Red-figure pottery is a style of ancient Greek pottery in which the background of the pottery is painted black while the figures and details are left in the natural red or orange color of the clay .
117-539: Although many styles in different media may be called "ornate", ornate style as a distinct style term is used in two contexts: The Red-figure vase painting of ancient Greece, where it, and a contrasting "plain style", developed in Apulia around 400 BC. The third of the Pompeian Styles of ancient Roman wall-paintings, popular around 20–10 BC. Topics referred to by
234-739: A South Italian influence is evident, too. These workshops dominated the Etruscan market into the 4th century BC. Large and medium-sized vessels like kraters and jugs were decorated mostly with mythological scenes. In the course of the 4th century, the Falerian production began to eclipse that of Vulci. New centres of production developed in Chiusi and Orvieto . Especially the Tondo Group of Chiusi, producing mainly drinking vessels with interior depictions of dionysiac scenes, became important. During
351-426: A hydride ion . Reductants in chemistry are very diverse. Electropositive elemental metals , such as lithium , sodium , magnesium , iron , zinc , and aluminium , are good reducing agents. These metals donate electrons relatively readily. Hydride transfer reagents , such as NaBH 4 and LiAlH 4 , reduce by atom transfer: they transfer the equivalent of hydride or H . These reagents are widely used in
468-517: A decrease in the oxidation state. The oxidation and reduction processes occur simultaneously in the chemical reaction. There are two classes of redox reactions: "Redox" is a portmanteau of the words "REDuction" and "OXidation." The term "redox" was first used in 1928. Oxidation is a process in which a substance loses electrons. Reduction is a process in which a substance gains electrons. The processes of oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously and cannot occur independently. In redox processes,
585-411: A gas. Later, scientists realized that the metal atom gains electrons in this process. The meaning of reduction then became generalized to include all processes involving a gain of electrons. Reducing equivalent refers to chemical species which transfer the equivalent of one electron in redox reactions. The term is common in biochemistry . A reducing equivalent can be an electron or a hydrogen atom as
702-434: A modern perspective the vase painters are often considered artists, and their vases thus as works of art , this view is not consistent with that held in antiquity. Vase painters, like potters, were considered craftsmen, their produce considered trade goods. The craftsmen must have had a reasonably high level of education, as a variety of inscriptions occur. On the one hand, the aforementioned Kalos inscriptions are common; on
819-649: A modern point of view, the Southern Italian red-figure vase paintings represent the only region of production that reaches Attic standards of artistic quality. After the Attic vases, the South Italian ones (including those from Sicily ), are the most thoroughly researched. In contrastic to their Attic counterparts, they were mostly produced for local markets. Only few pieces have been found outside Southern Italy and Sicily. The first workshops were founded in
936-459: A more easily corroded " sacrificial anode " to act as the anode . The sacrificial metal, instead of the protected metal, then corrodes. A common application of cathodic protection is in galvanized steel, in which a sacrificial zinc coating on steel parts protects them from rust. Oxidation is used in a wide variety of industries, such as in the production of cleaning products and oxidizing ammonia to produce nitric acid . Redox reactions are
1053-411: A number of clay vases. Redox Redox ( / ˈ r ɛ d ɒ k s / RED -oks , / ˈ r iː d ɒ k s / REE -doks , reduction–oxidation or oxidation–reduction ) is a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of the reactants change. Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in the oxidation state, while reduction is the gain of electrons or
1170-524: A pattern of tendrils with calyx and umbel known as "asteas flower", crenelation -like patterns on garments and curly hair hanging over the back of figures. Figures that bend forwards, resting on plants or rocks, are equally common. Special colours are used often, especially white, gold, black, purple and shades of red. The themes depicted often belong to the Dionysiac cycle: thiasos and symposium scenes, satyrs, maenads , Silenos , Orestes , Electra ,
1287-724: A rapid demise, terminating with the end of Campanian vase painting around 300 BC. The Lucanian vase painting tradition began around 430 BC, with the works of the Pisticci Painter . He was probably active in Pisticci , where some of his works were discovered. He was strongly influenced by Attic tradition. His successors, the Amycus Painter and the Cyclops Painter had a workshop in Metapontum . They were
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#17327904356051404-404: A rare and early Attic technique (see Six's technique ), the whole vessel was covered with black glossy clay and figures were applied afterwards using mineral colours that would oxidise red or white. Thus, in contrast to contemporary Attic vase painting, the red colour was not achieved by leaving areas unpainted but by adding paint to the black prime layer. Like in black-figure vases, internal detail
1521-413: A redox reaction that takes place in a cell, the potential difference is: However, the potential of the reaction at the anode is sometimes expressed as an oxidation potential : The oxidation potential is a measure of the tendency of the reducing agent to be oxidized but does not represent the physical potential at an electrode. With this notation, the cell voltage equation is written with a plus sign In
1638-811: A result of the war). The increasing role of new markets, e.g. Iberia , implied new needs and wishes on part of the customers. These theories are contradicted by the fact that some artists maintained the earlier style. Some, e.g. the Eretria Painter , attempted to combine both traditions. The best works of the Late Classical period are often found on smaller vessels, such as belly lekythoi , pyxides and oinochai . Lekanis , Bell krater(see Typology of Greek Vase Shapes ) and hydria were also popular. The production of mainstream red-figure pottery ceased around 360 BCE. The Rich and Simple styles both existed until that time. Late representatives include
1755-688: A self-absorbed, divine serenity. Important painters of this period, roughly 480 to 425 BCE, include the Providence Painter , Hermonax , and the Achilles Painter , all following the tradition of the Berlin Painter. The Phiale Painter , probably a pupil of the Achilles Painter, is also important. New workshop traditions also developed. Notable examples include the so-called " mannerists ", most famously among them
1872-449: A thicker slip, leading to a slightly protruding outline (relief line); less important lines and internal details were drawn with diluted glossy clay. Detail in other colors, Including white or red, were applied at this point. The relief line was probably drawn with a bristle brush or a hair, dipped in thick paint. (The suggestion that a hollow needle could account for such features seems somewhat unlikely.) The application of relief outlines
1989-721: A variety of small workshops, and probably a few larger ones. In 1852 CE, during building activity in Ermou Street , the workshop of the Jena Painter was discovered. The artefacts from it are now on display in the University collection of the Friedrich Schiller University of Jena . According to modern research, the workshops were owned by the potters. The names of about 40 Attic vase painters are known, from vase inscriptions, usually accompanied by
2106-399: Is also an increase in the depiction of jewelry and other objects. The use of additional colors, mostly white and gold, depicting accessories in a low relief, is very striking. Over time, there is a marked "softening": The male body, heretofore defined by the depiction of muscles, gradually lost that key feature. The paintings depicted mythological scenes less frequently than before. Images of
2223-447: Is also known as its reduction potential ( E red ), or potential when the half-reaction takes place at a cathode. The reduction potential is a measure of the tendency of the oxidizing agent to be reduced. Its value is zero for H + e → 1 ⁄ 2 H 2 by definition, positive for oxidizing agents stronger than H (e.g., +2.866 V for F 2 ) and negative for oxidizing agents that are weaker than H (e.g., −0.763V for Zn ). For
2340-631: Is considered as the leading South Italian style. The main centre of production was at Taras . Apulian red-figure vases were produced from circa 430 to 300 BC. The plain and ornate styles are distinguished. The main difference between them is that the plain style favoured bell craters , column kraters and smaller vessels, and that a single "plain" vessel rarely depicted more than four figures. The main subjects were mythological scenes, female heads, warriors in scenes of combat of farewell, and dionysiac thiasos imagery. The reverse often showed youths wearing cloaks. The key feature of these simply decorated wares
2457-465: Is considered as the outstanding artist of his group, or even of Campanian vase painting as a whole. From 330 onwards, a strong Apulian influence is visible. The most common motifs are naiskos and grave scenes, dionysiac scenes and symposia. Depictions of bejewelled female heads are also common. The CA painter was polychrome but tended to use much white for architecture and female figures. His successors were not fully able to maintain his quality, leading to
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#17327904356052574-469: Is dependent on these ratios. Redox mechanisms also control some cellular processes. Redox proteins and their genes must be co-located for redox regulation according to the CoRR hypothesis for the function of DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts . Wide varieties of aromatic compounds are enzymatically reduced to form free radicals that contain one more electron than their parent compounds. In general,
2691-464: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Red-figure pottery It developed in Athens around 520 BCE and remained in use until the late 3rd century CE. It replaced the previously dominant style of black-figure pottery within a few decades. Its modern name is based on the figural depictions in red color on a black background, in contrast to
2808-400: Is limited. Subjects include youths, women, thiasos scenes, birds and animals, and often native warriors. The backs often show cloaked youths. Mythological scenes and depictions related to burial rites play a subsidiary role. Naiskos scenes , ornamental elements and polychromy are adopted after 340 BC under Lucanian influence. Before the immigration of Sicilian potters in the second quarter of
2925-432: Is mined as its magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ). Titanium is mined as its dioxide, usually in the form of rutile (TiO 2 ). These oxides must be reduced to obtain the corresponding metals, often achieved by heating these oxides with carbon or carbon monoxide as reducing agents. Blast furnaces are the reactors where iron oxides and coke (a form of carbon) are combined to produce molten iron. The main chemical reaction producing
3042-430: Is normally assumed that the lower social classes tended to use simple undecorated coarse wares, massive quantities of which are found in excavations . Tablewares made of perishable materials, like wood, may have been even more widespread. Nonetheless, multiple finds of red-figure vases, usually not of the highest quality, found in settlements, prove that such vessels were used in daily life. A large proportion of production
3159-505: Is not the reverse of the redox reaction in cellular respiration: Biological energy is frequently stored and released using redox reactions. Photosynthesis involves the reduction of carbon dioxide into sugars and the oxidation of water into molecular oxygen. The reverse reaction, respiration, oxidizes sugars to produce carbon dioxide and water. As intermediate steps, the reduced carbon compounds are used to reduce nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD ) to NADH, which then contributes to
3276-424: Is that they are often stockier and less dynamic than their predecessors. As a result, the depictions gained seriousness, even pathos . The folds of garments were depicted less linearly, appearing more plastic. The manner of presenting scenes also changed substantially. Firstly, the paintings ceased to focus on the moment of a particular event, but rather, with dramatic tension, showed the situation immediately before
3393-656: Is the Whiteface-Frignano Painter , one of the first in this group. His typical characteristic is the use of additional white paint to depict the faces of women. This group favoured domestic scenes, women and warriors. Multiple figures are rare, usually there is only one figure each on the front and back of the vase, sometimes only the head. Garments are usually drawn casually. After 350 BC, the CA Painter and his successors worked in Cumae . The CA painter
3510-602: Is the drastic reduction of figures per vessel, of anatomic details, and of ornamental decorations. In contrast, the repertoire of depicted scenes was increased. For example, the myths surrounding Theseus became very popular at this time. New or modified vase shapes were frequently employed, including the Nolan amphora (see Typology of Greek Vase Shapes ), lekythoi , as well as bowls of the askos and dinos types. The specialisation into separate vase and bowl painters increased. The key characteristic of Early Classical figures
3627-647: Is the general absence of additional colours. Important plain style representatives are the Sisyphus Painter and the Tarporley Painter . After the mid-4th century BC, the style grows more and more similar to the ornate style. An important artist of that period is the Varrese Painter . The artists using the ornate style tended to favour large vessels, like volute kraters , amphorae , loutrophoroi and hydriai . The larger surface area
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3744-411: Is unclear whether some potters were also painters or vice versa , suggest a career structure, perhaps starting with an apprenticeship involving mainly painting, and leading up to being a potter. This division of labor appears to have developed along with the introduction of red-figure painting, since many potter-painters are known from the black-figure period (including Exekias , Nearchos and perhaps
3861-673: Is unknown from Attic vase painting are the theatre scenes. Especially farce scenes, e.g. from the so-called phlyax vases are quite common. Scenes of athletic activity or everyday life only occur in the early phase, they disappear entirely after 370 BC. Apulian vase painting had a formative influence on the traditions of the other South Italian production centres. It is assumed that individual Apulian artists settled in other Italian cities and contributed their skills there. Apart from red-figure, Apulia also produced black-varnished vases with painted decor (Gnathia vases) and polychrome vases (Canosa vases). Campania also produced red-figure vases in
3978-444: The psykter and the pelike . Large krater and amphorae became popular at this time. Although there is no indication that the painters understood themselves as a group in the way that modern scholarship does, there were some connections and mutual influences, perhaps in an atmosphere of friendly competition and encouragement. Thus a vase by Euthymides is inscribed "as Euphronios never [would have been able]" . More generally,
4095-605: The Amasis Painter ). The increased demand for exports would have led to new structures of production, encouraging specialisation and division of labor, leading to a sometimes ambiguous distinction between painter and potter. As mentioned above, the painting of vessels was probably mainly the responsibility of younger assistants or apprentices. Some further conclusions regarding the organisational aspects of pottery production can be suggested. It appears that generally, several painters worked for one pottery workshop, as indicated by
4212-577: The Brygos Painter . The improvement of quality went along with a doubling of output during this period. Athens became the dominant producer of fine pottery in the Mediterranean world, overshadowing nearly all other production centers. One of the key features of this most successful Attic vase painting style is the mastery of perspective foreshortening, allowing a much more naturalistic depiction of figures and actions. Another characteristic
4329-521: The Caivano Painter . Their work is characterised by a preference for satyr figures with thyrsos , depictions of heads (normally below the handles of hydriai ), decorative borders of garments, and the frequent use of additional white, red and yellow. The Laghetto and Caivano Painters appear to have moved to Paestum later. The AV Group also had its workshop in Capua. Of particular importance
4446-751: The Dolon Painter and the Brooklyn-Budapest Painter . Towards the mid-4th century BC, a massive drop in quality and thematic variety becomes notable. The last notable Lucanian vase painter was the Primato Painter , strongly influenced by the Apulian Lycourgos Painter . After him, a short rapid demise is followed by the cessation of Lucanian vase painting at the start of the last quarter of the 4th century BC. The Paestan vase painting style developed as
4563-734: The Ilioupersis Painter , the Darius Painter and the Baltimore Painter . Mythological scenes were especially popular: The assembly of the Gods, the amazonomachy , the Trojan War , Heracles and Bellerophon . Additionally, such vases frequently depict scenes from myths that are only rarely illustrated on vases. Some specimens represent the single source for the iconography of a particular myth. Another subject that
4680-1048: The Lentini-Manfria Group , was active in Syracusae and Gela , a second, making Centuripe Ware around Mt. Aetna , and a third on Lipari . The most typical feature of Sicilian vase painting is the use of additional colours, especially white. In the early phase, large vessels like chalice kraters and hydriai were painted, but smaller vessels like flasks, lekanes , lekythoi and skyphoid pyxides are more typical. The most common motifs are scenes from female life, erotes , female heads and phlyax scenes. Mythological scenes are rare. Like in all other areas, vase painting disappears from Sicily around 300 BC. In contrast to black-figure vase painting, red-figure vase painting developed few regional traditions, workshops or "schools" outside Attica and Southern Italy. The few exceptions include some workshops in Boeotia ( Painter of
4797-619: The Meleager Painter (Rich Style) and the Jena Painter (Simple Style). The final decades of Attic red—figure vase painting are dominated by the Kerch Style . This style, current between 370 and 330 BCE, combined the preceding Rich and Modest Styles, with a preponderance of the Rich. Crowded compositions with large statuesque figures are typical. The added colors now include blue, green and others. Volume and shading are indicated by
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4914-550: The Middle Ages . Restoro d'Arezzo dedicated a chapter ( Capitolo delle vasa antiche ) of his description of the world to ancient vases (Della composizione del mondo, libro VIII, capitolo IV). He considered especially the clay vessels as perfect in terms of shape, colour, and artistic style. Nevertheless, initially the attention focused on vases in general, and perhaps especially on stone vases. The first collections of ancient vases, including some painted vessels, developed during
5031-720: The Pan Painter . Another tradition was begun by the Niobid Painter and continued by Polygnotos , the Kleophon Painter , and the Dinos Painter . The role of bowls decreased, although they were still produced in large numbers, e.g. by the workshop of the Penthesilea Painter . During the Late Classical period, in the final quarter of the 5th century BCE, two opposed trends were created. On
5148-517: The Renaissance . We even know of some imports from Greece to Italy at that time. Still, until the end of the Baroque period, vase painting was overshadowed by other genres, especially by sculpture . A rare pre- Classicist exception is a book of watercolours depicting figural vases, which was produced for Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc . Like some of his contemporary collectors, Peiresc owned
5265-527: The Torcop Group , and plates of the Genucuilia Group . The switch to the production of black glaze vases near the end of the 4th century, probably as a reaction to changing tastes of the time, spelt the end of Etruscan red-figure vase painting. About 65,000 red-figure vases and vase fragments are known to have survived. The study of ancient pottery and of Greek vase painting began already in
5382-414: The symposium , a definite upper-class activity, reflect the painters' personal experience, their aspirations to attend such events, or simply the demands of the market? A large proportion of the painted vases produced, such as psykter , krater , kalpis , stamnos , as well as kylikes and kantharoi , were made and bought to be used at symposia. Elaborately painted vases were good, but not
5499-736: The 4th century BC, when several workshops were established in Campania, only the Owl-Pillar Workshop of the second half of the 5th century is known. Campanian vase painting is subdivided in three main groups: The first group is represented by the Kassandra Painter from Capua , still under Sicilian influence. He was followed by the workshop of the Parrish Painter and that of the Laghetto Painter and
5616-465: The 5th and 4th centuries BC. The light brown clay of Campania was covered with a slip that developed a pink or red tint after firing. The Campanian painters preferred smaller vessel types, but also hydriai and bell kraters . The most popular shape is the bow-handled amphora. Many typical Apulian vessel shapes, like volute kraters , column kraters , loutrophoroi , rhyta and nestoris amphorae are absent, pelikes are rare. The repertoire of motifs
5733-521: The Corinthian style, but it gradually came to rival and overcome the dominance of Corinth. Attic artists developed the style to an unprecedented quality, reaching the apex of their creative possibilities in the second third of the 6th century BCE. Exekias , active around 530 BCE, can be seen as the most important representative of the black-figure style. In the 5th century BCE Attic fine pottery, now predominantly red-figure, maintained its dominance in
5850-481: The Great Athens Kantharos ), Chalkidike , Elis , Eretria , Corinth and Laconia . Only Etruria , one of the main export markets for Attic vases, developed its own schools and workshops, eventually exporting its own products. The adoption of red-figure painting, imitating Athenian vases, occurred only after 490 BC, half a century after the style had been developed. Because of the technique used,
5967-579: The Pioneering Phase. A changing, apparently increasingly negative, attitude to artisans led to a reduction of signatures, starting during the Classical period at the latest. Overall, signatures are quite rare. The fact that they are mostly found on especially good pieces indicates that they expressed the pride of potter and/or painter. The status of painters in relation to that of potters remains somewhat unclear. The fact that, e.g., Euphronius
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#17327904356056084-466: The action, implying and contextualising the event proper. Also, some of the other new achievements of Athenian democracy began to show an influence on vase painting. Thus influences of tragedy and of wall painting can be detected. Since Greek wall painting is almost entirely lost today, its reflection on vases constitutes one of the few, albeit modest, sources of information on that genre of art. Other influences on High Classical vase painting include
6201-567: The advantages outnumbered the disadvantages. The depiction of muscles and other anatomical details clearly illustrates the development of the style. Black-figure vase painting had been developed in Corinth in the 7th century BCE and quickly became the dominant style of pottery decoration throughout the Greek world and beyond. Although Corinth dominated the overall market, regional markets and centers of production did develop. Initially, Athens copied
6318-425: The best, table wares available to a Greek. Metal vessels, especially from precious metals, were held in higher regard. Nonetheless, painted vases were not cheap products; the larger specimens, especially, were expensive. Around 500 BCE, a large painted vase cost about one drachma , equivalent to the daily wage of a stonemason. It has been suggested that the painted vases represent an attempt to imitate metal vessels. It
6435-436: The case where painters bear otherwise famous names, like Aristophanes (vase painter) . The careers of some vase painters are quite well known. Apart from painters with relatively short periods of activity (one or two decades), some can be traced for much longer. Examples include Douris , Makron , Hermonax and the Achilles Painter . The fact that several painters later became potters, and the relatively frequent cases where it
6552-443: The copper sulfate solution, thus liberating free copper metal. The reaction is spontaneous and releases 213 kJ per 65 g of zinc. The ionic equation for this reaction is: As two half-reactions , it is seen that the zinc is oxidized: And the copper is reduced: A disproportionation reaction is one in which a single substance is both oxidized and reduced. For example, thiosulfate ion with sulfur in oxidation state +2 can react in
6669-479: The creation of a proton gradient , which drives the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and is maintained by the reduction of oxygen. In animal cells, mitochondria perform similar functions. Free radical reactions are redox reactions that occur as part of homeostasis and killing microorganisms . In these reactions, an electron detaches from a molecule and then re-attaches almost instantly. Free radicals are part of redox molecules and can become harmful to
6786-460: The different possibilities offered by the new style. Thus figures appeared in new perspectives, such as frontal or rear views, and there were experiments with perspective foreshortening and more dynamic compositions. As a technical innovation Euphronios introduced the "relief line". At the same time new vase shapes were invented, a development favored by the fact that many of the pioneer group painters were also active as potters. New shapes include
6903-429: The earliest examples are known as pseudo-red-figure vase paintings. The true red-figure technique was introduced much later, near the end of the 5th century BC. Several painters, workshops and production centres are known for both styles. Their products were not only used locally, but also exported to Malta , Carthage , Rome and Liguria . The early Etruscan examples merely imitated the red-figure technique. Similar to
7020-491: The early 3rd century BC. Like elsewhere, the changing tastes of the customers eventually led to the end of this style. True red figure vase painting, i.e. vases where the red areas have been left unpainted, was introduced to Etruria near the end of the 5th century BC. The first workshops developed in Vulci and Falerii and produced also for the surrounding areas. It is likely that Attic masters were behind these early workshops, but
7137-476: The electron donor is any of a wide variety of flavoenzymes and their coenzymes . Once formed, these anion free radicals reduce molecular oxygen to superoxide and regenerate the unchanged parent compound. The net reaction is the oxidation of the flavoenzyme's coenzymes and the reduction of molecular oxygen to form superoxide. This catalytic behavior has been described as a futile cycle or redox cycling. Minerals are generally oxidized derivatives of metals. Iron
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#17327904356057254-415: The electrons cancel: The protons and fluoride combine to form hydrogen fluoride in a non-redox reaction: The overall reaction is: In this type of reaction, a metal atom in a compound or solution is replaced by an atom of another metal. For example, copper is deposited when zinc metal is placed in a copper(II) sulfate solution: In the above reaction, zinc metal displaces the copper(II) ion from
7371-446: The environment. Cellular respiration , for instance, is the oxidation of glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) to CO 2 and the reduction of oxygen to water . The summary equation for cellular respiration is: The process of cellular respiration also depends heavily on the reduction of NAD to NADH and the reverse reaction (the oxidation of NADH to NAD ). Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are complementary, but photosynthesis
7488-436: The exploration of Greek cultural history , everyday life , iconography , and mythology . Red figure is, put simply, the reverse of the black figure technique. Both were achieved by using the three-phase firing technique. The paintings were applied to the shaped but unfired vessels after they had dried to a leathery, near-brittle texture. In Attica , the normal unfired clay was an orange color at this stage. The outlines of
7605-670: The fact that frequently, several roughly contemporary pots by the same potter are painted by various painters. For examples, pots made by Euphronios have been found to be painted by Onesimos , Douris , the Antiphon Painter , the Triptolemos Painter and the Pistoxenos Painter . Conversely, an individual painter could also change from one workshop to another. For example, the bowl painter Oltos worked for at least six different potters. Although from
7722-524: The first to paint the new nestoris (see Typology of Greek Vase Shapes ) vase type. Mythical or theatrical scenes are common. For example, the Cheophoroi painter , named after the Cheophoroi by Aeschylos showed scenes from the tragedy in question on several of his vases. The influence of Apulian vase painting becomes tangible roughly at the same time. Especially polychromy and vegetal decor became standard. Important representatives of this style include
7839-660: The foundation of electrochemical cells, which can generate electrical energy or support electrosynthesis . Metal ores often contain metals in oxidized states, such as oxides or sulfides, from which the pure metals are extracted by smelting at high temperatures in the presence of a reducing agent. The process of electroplating uses redox reactions to coat objects with a thin layer of a material, as in chrome-plated automotive parts, silver plating cutlery , galvanization and gold-plated jewelry . Many essential biological processes involve redox reactions. Before some of these processes can begin, iron must be assimilated from
7956-544: The gods Aphrodite and Eros , Apollo , Athena and Hermes . Paestan painting rarely depicts domestic scenes, but favours animals. Asteas and Python had a major influence on the vase painting of Paestum. This is clearly visible in the work of the Aphrodite Painter , who probably immigrated from Apulia. Around 330 BC, a second workshop developed, originally following the work of the first. The quality of its painting and variety of its motifs deteriorated quickly. At
8073-413: The human body if they do not reattach to the redox molecule or an antioxidant . The term redox state is often used to describe the balance of GSH/GSSG , NAD /NADH and NADP /NADPH in a biological system such as a cell or organ . The redox state is reflected in the balance of several sets of metabolites (e.g., lactate and pyruvate , beta-hydroxybutyrate and acetoacetate ), whose interconversion
8190-577: The increasingly unsuccessful progress of the Peloponnesian War, culminating in the devastating defeat of Athens in 404 BCE. After this, Sparta controlled the western trade, albeit without having the economic strength to fully exploit it. The Attic potters had to find new markets; they did so in the Black Sea area. But Athens and its industries never fully recovered from the defeat. Some potters and painters had already relocated to Italy during
8307-424: The indication of a third dimension on the figures. However, it also had disadvantages. For example, the distinction of sex by using black slip for male skin and white paint for female skin was now impossible. The ongoing trend to depict heroes and deities naked and of youthful age also made it harder to distinguish the sexes through garments or hairstyles. In the initial phases, there were also miscalculations regarding
8424-415: The intended figures were drawn either with a blunt scraper, leaving a slight groove, or with charcoal, which would disappear entirely during firing. Then the contours were redrawn with a brush, using a glossy clay slip . Occasionally, the painter decided to somewhat change the figurative scene. In such cases the grooves from the original sketch sometimes remain visible. Important contours were often drawn with
8541-524: The last of the South Italian styles. It was founded by Sicilian immigrants around 360 BC. the first workshop was controlled by Asteas and Python . They are the only South Italian vase painters known from inscriptions. They mainly painted bell kraters , neck amphorae, hydriai , lebes gamikos , lekanes , lekythoi and jugs, more rarely pelikes , chalice kraters and volute kraters . Characteristics include decorations such as lateral palmettes,
8658-522: The markets. Attic pottery was exported to Magna Graecia and even Etruria . The preference for Attic vases led to the development of local South Italian and Etruscan workshops or "schools", strongly influenced by Attic style, but producing exclusively for local markets. The first red-figure vases were produced around 530 BCE. The invention of the technique normally is accredited to the Andokides Painter . He, and other early representatives of
8775-456: The meaning was generalized to include all processes involving the loss of electrons or the increase in the oxidation state of a chemical species. Substances that have the ability to oxidize other substances (cause them to lose electrons) are said to be oxidative or oxidizing, and are known as oxidizing agents , oxidants, or oxidizers. The oxidant removes electrons from another substance, and is thus itself reduced. Because it "accepts" electrons,
8892-641: The mid-5th century BC by Attic potters. Soon, local craftsmen were trained and the thematic and formal dependence on Attic vases overcome. Towards the end of the century, the distinctive "ornate style" and "plain style" developed in Apulia . Especially the ornate style was adopted by other mainland schools, but without reaching the same quality. By now, 21,000 South Italian vases and fragments are known. Of those, 11,000 are ascribed to Apulian workshops, 4,000 to Campanian, 2,000 to Paestan, 1,500 to Lucanian and 1,000 to Sicilian ones. The Apulian vase painting tradition
9009-492: The molten iron is: Electron transfer reactions are central to myriad processes and properties in soils, and redox potential , quantified as Eh (platinum electrode potential ( voltage ) relative to the standard hydrogen electrode) or pe (analogous to pH as -log electron activity), is a master variable, along with pH, that controls and is governed by chemical reactions and biological processes. Early theoretical research with applications to flooded soils and paddy rice production
9126-519: The most commonly depicted heroes. The best-known painter of this style is the Marsyas Painter . The last Athenian vases with figural depictions were created around 320 BCE at the latest. The style continued somewhat longer, but with non-figural decorations. The last recognised examples are by painters known as the YZ Group . The Kerameikos was the potters' quarter of Athens. It contained
9243-442: The newly erected Parthenon and its sculptural decoration . This is especially visible in the depiction of garments; the material now falls more naturally, and more folds are depicted, leading to an increased "depth" of the depiction. The overall compositions were simplified even more. Artists placed special emphasis on symmetry , harmony , and balance . The human figures had returned to their earlier slenderness; they often radiate
9360-507: The older style remained in use. Thus incised lines are quite common, as is the additional application of red paint ("added red") to cover large areas. The artists of the so-called " Pioneer Group " made the step towards a full exploitation of the possibilities of the red-figure technique. They were active between circa 520 and 500 BCE. Important representatives include Euphronios , Euthymides and Phintias . This group, recognised and defined by twentieth-century scholarship, experimented with
9477-627: The one hand, a style of vase painting strongly influenced by the "Rich Style" of sculpture developed, on the other, some workshops continued the developments of the High Classical period, with an increased emphasis on the depiction of emotion, and a range of erotic scenes. The most important representative of the Rich Style is the Meidias Painter . Characteristic features include transparent garments and multiple folds of cloth. There
9594-404: The other hand, inscriptions often label the depicted figures. That not every vase painter could write is shown by some examples of meaningless rows of random letters. The vases indicate a steady improvement of literacy from the 6th century BCE onwards. Whether potters, and perhaps vase painters, belonged to the Attic elite has not been satisfactorily clarified so far. Do the frequent depictions of
9711-449: The oxidizing agent is also called an electron acceptor . Oxidants are usually chemical substances with elements in high oxidation states (e.g., N 2 O 4 , MnO 4 , CrO 3 , Cr 2 O 7 , OsO 4 ), or else highly electronegative elements (e.g. O 2 , F 2 , Cl 2 , Br 2 , I 2 ) that can gain extra electrons by oxidizing another substance. Oxidizers are oxidants, but
9828-430: The painted surfaces, which was always less accurate than the direct application of detail with a brush. Red-figure depictions were generally more lively and realistic than the black-figure silhouettes . They were also more clearly contrasted against the black backgrounds. It was now possible to depict humans not only in profile, but also in frontal, rear, or three-quarter perspectives. The red-figure technique also permitted
9945-406: The pioneer group tended to use inscriptions. The labelling of mythological figures or the addition of Kalos inscriptions are the rule rather than the exception. Apart from the vase painters, some bowl painters also used the new style. These include Oltos and Epiktetos . Many of their works were bilingual, often using red-figure only on the interior of the bowl. The generation of artists after
10062-621: The pioneers, active during the Late Archaic period ( circa 500 to 470 BCE) brought the style to a new flourish. During this time, black-figure vases failed to reach the same quality and were pushed out of the market eventually. Some of the most famous Attic vase painters belong to this generation. They include the Berlin Painter , the Kleophrades Painter , and among the bowl painters Onesimos , Douris , Makron and
10179-665: The preceding black-figure style with black figures on a red background. The most important areas of production, apart from Attica , were in Southern Italy . The style was also adopted in other parts of Greece . Etruria became an important center of production outside the Greek World . Attic red-figure vases were exported throughout Greece and beyond. For a long time, they dominated the market for fine ceramics. Few centers of pottery production could compete with Athens in terms of innovation, quality and production capacity. Of
10296-404: The presence of acid to form elemental sulfur (oxidation state 0) and sulfur dioxide (oxidation state +4). Thus one sulfur atom is reduced from +2 to 0, while the other is oxidized from +2 to +4. Cathodic protection is a technique used to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making it the cathode of an electrochemical cell . A simple method of protection connects protected metal to
10413-569: The private and domestic world became more and more important. Scenes from the life of women are especially frequent. Mythological scenes are dominated by images of Dionysos and Aphrodite . It is not clear what caused this change of topic among some of the artists. Suggestions include a context with the horrors of the Peloponnesian War , but also the loss of Athens' dominant role in the Mediterranean pottery trade (itself partially
10530-927: The pseudo-red-figure style was not just a phenomenon of the earliest phases, as it had been in Attica. Especially during the 4th century, some workshops specialised in this technique, although true red-figure painting was widespread among Etruscan workshops at the same time. Notable workshops include the Sokra Group and the Phantom Group . The Sokra Group, somewhat older, preferred bowls with interior decoration of Greek mythical themes, but also some Etruscan motifs. The phantom Group mainly painted cloaked figures combined with vegetal or palmette ornamentation. The workshops of both groups are suspected to have been in Caere , Falerii and Tarquinia . The Phantom Group produced until
10647-544: The reaction between hydrogen and fluorine , hydrogen is being oxidized and fluorine is being reduced: This spontaneous reaction releases 542 kJ per 2 g of hydrogen because the H-F bond is much stronger than the F-F bond. This reaction can be analyzed as two half-reactions . The oxidation reaction converts hydrogen to protons : The reduction reaction converts fluorine to the fluoride anion: The half-reactions are combined so that
10764-500: The red-figure vases produced in Athens alone, more than 40,000 specimens and fragments survive today. From the second-most important production center, Southern Italy, more than 20,000 vases and fragments are preserved. Starting with the studies by John D. Beazley and Arthur Dale Trendall , the study of this style of art has made enormous progress. Some vases can be ascribed to individual artists or schools. The images provide evidence for
10881-448: The reddish color by a final re- oxidation . Since this final oxidizing phase was fired using lower temperatures, the glazed parts of the vase did not re-oxidize from black to red: their finer surface was melted (sintered) in the reducing phase, and now protected from oxygen. The new technique had the primary advantage of permitting a far better execution of internal detail. In black-figure vase painting such details had to be scratched into
10998-410: The reducing agent is also called an electron donor . Electron donors can also form charge transfer complexes with electron acceptors. The word reduction originally referred to the loss in weight upon heating a metallic ore such as a metal oxide to extract the metal. In other words, ore was "reduced" to metal. Antoine Lavoisier demonstrated that this loss of weight was due to the loss of oxygen as
11115-455: The reductant transfers electrons to the oxidant. Thus, in the reaction, the reductant or reducing agent loses electrons and is oxidized, and the oxidant or oxidizing agent gains electrons and is reduced. The pair of an oxidizing and reducing agent that is involved in a particular reaction is called a redox pair. A redox couple is a reducing species and its corresponding oxidizing form, e.g., Fe / Fe .The oxidation alone and
11232-458: The reduction alone are each called a half-reaction because two half-reactions always occur together to form a whole reaction. In electrochemical reactions the oxidation and reduction processes do occur simultaneously but are separated in space. Oxidation originally implied a reaction with oxygen to form an oxide. Later, the term was expanded to encompass substances that accomplished chemical reactions similar to those of oxygen. Ultimately,
11349-494: The reduction of carbonyl compounds to alcohols . A related method of reduction involves the use of hydrogen gas (H 2 ) as sources of H atoms. The electrochemist John Bockris proposed the words electronation and de-electronation to describe reduction and oxidation processes, respectively, when they occur at electrodes . These words are analogous to protonation and deprotonation . They have not been widely adopted by chemists worldwide, although IUPAC has recognized
11466-421: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Ornate Style . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ornate_Style&oldid=1256496311 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
11583-482: The same time, an influence by the Campanian Caivano Painter becomes notable, garments falling in a linear fashion and contourless female figures followed. Around 300 BC, Paestan vase painting came to a halt. The production of Sicilian vase painting began before the end of the 5th century BC, in the poleis of Himera and Syracusae . In terms of style, themes, ornamentation and vase shapes,
11700-429: The second half of the century, Volterra became a main centre. Here, especially rod-handled kraters were produced and, especially in the early phases, painted elaborately. During the 2nd half of the 4th century BC, mythological themes disappeared from the repertoire of Etruscan painters. They were replaced by female heads and scenes of up to two figures. Instead of figural depictions, ornaments and floral motifs covered
11817-530: The style, e.g. Psiax , initially painted vases in both styles, with black-figure scenes on one side, and red-figure on the other. Such vases, e.g. the Belly Amphora by the Andokides Painter (Munich 2301) , are called bilingual vases . Although they display major advances against the black-figure style, the figures still appear somewhat stilted and seldom overlap. Compositions and techniques of
11934-615: The target region than in Athens. The 4th century BCE demise of Attic vase painting tellingly coincides with the very period when the Etruscans , probably the main western export market, came under increasing pressure from South Italian Greeks and the Romans . A further reason for the end of the production of figurally decorated vases is a change in tastes at the start of the Hellenistic period . The main reason, however, should be seen in
12051-437: The term is mainly reserved for sources of oxygen, particularly in the context of explosions. Nitric acid is a strong oxidizer. Substances that have the ability to reduce other substances (cause them to gain electrons) are said to be reductive or reducing and are known as reducing agents , reductants, or reducers. The reductant transfers electrons to another substance and is thus itself oxidized. Because it donates electrons,
12168-658: The terms electronation and de-electronation. Redox reactions can occur slowly, as in the formation of rust , or rapidly, as in the case of burning fuel . Electron transfer reactions are generally fast, occurring within the time of mixing. The mechanisms of atom-transfer reactions are highly variable because many kinds of atoms can be transferred. Such reactions can also be quite complex, involving many steps. The mechanisms of electron-transfer reactions occur by two distinct pathways, inner sphere electron transfer and outer sphere electron transfer . Analysis of bond energies and ionization energies in water allows calculation of
12285-446: The thermodynamic aspects of redox reactions. Each half-reaction has a standard electrode potential ( E cell ), which is equal to the potential difference or voltage at equilibrium under standard conditions of an electrochemical cell in which the cathode reaction is the half-reaction considered, and the anode is a standard hydrogen electrode where hydrogen is oxidized: The electrode potential of each half-reaction
12402-423: The thickness of human figures. In black-figure vase painting, the pre-drawn outlines were a part of the figure. In red-figure vases, the outline would, after firing, form part of the black background. This led to vases with very thin figures early on. A further problem was that the black background did not permit the depiction of space in any depth, so that spatial perspective was almost never attempted. Nonetheless,
12519-446: The use of diluted runny glossy clay. Occasionally, whole figures are added as appliques, i.e. as thin figural reliefs attached to the body of the vase. The variety of vessel shapes in use was reduced sharply. Common painted shapes include pelike , chalice krater , belly lekythos , skyphos , hydria and oinochoe . Scenes from female life are very common. Mythological themes are still dominated by Dionysos ; Ariadne and Heracles are
12636-609: The vessel bodies. Large figural compositions, like that on a krater by the Den Haag Funnel Group Painter were only produced exceptionally. The originally large-scale production at Falerii lost its dominant role to the production centre at Caere, which had probably been founded by Falerian painters and cannot be said to represent a distinct tradition. The standard repertoire of the Caere workshops included simply painted oinochoai , lekythoi and drinking bowls of
12753-522: The war, seeking better economic conditions. A key indicator for the export-oriented nature of Attic vase production is the nearly total absence of theatre scenes. Buyers from other cultural backgrounds, such as Etruscans or later customers in the Iberian Peninsula , would have found such depiction incomprehensible or uninteresting. In Southern Italian vase painting, which was mostly not aimed at export, such scenes are quite common. At least from
12870-405: The words ἐγραψεν (égrapsen, has painted). In contrast, the signature of the potter, ἐποίησεν (epoíesen, has made) has survived on more than twice as many, namely about 100, pots (both numbers refer to the totality of Attic figural vase painting). Although signatures had been known since c. 580 BCE (first known signature by the potter Sophilos ), their use increased to an apex around
12987-521: The workshops were strongly influenced by the Attic tradition, especially by the Late Classical Meidias Painter . In the second quarter of the 4th century, Sicilian vase painters emigrated to Campania and Paestum, where they introduced red-figure vase painting. Only Syracusae retained a limited production. The typical Sicilian style only developed around 340 BC. Three groups of workshops can be distinguished. The first, known as
13104-438: Was able to work as both painter and potter suggests that at least some of the painters were not slaves . On the other hand, some of the known names indicate that there were at least some former slaves and some perioikoi among the painters. Additionally, some of the names are not unique: for example, several painters signed as Polygnotos . This may represent attempts to profit from the name of that great painter. The same may be
13221-442: Was necessary, as the rather liquid glossy clay would otherwise have turned out too dull. After the technique's initial phase of development, both alternatives were used, to differentiate gradations and details more clearly. The space between figures was filled with a glossy grey clay slip. Then, the vases underwent triple-phase firing, during which the glossy clay reached its characteristic black or black-brown color through reduction ,
13338-649: Was not painted on, but incised into the figures. Important representatives of this style include the Praxias Painter and other masters from his workshop in Vulci . In spite of their evident good knowledge of Greek myth and iconography, there is no evidence to indicate that these painters had immigrated from Attica. An exception to this may be the Praxia Painter, as Greek inscription on four of his vases may indicate that he originated from Greece. In Etruria,
13455-433: Was seminal for subsequent work on thermodynamic aspects of redox and plant root growth in soils. Later work built on this foundation, and expanded it for understanding redox reactions related to heavy metal oxidation state changes, pedogenesis and morphology, organic compound degradation and formation, free radical chemistry, wetland delineation, soil remediation , and various methodological approaches for characterizing
13572-599: Was taken up by cult and grave vessels. In any case, it can be assumed that the production of high-quality pottery was a profitable business. For example, an expensive votive gift by the painter Euphronios was found on the Athenian Acropolis . There can be little doubt that the export of such pottery made an important contribution to the affluence of Athens. It is hardly surprising that many workshops appear to have aimed their production at export markets, for example by producing vessel shapes that were more popular in
13689-570: Was used to depict up to 20 figures, often in several registers on the body of the vase. Additional colours, especially shades of red, yellow-gold and white are used copiously. Since the 2nd half of the 4th century, the necks and sides of the vases are decorated with rich vegetal or ornamental decorations. At the same time, perspective views, especially of buildings such as "Palace of Hades " ( naiskoi ), develop. Since 360 BC, such structures are often depicted in scenes connected with burial rites ( naiskos vases). Important representatives of this style are
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