought to be opposed to them. They proceeded to govern Egypt jointly, holding
11454-494: The import of bananas to Greece, therefore bananas were grown on the island, predominantly in greenhouses. Dairy products are important to the local economy and there are a number of specialty cheeses such as mizithra , anthotyros , and kefalotyri . 20% of Greek wine is produced in Crete, mostly in the region of Peza. The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was €9.4 billion in 2018, accounting for 5.1% of Greek economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power
11592-411: The intention of the Porte to invade the country with the object of recovering it by force, Bonaparte resolved on his Syrian expedition, and appointed governors for Cairo, Alexandria, and Upper Egypt, to govern during his absence. Bonaparte returned from that ill-fated expedition at the beginning of June. Murad Bey and Ibrahim Bey had taken advantage of this opportunity to collect their forces and attempt
11730-480: The introduction of a house tax on 22 October 1798—an insurrection broke out in Cairo. The headquarters of the insurrection were in the University of Azhar . On this occasion, the French general Dupuy , lieutenant-governor of Cairo, was killed. The prompt measures of Bonaparte, aided by the arrival from Alexandria of General Jean Baptiste Kléber , quickly suppressed this rising; but the stabling of French cavalry in
11868-461: The invaders were required to hoist the flags of both the Porte and the French republic, and in the thanksgiving prescribed to the Egyptians for their deliverance from the Mamluks, prayer was to be offered for both the sultan and the French army . It does not appear that the proclamation convinced many Egyptians of the truth of these professions. After the Battle of Embabeh (also commonly known as
12006-400: The island's biggest airport and ferry links with mainland Greece . Also, during the 1930s there was a narrow-gauge industrial railway in Heraklion, from Giofyros in the west side of the city to the port. There are now no railway lines on Crete. The government is planning the construction of a line from Chania to Heraklion via Rethymno. The construction sector in Crete responded well during
12144-407: The islands includes: Off the south coast, the island of Gavdos is located 26 nautical miles (48 km) south of Hora Sfakion and is the southernmost point of Europe . Crete straddles two climatic zones, the Mediterranean and the semi-arid climate , mainly falling within the former. As such, the climate in Crete is primarily a hot-summer Mediterranean ( Csa ) climate while some areas in
12282-535: The land between Aswan and Asyut , and a force of 20,000 men was sent to conquer Yemen . An officer named Ismail Bey was sent with 8,000 men to acquire the eastern shore of the Red Sea , and Ilasan Bey was sent to occupy Jedda . In six months, the greater part of the Arabian peninsula was subject to Ali Bey, and he appointed a cousin of his own as Sharif of Mecca —who bestowed on Ali by an official proclamation
12420-636: The later Neolithic and Bronze Age periods, under the Minoans, Crete had a highly developed, literate civilization. It has been ruled by various ancient Greek entities, the Roman Empire , the Byzantine Empire , the Emirate of Crete , the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire . After a brief period of independence (1897–1913) under a provisional Cretan government, it joined the Kingdom of Greece. It
12558-622: The military revolt at Cairo , but died in 1816 at the early age of twenty. Muhammad Ali, dissatisfied with the treaty concluded with the Saudis, and with the non-fulfillment of certain of its clauses, determined to send another army to Arabia. This expedition, under his eldest son Ibrahim Pasha , left in the autumn of 1816 and captured the Saudi capital of Diriyah in 1818. During Muhammad Ali's absence in Arabia his representative at Cairo had completed
12696-577: The mosque of Azhar gave great and permanent offence. In consequence of this affair, the deliberative council was suppressed, but on 25 December a fresh proclamation was issued reconstituting the two divans which had been created by the Turks; the special divan was to consist of 14 persons chosen by lot out of 60 government nominees, and was to meet daily. The general divan was to consist of functionaries, and to meet on emergencies. In consequence of dispatches that reached Bonaparte on 3 January 1799, announcing
12834-449: The mountains are seen as having determined their residents' 'resistance' to past invaders which relates to the oft-encountered idea that highlanders are 'purer' in terms of less intermarriages with occupiers. For residents of mountainous areas, such as Sfakia in western Crete, the aridness and rockiness of the mountains is emphasised as an element of pride and is often compared to the alleged soft-soiled mountains of others parts of Greece or
12972-644: The name "butcher" (al-Jazzar) for it. After Muhammad Ali defeated the Mamluks and Bedouin, the Bedouin went on a destructive rampage against the Egyptian fellahin peasantry, destroying and looting crops and massacred 200 townsmen in Belbeis in Al-Sharqiya province and also rampaging through al-Qaliubiyya province. Acknowledging the sovereignty of the Ottoman sultan and at his command, Muhammad Ali dispatched an army of 20,000 men (including 2,000 horses) under
13110-617: The offer in southern Syria . If he delayed acceptance more than 20 days, he would forfeit everything offered. The European powers agreed to use all possible means of persuasion to affect the agreement, but Muhammad Ali hesitated since he believed in support from France . The French, under the newly-formed cabinet of Prime Minister Adolphe Thiers , sought to increase French influence in North Africa after their conquest of Algeria . Supporting Muhammad Ali's thus-successful revolt seemed suitable. Counter Admiral Julien Pierre Anne Lalande
13248-412: The offices of Sheikh al-Balad and Amir al-Hajj in alternate years. An attempt by one of the pashas to remove these two by a coup d'état failed, owing to the loyalty of the beys' armed supporters, who released Ibrahim and Ridwan from prison and compelled the pasha to flee to Constantinople. An attempt by a subsequent pasha, in accordance with secret orders from Constantinople, was so successful that some of
13386-420: The pandemic and has come out strong in the post-recession recovery period. Total construction spending recovered and is expected to peak a record high (approximately 8% higher than 2019 average levels) signalling consistent expansion in construction projects and real estate investments in Crete. The evolution of the private sector in Crete is tightly linked with the demand for tourism-related investments. Moreover,
13524-474: The pasha of Damascus against Egypt to retreat. The Porte was not able to take active measures at the time for the suppression of Ali Bey, who endeavoured to consolidate his dominions by sending expeditions against marauding tribes in both north and south Egypt, reforming the finance, and improving the administration of justice. His son-in-law, Abu-'l-Dhahab , was sent to subject the Hawwara , who had occupied
13662-588: The port and, in accordance with the agreement which he had made with the Russian Empire, he was supplied with stores, ammunition, and a force of 3,000 Albanians. He sent one of his officers, Ali Bey al-Tantawi, to recover the Syrian towns evacuated by Abu-'l-Dhahab now in the possession of the Porte. He himself took Jaffa and Gaza , the former of which he gave to his friend Zahir al-Umar. On 1 February 1773, he received information from Cairo that Abu-'l-Dhahab had made himself Sheikh al-Balad, and in that capacity
13800-536: The primacy of ancient Knossos. While the cities continued to prey upon one another, they invited into their feuds mainland powers like Macedon and its rivals Rhodes and Ptolemaic Egypt . In 220 BC the island was tormented by a war between two opposing coalitions of cities . As a result, the Macedonian king Philip V gained hegemony over Crete which lasted to the end of the Cretan War (205–200 BC) , when
13938-417: The rank of bey—among them Ibrahim and Murad, who were afterwards at the head of affairs—as well as Muhammad Abu-'l-Dhahab , who was closely connected with the rest of Ali Bey's career. Ali Bey used very severe measures to repress the brigandage of the Bedouins of Lower Egypt . He endeavoured to disband all forces except those which were exclusively under his own control. In 1769, a demand came to Ali Bey for
14076-808: The record for the highest temperatures ever recorded in Europe during October, November, January and February from World Meteorological Organization stations. According to the Hellenic National Meteorological Service , South Crete receives the most sunshine in Greece with more than 3,257 hours of sunshine per year. Crete is the most populous island in Greece with a population of more than 600,000 people. Approximately 42% live in Crete's main cities and towns whilst 45% live in rural areas. Crete with its nearby islands form
14214-456: The recovery of the tourism sector is expected to lead to further growth in housing prices and rental demand. Newspapers have reported that the Ministry of Mercantile Marine is ready to support the agreement between Greece, South Korea , Dubai Ports World and China for the construction of a large international container port and free trade zone in southern Crete near Tympaki ; the plan
14352-446: The region's population has increased by 1,343 people between 2011 and 2021, experiencing a rise of 0.22%. The island is home to 308,608 men and 315,800 women, accounting for 49.4% and 50.6% of the population respectively. The island is divided into four regional units, Heraklion, Rethymno, Chania, and Lasithi. The economy of Crete is predominantly based on services and tourism. However, agriculture also plays an important role and Crete
14490-579: The regional governor is Stavros Arnaoutakis of the Panhellenic Socialist Movement . First elected in 2010 , he was re-elected in 2014 , 2019 and 2023 . Heraklion is the largest city and capital of Crete, holding more than a fourth of the island's population. Chania was the capital until 1971. The principal cities are: According to official census data by the Hellenic Statistical Authority ,
14628-537: The soldiers, and his head set on the Bab Zuweila , earning him the epithet Maktul , "the Slain". The reason for these mutinies was the attempt made by successive pashas to put a stop to the extortion called the tulbah , a forced payment exacted by the troops from the inhabitants of the country by the fiction of debts requiring to be discharged, which led to grievous ill-usage. In 1609, a conflict broke out between
14766-579: The southeastern corner of the island, has year-round agricultural production, with summer vegetables and fruit produced in greenhouses throughout the winter. Western Crete (Chania province) receives more rain and the soils there suffer more erosion compared to the Eastern part of Crete. Average annual temperatures reach up to 21.6°C in Psari Forada which is located in South Crete. Crete holds
14904-647: The spring of 1619, pestilence is said to have killed 635,000 persons and, in 1643, completely desolated 230 villages. The 17th Century saw the development of two distinct factions within Egypt who continually vied for power - the Faqari and the Qasimi. The Faqari had strong links to the Ottoman cavalry and donned white colours and used the Pomegranate as their symbol. Conversely, the Qasimi were aligned with native Egyptian troops and donned red as their colour and adopted
15042-617: The subsequent disputes. Ali Bey, who had first distinguished himself by defending a caravan in Arabia against bandits, set himself the task of avenging the death of his former master Ibrahim. He spent eight years in purchasing Mamelukes and winning other adherents, exciting the suspicions of the Sheikh al-Balad Khalil Bey, who organised an attack upon him in the streets of Cairo—in consequence of which he fled to Upper Egypt. Here he met one Salib Bey , who had injuries to avenge upon Khalil Bey, and
15180-410: The sultan's domain, fiefs, land for the maintenance of the army, and lands settled on religious foundations. The constant changes in the government seem to have caused the army to get out of control at an early period of the Ottoman occupation, and at the beginning of the 17th-century mutinies became common; in 1604, governor Maktul Hacı Ibrahim Pasha (then known just as Ibrahim Pasha) was murdered by
15318-474: The titles Sultan of Egypt and Khan of the Two Seas. In 1771, in virtue of this authorisation, he then struck coins in his own name and ordered his name to be mentioned in public worship. Abu-'l-Dhahab was sent with a force of 30,000 men in the same year to conquer Syria , and agents were sent to negotiate alliances with Venice and Russia . Reinforced by Ali Bey's ally Zahir al-Umar, Abu-'l-Dahab easily took
15456-500: The two brothers. The kashif of Qalyub killed another Arab Bedouin shaykh , 'Ali al-Asmar ibn Abi'l-Shawarib. At a council of Arab shaykh s, one of the shaykh s, Husam al-Din ibn Baghdad, accused the Mamluks of murdering the Bedouin for their Ottoman sympathies. In 1527, the first survey of Egypt under the Ottomans was made, the official copy of the former registers having perished by fire; this new survey did not come into use until 1605. Egyptian lands were divided into four classes:
15594-468: The two organised a force with which they returned to Cairo and defeated Khalil. Khalil was forced to flee to Iaifla , where for a time he concealed himself; eventually he was discovered, sent to Alexandria, and finally strangled. After Ali Bey's victory in 1760, he was made Sheikh al-Balad. He executed the murderer of his former master Ibrahim; but the resentment which this act aroused among the beys caused him to leave his post and flee to Syria , where he won
15732-592: The view of punishing Ali Bey's supporter Zahir al-Umar, and left Ismail Bey and Ibrahim Bey as his deputies in Cairo—who, by deserting Ali at the Battle of Salihiyya, had brought about his downfall. After taking many cities in Palestine, Abu-'l-Dhahab died, the cause being unknown; Murad Bey , another of the deserters at Salihiyya, brought his forces back to Egypt on 26 May 1775. Ismail Bey now became Sheikh al-Balad, but
15870-595: The words ke-re-te 𐀐𐀩𐀳 , * Krētes ; later Greek: Κρῆτες [krɛː.tes] , plural of Κρής [krɛːs] ) and ke-re-si-jo 𐀐𐀩𐀯𐀍 , * Krēsijos ; later Greek: Κρήσιος [krέːsios] , 'Cretian'). In Ancient Greek , the name Crete ( Κρήτη ) first appears in Homer 's Odyssey . Its etymology is unknown. One proposal derives it from a hypothetical Luwian word * kursatta (compare kursawar 'island', kursattar 'cutting, sliver'). Another proposal suggests that it derives from
16008-1249: The world. The island has a number of gorges, such as the Samariá Gorge , Imbros Gorge , Kourtaliotiko Gorge , Ha Gorge , Platania Gorge , the Gorge of the Dead (at Kato Zakros , Sitia ) and Richtis Gorge and (Richtis) waterfall at Exo Mouliana in Sitia . The rivers of Crete include the Geropotamos River , the Koiliaris, the Anapodiaris, the Almiros, the Giofyros, the Keritis, and Megas Potamos. There are only two freshwater lakes in Crete: Lake Kournas and Lake Agia , which are both in Chania regional unit . Lake Voulismeni at
16146-409: Was able to extract considerable revenues. Efforts were made to promote education and the study of medicine. To European merchants, on whom he was dependent for the sale of his exports, Muhammad Ali showed much favor, and under his influence the port of Alexandria again rose into importance. It was also under Muhammad Ali's encouragement that the overland transit of goods from Europe to India via Egypt
16284-560: Was also imported from overseas, at similar prices to what imported coal cost in France, until the 1830s, when Egypt gained access to coal sources in Lebanon , which had a yearly coal output of 4,000 tons. Compared to Western Europe, Egypt also had superior agriculture and an efficient transport network through the Nile . Economic historian Jean Batou argues that the necessary economic conditions for rapid industrialization existed in Egypt during
16422-420: Was assassinated by Suleiman al-Halabi , and was said to have been incited to the deed by a Janissary refugee at Jerusalem , who had brought letters to the sheikhs of Al-Azhar. Although they gave him no support, three of the sheikhs were executed by the French as accessories-before-the-fact . The assassin himself was tortured and impaled, despite the promise of a pardon if he named his associates. The command of
16560-423: Was at first established between the invaders and the Egyptians. A municipal council was established in Cairo, consisting of persons taken from the ranks of the sheiks, the Mamluks, and the French. Soon after, delegates from Alexandria and other important towns were added. This council did little more than register the decrees of the French commander, who continued to exercise dictatorial power. The destruction of
16698-460: Was comparatively free from warfare. The Gortyn code (5th century BC) is evidence for how codified civil law established a balance between aristocratic power and civil rights. In the late 4th century BC, the aristocratic order began to collapse due to endemic infighting among the elite, and Crete's economy was weakened by prolonged wars between city states. During the 3rd century BC, Gortyn , Kydonia ( Chania ), Lyttos and Polyrrhenia challenged
16836-520: Was compelled to accept similar conditions, and his force of 10,000 left Alexandria for Europe in September. This was the termination of the French occupation of Egypt, as the French in defeat would never return to Egypt during Napoleon's rule. The chief permanent monument of the occupation was the Description de l'Egypte , compiled by the French savants who accompanied the expedition. Soon after
16974-493: Was counteracted by his declaration of a French protectorate over Egypt, which was to count as a French colony. In the first weeks of March 1801, the English under Sir Ralph Abercromby effected a landing at Abu Qir , and proceeded to invest Alexandria, where they were attacked by Menou; the French were repulsed, but the English commander was mortally wounded in the action. On the 25th, fresh Turkish reinforcements arrived with
17112-430: Was defeated by his son, Ibrahim Pasha in the Battle of Nezib . Thus, a new war between Muhammad Ali and the Ottomans escalated, with the latter failing once again to wage it successfully. In June 1840, the entire Ottoman navy defected to Muhammad Ali, and the French planned to offer full support to his cause. On the verge of total collapse and defeat to Muhammad Ali, an alliance of European powers comprising Britain ,
17250-706: Was dispatched to the Mediterranean to eventually join forces with the defected Ottoman fleet. However, France became politically isolated when the other Great Powers backed up the Sultan, and Thiers was unprepared to bring his country into open war with Britain. France switched sides and aligned against Muhammad Ali in October 1840. In September 1840, the European powers eventually moved from diplomatic means to military action. When French support for Muhammad Ali failed to materialize, British and Austrian naval forces in
17388-401: Was killed and the office which he had held was given to his son Ismail. Ismail held this office for 16 years, while the pashas were constantly being changed, and succeeded in reconciling the two factions of Mamelukes. In 1711, an event known to chroniclers as the "Great Sedition" and the "revolution" occurred, when a religious fanatic preacher began to publicly denounce the practice of praying at
17526-762: Was no more troubled with military mutinies. Egypt under Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century had the fifth most productive cotton industry in the world, in terms of the number of spindles per capita. The industry was initially driven by machinery that relied on traditional energy sources, such as animal power , water wheels , and windmills , which were also the principle energy sources in Western Europe up until around 1870. While steam power had been experimented with in Ottoman Egypt by engineer Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf in 1551, when he invented
17664-576: Was occupied by Nazi Germany during the Second World War . Stone tools suggest that archaic humans may have visited Crete as early as 130,000 years ago, but there is no evidence of permanent settlement of the island until the Neolithic , around 7,000 BCE. Settlements dating to the aceramic Neolithic in the 7th millennium BC, used cattle , sheep , goats , pigs and dogs as well as domesticated cereals and legumes ; ancient Knossos
17802-435: Was practising unheard-of extortions, which were making Egyptians call for the return of Ali Bey. He accordingly started for Egypt at the head of an army of 8,000 men, and on 19 April met the army of Abu-'l-Dhahab at Salihiyya Madrasa . Ali's forces were successful at the first engagement, but when the battle was renewed two days later, he was deserted by some of his officers and prevented by illness and wounds from himself taking
17940-423: Was resumed. Sultan Mahmud II was also planning reforms borrowed from the West, and Muhammad Ali, who had had plenty of opportunity of observing the superiority of European methods of warfare, was determined to anticipate the sultan in the creation of a fleet and an army on European lines. Before the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence in 1821, he had already expended much time and energy in organizing
18078-585: Was sent by Ali Bey with a force of 3,000 to check his advance, but Bastin Ismil and his troops joined Abu-'l-Dhahab. Ali Bey intended at first to defend himself as long as possible in the Cairo Citadel , but receiving information that his friend Zahir al-Umar was still willing to give him refuge, he left Cairo for Syria on 8 April 1772, one day before the entrance of Abu-'l-Dhahab. At Acre, Ali's fortune seemed to be restored. A Russian vessel anchored outside
18216-446: Was sent by the Porte to restore Ottoman supremacy in Egypt. Murad Bey attempted to resist, but was easily defeated. He, with Ibrahim, decided to flee to Upper Egypt and await the trend of events. On 1 August, the Turkish commander Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha entered Cairo, and after violent measures, had been taken for the restoration of order; Ismail Bey was again made Sheikh al-Balad and a new pasha installed as governor. In January 1791,
18354-410: Was soon captured and executed by the Ottoman sultan's forces. In 1519, Mamluks like the kashif (provincial governor) of Gharbiyya, Inal al-Sayfi Tarabay, started slaughtering Arab Bedouin shaykh s like Shukr and his brother Hasan ibn Mar'i in revenge for the Bedouin betraying the Mamluks to the Ottomans. They executed another brother of the two in Cairo and at Bab al-Nasr they hoisted the heads of
18492-439: Was soon involved in a dispute with Ibrahim and Murad—who, after a time, succeeded in driving Ismail out of Egypt and establishing a joint rule similar to that which had been tried previously (as Sheikh al-Balad and Amir al-Hajj, respectively). The two were soon involved in quarrels, which at one time threatened to break out into open war, but this catastrophe was averted and the joint rule was maintained until 1786, when an expedition
18630-407: Was the governor unsupported by the sultan against the troops, but each new governor regularly inflicted a fine upon his outgoing predecessor, under the name of money due to the treasury; the outgoing governor would not be allowed to leave Egypt until he had paid it. Besides the extortions to which this practice gave occasion, the country suffered greatly in these centuries from famine and pestilence. In
18768-481: Was the site of one of these major Neolithic (then later Minoan) sites. Other neolithic settlements include those at Kephala , Magasa , and Trapeza . During the Bronze Age , Crete was the centre of the Minoan civilization , notable for its art , its writing systems such as Linear A , and for its massive building complexes including the palace at Knossos . Its economy benefited from a network of trade around much of
18906-453: Was to have commanded an Egyptian force required for service in Persia . Koca Musa Pasha was given the choice of handing over the executioners to vengeance, or to resigning his place; as he refused to do the former, he was compelled to do the latter. In 1631, a rescript came from Constantinople, approving the conduct of the army and appointing Halil Pasha as Koca Musa Pasha's successor. Not only
19044-578: Was €17,800 or 59% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 68% of the EU average. Crete is the region in Greece with the fifth highest GDP per capita. The island has three significant airports, Nikos Kazantzakis at Heraklion, the Daskalogiannis airport at Chania and the smaller Sitia airport. The first two serve international routes, acting as the main gateways to the island for travellers. Work has begun plan to replace Heraklion airport with
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