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123-544: His work is characterised by large, space-filling figures whose posture is often bent so as to permit them to fit on a vessel. For the same reason, ornamental decoration around the edges is often very narrow. His works are also characterised by being very colourful, permitting several intermediate shades. Apart from dark coral red and the usual light red, he also used tones of brown, yellow, yellow-white and gold. His figures are painted remarkably meticulously in every detail. Unlike many of his contemporaries, he appears to have painted

246-402: A buccinator . Ordinary camp life began with a buccina call at daybreak, the first watch of the day. The soldiers arose at this time and shortly after gathered in the company area for breakfast and assembly. The centurions were up before them and off to the principia where they and the equites were required to assemble. The regimental commanders, the tribunes, were already converging on

369-520: A Roman camp, for example Marsala in Sicily, the ancient Lilybaeum, where the name of the main street, the Cassaro, perpetuates the name "castrum". The castrum's special structure also defended from attacks. The base ( munimentum , "fortification") was placed entirely within the vallum ("wall"), which could be constructed under the protection of the legion in battle formation if necessary. The vallum

492-427: A battle line. Considering that the earliest military shelters were tents made of hide or cloth, and all but the most permanent bases housed the men in tents placed in quadrangles and separated by numbered streets, one castrum may well have acquired the connotation of tent. The commonest Latin syntagmata (here phrases) for the term castra are: In Latin the term castrum is much more frequently used as

615-415: A camp had both public and private latrines . A public latrine consisted of a bank of seats situated over a channel of running water. One of the major considerations for selecting the site of a camp was the presence of running water, which the engineers diverted into the sanitary channels. Drinking water came from wells; however, the larger and more permanent bases featured the aqueduct , a structure running

738-512: A collection of coins and Renaissance medals. The Renaissance Palazzo Paradiso , part of the Ferrara University library system, displays part of the manuscript of Orlando furioso and letters by Tasso as well as Ludovico Ariosto 's grave. Its famous alumni include Nicolaus Copernicus and Paracelsus . The northern quarter, which was added by Ercole I in 1492–1505 thanks to the master plan of Biagio Rossetti , and hence called

861-410: A cut-off piece of land"> If this is the civilian interpretation, the military version must be "military reservation", a piece of land cut off from the common land around it and modified for military use. All castra must be defended by works, often no more than a stockade, for which the soldiers carried stakes, and a ditch. The castra could be prepared under attack within a hollow square or behind

984-541: A dark chocolate and butter cake, and zuppa inglese , a chocolate and custard pudding on a bed of sponge cake soaked in Alchermes . The clay terroir of the area, an alluvial plain created by the river Po, is not ideal for wine; a notable exception is Bosco Eliceo ( DOC ) wine, made from grapes cultivated on the sandy coast line. Ferrara is twinned with: Castra In the Roman Republic and

1107-424: A distinctive charm, marking him as one of the great masters of Greek vase painting . His true mastery is increasingly found in the subsidiary images of boys, on which he appears to have concentrated more and more. His major importance for Classical vase painting lies in the fact that he moved away from the usual motifs and replaced them with typical motifs from everyday life. His emphasis on human aspects represented

1230-510: A farm enclosed by a fence or a wooden or stone wall of some kind. Cornelius Nepos uses Latin castrum in that sense: when Alcibiades deserts to the Persians, Pharnabazus gives him an estate ( castrum ) worth 500 talents in tax revenues. This is a change of meaning from the reflexes in other languages, which still mean some sort of knife, axe, or spear. Pokorny explains it as 'Lager' als 'abgeschnittenes Stück Land' , "a lager, as

1353-595: A few years under Napoleon and during the 1848 revolution, the ghetto lasted until Italian unification in 1859. In 1799, the Jewish community saved the city from sacking by troops of the Holy Roman Empire . During the spring of 1799, the city had fallen into the hands of the Republic of France , which established a small garrison there. On 15 April, Lieutenant Field Marshal Johann von Klenau approached

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1476-531: A general staff officer, who might manage training at several camps. According to Vegetius, the men might take a 32 kilometres (20 mi) hike or a 68 kilometres (42 mi) jog under full pack, or swim a river. Marching drill was always in order. Each soldier was taught the use of every weapon and also was taught to ride. Seamanship was taught at naval bases. Soldiers were generalists in the military and construction arts. They practiced archery, spear-throwing and above all swordsmanship against posts ( pali ) fixed in

1599-590: A general trend in Italy and Europe, Ferrara has come to rely more on tertiary and tourism, while the heavy industry, still present in the town, has been largely phased out. After almost 450 years, another earthquake struck Ferrara in May 2012 causing only limited damage to the historic buildings of the town and no victims. The town of Ferrara lies on the southern shores of the Po river , about 44 km (27 mi) north-east of

1722-539: A large urban park around the town and are a popular destination for joggers and cyclists. In 2007, there were 135,369 people residing in Ferrara, of whom 46.8% were male and 53.2% were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 12.28% of the population compared to pensioners who number 26.41%. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06% (minors) and 19.94% (pensioners). The average age of Ferrara residents

1845-464: A modern study shows that the intervallum "was 1/16th of the square root of the area it enclosed in the fort." Legionaries were quartered in a peripheral zone inside the intervallum , which they could rapidly cross to take up position on the vallum . Inside of the legionary quarters was a peripheral road, the Via Sagularis , probably a type of "service road", as the sagum , a kind of cloak,

1968-518: A new departure and was to be an important influence on the further development of vase painting. Apart from the Penthesilea bowl, "bowl 2689", also in Munich, is considered his other masterpiece. Its interior shows the slaying of Tityos by Apollo . Ferrara Ferrara ( / f ə ˈ r ɑːr ə / ; Italian: [ferˈraːra] ; Emilian : Fràra [ˈfraːra] )

2091-422: A probable derivation from *k̂es-, schneiden ("cut") in *k̂es-tro-m, Schneidewerkzeug ("cutting tool"). These Italic reflexes based on *kastrom include Oscan castrous ( genitive case ) and Umbrian castruo , kastruvuf ( accusative case ). They have the same meaning, says Pokorny, as Latin fundus , an estate, or tract of land. This is not any land but is a prepared or cultivated tract, such as

2214-812: A project—known as MEIS, after its initials in Italian—to be completed in 2021, with additional buildings that will create a major Jewish cultural hub and add exhibits focusing on the Jews in the Italian Renaissance and the Shoah. During the Renaissance the Este family, well known for its patronage of the arts, welcomed a great number of artists, especially painters, that formed the so-called School of Ferrara . The astounding list of painters and artists includes

2337-473: A proper name for geographical locations: e.g., Castrum Album , Castrum Inui , Castrum Novum , Castrum Truentinum , Castrum Vergium . The plural was also used as a place name, as Castra Cornelia , and from this comes the Welsh place name prefix caer- (e.g. Caerleon and Caerwent ) and English suffixes -caster and -chester (e.g. Winchester and Lancaster ). Castrorum Filius , "son of

2460-517: A rich Jewish family during the dictatorship of Benito Mussolini and World War II . Furthermore, Wim Wenders and Michelangelo Antonioni 's Beyond the Clouds in (1995) and Ermanno Olmi 's The Profession of Arms in (2001), a film about the last days of Giovanni dalle Bande Nere , were also shot in Ferrara. In the third season of Medici (TV Series) , Girolamo Riario 's men seize Ferrara, 100 miles from Florence and takes their salt. Based on

2583-628: A room, who slept on bunkbeds. The soldiers in each room were also required to cook their own meals and eat with their "roommates". From the time of Augustus more permanent castra with wooden or stone buildings and walls were introduced as the distant and hard-won boundaries of the expanding empire required permanent garrisons to control local and external threats from warlike tribes. Previously, legions were raised for specific military campaigns and subsequently disbanded, requiring only temporary castra. From then on many castra of various sizes were established, many of which became permanent settlements. From

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2706-524: A stream captured from high ground (sometimes miles away) into the camp. The praetorium had its own latrine and probably the quarters of the high-ranking officers. In or near the intervallum , where they could easily be accessed, were the latrines of the soldiers. A public bathhouse for the soldiers, also containing a latrine, was located near or on the Via Principalis . The influence of a base extended far beyond its walls. The total land required for

2829-681: Is Alan Fabbri of the Lega Nord . The urban organisation is governed by the Italian Constitution (art. 114), the Municipal Statute and several laws, notably the Legislative Decree 267/2000 or Unified Text on Local Administration ( Testo Unico degli Enti Locali ). The current division of the seats in the city council, after the 2019 local election, is the following: The imposing Este Castle , sited in

2952-460: Is pasticcio di maccheroni , a domed macaroni pie, consisting of a crust of sweet dough enclosing macaroni in a Béchamel sauce , studded with porcini mushrooms and ragù alla bolognese . The traditional Christmas first course is cappelletti , large meat filled ravioli served in chicken broth. It is often followed by salama da sugo , a very big, cured sausage made from a selection of pork meats and spices kneaded with red wine. Seafood

3075-427: Is 49, compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Ferrara grew by 2.28%, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.85%. The current birth rate of Ferrara is 7.02 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births. Ferrara is known as the oldest Italian city with a population over 100,000, as well the city with lowest birth rate. As of 2006 , 95.59% of

3198-652: Is a city and comune (municipality) in Emilia-Romagna , Northern Italy , capital of the province of Ferrara . As of 2016, it had 132,009 inhabitants. It is situated 44 kilometres (27 miles) northeast of Bologna , on the Po di Volano, a branch channel of the main stream of the Po River , located 5 km (3 miles) north. The town has broad streets and numerous palaces dating from the Renaissance , when it hosted

3321-564: Is also an important part of the local tradition, that boast rich fisheries in the Po delta lagoons and Adriatic sea. Pasta with clams and grilled or stewed eel dishes are especially well-known. Popular food items include also zia garlic salami and the traditional coppia bread, protected by the IGP ( protected geographical status ) label. Not unusual is the typical kosher salami made of goose meat stuffed in goose neck skin. Local patisserie include spicy pampepato chocolate pie, tenerina ,

3444-409: Is archaeological evidence in one case of an indoor equestrian ring. Apart from the training, each soldier had a regular job on the base, of which there was a large variety from the various kinds of clerk to the craftsmen. Soldiers changed jobs frequently. The commander's policy was to have all the soldiers skilled in all the arts and crafts so that they could be as interchangeable as possible. Even then

3567-501: Is displayed in the National Gallery of Palazzo dei Diamanti . The Renaissance literary men and poets Torquato Tasso (author of Jerusalem Delivered ), Ludovico Ariosto (author of the romantic epic poem Orlando Furioso ) and Matteo Maria Boiardo (author of the grandiose poem of chivalry and romance Orlando Innamorato ) lived and worked at the court of Ferrara during the 15th and 16th century. The Ferrara Bible

3690-522: Is one of the finest examples of Romanesque architecture . The duomo has been renovated many times through the centuries, thus its resulting eclectic style is a harmonious combination of the Romanesque central structure and portal, the Gothic upper part of the façade and the Renaissance campanile . The sculptures of the main portal are attributed to Nicholaus  [ it ] . The upper part of

3813-420: Is the fence they raise rashly made, or uneven; nor do they all abide ill it, nor do those that are in it take their places at random; but if it happens that the ground is uneven, it is first levelled: their camp is also four-square by measure, and carpenters are ready, in great numbers, with their tools, to erect their buildings for them." To this end a marching column ported the equipment needed to build and stock

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3936-546: Is the town's oldest, crossed by a myriad of narrow alleys that date back to the Early Middle Ages . Casa Romei  [ it ] is perhaps the best preserved Medieval building in Ferrara. It was the private residence of merchant Giovanni Romei, related by marriage to the Este family, and likely the work of the court architect Pietrobono Brasavola. Thanks to the nuns of the Corpus Domini order, much of

4059-610: The Addizione Erculea , features a number of Renaissance palazzi . Among the finest is Palazzo dei Diamanti ("Diamond Palace"), named after the diamond points into which the façade's stone blocks are cut. The palazzo houses the National Picture Gallery, with a large collection of the school of Ferrara, which first rose to prominence in the latter half of the 15th century, with Cosimo Tura , Francesco Cossa and Ercole dei Roberti . Noted masters of

4182-399: The buccina or bucina , the cornu and the tuba . As they did not possess valves for regulating the pitch, the range of these instruments was somewhat limited. Nevertheless, the musicians ( aenatores , "brassmen") managed to define enough signals for issuing commands. The instrument used to mark the passage of a watch was the buccina , from which the trumpet derives. It was sounded by

4305-615: The Italian communes is the City Council ( Consiglio Comunale ), which, in towns having between 100,000 and 250,000 population, is composed by 32 councillors elected every five years with a proportional system, contextually to the mayoral elections. The executive body is the City Committee ( Giunta Comunale ), composed by 12 assessors , that is nominated and presided over by a directly elected mayor. The current mayor of Ferrara

4428-781: The Lombard king Desiderius of 753 AD, when he captured the town from the Exarchate of Ravenna . Later the Franks , after routing the Lombards, presented Ferrara to the Papacy in 754 or 756. In 988 Ferrara was ceded by the Church to the House of Canossa , but at the death of Matilda of Tuscany in 1115 it became a free commune . During the 12th century the history of the town was marked by

4551-464: The Middle Ages , and that sometimes reveals the influence of its important Jewish community. The signature dish is cappellacci di zucca , special ravioli with a filling of butternut squash , Parmesan and flavored with nutmeg . It is served with a sauce of butter and sage or bolognese sauce . Another peculiar dish, that was allegedly cooked by Renaissance chef Cristoforo di Messisbugo ,

4674-528: The Mirandola fortress. The besieged garrison made several sorties from the Saint Paul's Gate, which were repulsed by the insurgent peasants. The French attempted two rescues of the beleaguered fortress: the first, on 24 April, when a force of 400 Modenese was repulsed at Mirandola and the second, General Montrichard tried to raise the city-blockade by advancing with a force of 4,000. Finally, at

4797-598: The Papal States . Ferrara, a university city second only to Bologna, remained a part of the Papal States for almost 300 years, an era marked by a steady decline; in 1792 the population of the town was only 27,000, less than in the 17th century. In 1805–1814 it was briefly part of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy , a client-state of the French Empire . After the 1815 Congress of Vienna , Ferrara

4920-569: The Principia contained the Quaestorium . By the late empire it had developed also into a safekeep for plunder and a prison for hostages and high-ranking enemy captives. Near the Quaestorium were the quarters of the headquarters guard ( Statores ), who amounted to two centuries (companies). If the Imperator was present they served as his bodyguard. Further from the Quaestorium were

5043-432: The Renaissance . He vehemently preached against the moral corruption of much of the clergy at the time, and his main opponent was Pope Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia). During the time that Renée of France was Duchess of Ferrara, her court attracted Protestant thinkers such as John Calvin and Olympia Fulvia Morata . The court became hostile to Protestant sympathizers after the marriage of Renée's daughter Anna d'Este to

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5166-723: The Roman Empire , the Latin word castrum ( pl. : castra ) was a military-related term. In Latin usage, the singular form castrum meant ' fort ', while the plural form castra meant 'camp'. The singular and plural forms could refer in Latin to either a building or plot of land, used as a fortified military base . In English usage, castrum commonly translates to "Roman fort", "Roman camp" and "Roman fortress". However, scholastic convention tends to translate castrum as "fort", "camp", "marching camp" or "fortress". Romans used

5289-539: The Valli di Comacchio marshes in 1922 first officially revealed a necropolis with over 4,000 tombs, evidence of a population centre that in Antiquity must have played a major role. There is uncertainty among scholars about the proposed Roman origin of the settlement in its current location ( Tacitus and Boccaccio refer to a "Forum Alieni" ), for little is known of this period, but some archeologic evidence points to

5412-536: The Via Praetoria offered another division of the camp into four quarters. Across the central plaza ( principia ) to the east or west was the main gate, the Porta Praetoria . Marching through it and down "headquarters street" a unit ended up in formation in front of the headquarters. The standards of the legion were located on display there, very much like the flag of modern camps. On the other side of

5535-447: The Via Principalis were the homes or tents of the several tribunes in front of the barracks of the units they commanded. The central region of the Via Principalis with the buildings for the command staff was called the Principia (plural of principium ). It was actually a square, as across this at right angles to the Via Principalis was the Via Praetoria , so called because the praetorium interrupted it. The Via Principalis and

5658-612: The latera ("sides") were the Arae (sacrificial altars), the Auguratorium (for auspices ), the Tribunal , where courts martial and arbitrations were conducted (it had a raised platform), the guardhouse, the quarters of various kinds of staff and the storehouses for grain ( horrea ) or meat ( carnarea ). Sometimes the horrea were located near the barracks and the meat was stored on the hoof. Analysis of sewage from latrines indicates

5781-503: The medici ordinarii , had to be qualified physicians. They were allowed medical students, practitioners and whatever orderlies they needed; i.e., the military hospitals were medical schools and places of residency as well. Officers were allowed to marry and to reside with their families on base. The army did not extend the same privileges to the men, who were not allowed to marry. However, they often kept common law families off base in communities nearby. The communities might be native, as

5904-454: The praetorium . There the general staff planned the day. At a staff meeting the tribunes received the password and the orders of the day. They brought those back to the centuriones , who returned to their company areas to instruct the men. For soldiers, the main agendum was a vigorous training session lasting about a watch long. Recruits received two, one in the morning and one in the afternoon. Planning and supervision of training were under

6027-464: The 16th century best known for madrigals is thought to have been born in Ferrara. Ferrara is the birthplace of Italian film directors Michelangelo Antonioni and Florestano Vancini . The latter shot in Ferrara his 1960 film Long Night in 1943 . The town was also the setting of the famous 1970 movie The Garden of the Finzi-Continis by Vittorio De Sica , that tells the vicissitudes of

6150-419: The 16th-century School of Ferrara include Lorenzo Costa and Dosso Dossi , the most eminent of all, Girolamo da Carpi and Benvenuto Tisi (il Garofalo) . The district is also home to University of Ferrara Botanic Garden . The town is still almost totally encircled by 9 kilometres (6 miles) of ancient brick walls , mostly built between 1492 and 1520. Today the walls, after a careful restoration, make up

6273-641: The Este Castle, adjacent to the Corso Roma, now known as the Corso Martiri della Libertà, was the site of an infamous massacre in 1943. On December 13, 2017, the first day of Hanukkah , Italy's Museum of Italian Judaism and the Shoah opened on the site of a restored two-story brick prison built in 1912 that counted Jews among its detainees during the Fascist period. This is the initial phase of

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6396-410: The Finzi-Continis , Long Night in 1943 ). In historical fiction, British author Sarah Dunant set her 2009 novel Sacred Hearts in a convent in Ferrara. Ferrara gave birth to Girolamo Savonarola , the famous medieval Dominican priest and leader of Florence from 1494 until his execution in 1498. He was known for his book burning , destruction of what he considered immoral art, and hostility to

6519-479: The Middle Ages to the present day. It played an important role when Ferrara enjoyed its greatest splendor in the 15th and 16th century, with the duke Ercole I d'Este . The situation of the Jews deteriorated in 1598, when the Este dynasty moved to Modena and the city came under papal control. The Jewish settlement, located in three streets forming a triangle near the cathedral, became a ghetto in 1627. Apart from

6642-527: The actions by Riario, Pope Sixtus IV condemns Riario and accepts Lorenzo's invitation to a peace conference in Bagnolo. The attack by Riario’s men on Ferrara was filmed at Castle of Oliveto in Castelfiorentino , once the residence of the noble Pucci family of Florence. The Palio of St. George is a medieval-themed horse race held every last Sunday of May. Established in 1279, it is probably

6765-468: The aisle), ten men per tent. Ideally a company took 10 tents, arranged in a line of 10 companies, with the 10th near the Porta Decumana . Of the c. 9.2 square metres of bunk space each man received 0.9, or about 0.6 by 1.5 m, which was only practical if they slept with heads to the aisle. The single tent with its men was called contubernium , also used for "squad". A squad during some periods

6888-403: The arms at one end and the common area at the other. The company area was used for cooking and recreation such as gaming. The army provisioned the men and had their bread ( panis militaris ) baked in outdoor ovens, but the men were responsible for cooking and serving themselves. They could buy meals or supplementary foods at the canteen. The officers were allowed servants. For sanitary facilities,

7011-434: The aspect ratio of the castra one could determine the order of battle, and the size of the legion it housed determined the area of the camp. Steinhoff theorizes that Richardson has identified a commonality and builds on the latter's detailed studies to suggest that North African encampments in the time of Hadrian were based on the same geometrical skill. The street plans of various present-day cities still retain traces of

7134-499: The basic plan is the same. The hypothesis of an Etruscan origin is a viable alternative. The ideal enforced a linear plan for a camp or fort: a square for camps to contain one legion or smaller unit, a rectangle for two legions, each legion being placed back-to-back with headquarters next to each other. The religious devotion of the Romans to geometry caused them to build into their camps whole-numbered right triangles. Laying it out

7257-500: The camp in a baggage train of wagons and on the backs of the soldiers. The camp allowed the Romans to keep a rested and supplied army in the field. Neither the Celtic nor Germanic armies had this capability: they found it necessary to disperse after only a few days. Camps were the responsibility of engineering units to which specialists of many types belonged, officered by architecti , "chief engineers", who requisitioned manual labor from

7380-400: The camp was placed to best advantage on a hill or slope near the river, the naval base was usually outside its walls. The classici and the optiones of the naval installation relied on the camp for its permanent defense. Naval personnel generally enjoyed better quarters and facilities. Many were civilians working for the military. The ideal plan was typically modified to suit the terrain and

7503-765: The camps", was one of the names used by the emperor Caligula and then also by other emperors. Castro , also derived from Castrum , is a common Spanish family name as well as toponym in Spain and other Hispanophone countries, Italy , and the Balkans , either by itself or in various compounds such as the World Heritage Site of Gjirokastër (earlier Argurokastro ). The terms stratopedon ( army camp ) and phrourion ( fortification ) were used by Greek language authors to translate castrum and castellum , respectively. A castrum

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7626-411: The circumstances. Each camp discovered by archaeology has its own specific layout and architectural features, which makes sense from a military point of view. If, for example, the camp was built on an outcrop, it followed the lines of the outcrop. The terrain for which it was best suited and for which it was probably designed in distant prehistoric times was the rolling plain. The camp was best placed on

7749-477: The court of the House of Este . For its beauty and cultural importance, it has been designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site . The first documented settlements in the area of the present-day Province of Ferrara date from the 6th century BC. The ruins of the Etruscan town of Spina , established along the lagoons at the ancient mouth of Po river , were lost until modern times, when drainage schemes in

7872-439: The ditch served also as a moat . A legion-sized camp placed towers at intervals along the wall with positions between for the division artillery. Around the inside periphery of the vallum was a clear space, the intervallum , which served to catch enemy missiles, as an access route to the vallum and as a storage space for cattle ( capita ) and plunder ( praeda ). The Romans were masters of geometry and showed it in their camps:

7995-752: The end of the 1930s with the set-up of a chemical plant by the Fascist regime that should have supplied the regime with synthetic rubber . During the Second World War Ferrara was repeatedly bombed by Allied warplanes that targeted and destroyed railway links and industrial facilities. After the war, the industrial area in Pontelagoscuro was expanded to become a giant petrochemical compound operated by Montecatini and other companies, that at its peak employed 7,000 workers and produced 20% of plastics in Italy. In recent decades, as part of

8118-565: The end of the German occupation. During the Second World War, 96 of Ferrara's 300 Jews were deported to German concentration and death camps; five survived. The Italian Jewish writer, Giorgio Bassani , was from Ferrara. His celebrated book, The Garden of the Finzi-Continis , was published in Italian as Giardino dei Finzi-Contini, 1962, by Giulio Einaudi editore s.p.a. It was made into a film by Vittorio de Sica in 1970. During WWII,

8241-570: The end of the communal period in Ferrara and the beginning of the Este rule, which lasted until 1598. In 1452 Borso d'Este was created duke of Modena and Reggio by Emperor Frederick III and in 1471 duke of Ferrara by Pope Paul II . Lionello and, especially, Ercole I were among the most important patrons of the arts in late 15th- and early 16th-century Italy. During this time, Ferrara grew into an international cultural centre, renowned for its architecture, music, literature and visual arts. The architecture of Ferrara greatly benefited from

8364-521: The end of the month, a column led by Pierre-Augustin Hulin reached and relieved the fortress. Klenau took possession of the town on 21 May, and garrisoned it with a light battalion. The Jewish residents of Ferrara paid 30,000  ducats to prevent the pillage of the city by Klenau's forces; this was used to pay the wages of Gardani's troops. Although Klenau held the town, the French still possessed

8487-526: The fervently Catholic Duke of Guise. The Ferrarese musician Girolamo Frescobaldi was one of the most important composers of keyboard music in the late Renaissance and early Baroque periods. His masterpiece Fiori musicali ( Musical Flowers ) is a collection of liturgical organ music first published in 1635. It became the most famous of Frescobaldi's works and was studied centuries after his death by numerous composers, including Johann Sebastian Bach . Maurizio Moro (15??–16??) an Italian poet of

8610-658: The fifth). If the camp needed more gates, one or two of the Porta Quintana were built, presumably named dextra and sinistra . If the gates were not built, the Porta Decumana also became the Porta Quintana . At Via Quintana a public market was allowed. The Via Quintana and the Via Principalis divided the camp into three districts: the Latera Praetorii , the Praetentura and the Retentura . In

8733-443: The fortress with a modest mixed force of Austrian cavalry, artillery and infantry augmented by Italian peasant rebels, commanded by Count Antonio Bardaniand and demanded its capitulation. The commander refused. Klenau blockaded the city, leaving a small group of artillery and troops to continue the siege. For the next three days, Klenau patrolled the countryside, capturing the surrounding strategic points of Lagoscuro , Borgoforte and

8856-420: The front the quarters of special forces. These included Classici ("marines", as most European camps were on rivers and contained a river naval command), Equites ("cavalry"), Exploratores ("scouts"), and Vexillarii (carriers of vexilla , the official pennants of the legion and its units). Troops who did not fit elsewhere also were there. The part of the Retentura ("stretching to the rear") closest to

8979-470: The genius of Biagio Rossetti , who was requested in 1484 by Ercole I to draft a masterplan for the expansion of the town. The resulting " Erculean Addition " is considered one of the most important examples of Renaissance urban planning and contributed to the selection of Ferrara as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . In spite of having entered its golden age, Ferrara was severely hit by a war against Venice fought and lost in 1482–84. Alfonso I succeeded to

9102-410: The goal was not entirely achievable. The gap was bridged by the specialists, the optiones or "chosen men", of which there were many different kinds. For example, a skilled artisan might be chosen to superintend a workshop. Soldiers were also expected to build the camp upon arrival before engaging in any sort of warfare after a day's march. The supply administration was run as a business using money as

9225-521: The ground. Training was taken very seriously and was democratic. Ordinary soldiers would see all the officers training with them including the praetor or the emperor if he was in camp. Swordsmanship lessons and use of the shooting range probably took place on the campus , a "field" outside the castra , from which English "camp" derives. Its surface could be lightly paved. Winter curtailed outdoor training. The general might in that case have sheds constructed, which served as field houses for training. There

9348-457: The hypothesis that Ferrara could have been originated from two small Byzantine settlements: a cluster of facilities around the Cathedral of St. George, on the right bank of the main branch of the Po, which then ran much closer to the city than today, and a castrum , a fortified complex built on the left bank of the river to defend against the Lombards. Ferrara appears first in a document of

9471-426: The installation as a military facility. For example, none of the soldiers was required to man the walls all the time, but round-the-clock duty required a portion of the soldiers to be on duty at any time. Duty time was divided into vigilia , the eight watches into which the 24-hour day was divided so they stood guard for three hours that day. The Romans used signals on brass instruments to mark time. These were mainly

9594-729: The legionary diet was mainly grain. Also located in the Latera was the Armamentarium , a long shed containing any heavy weapons and artillery not on the wall. The Praetentura ("stretching to the front") contained the Scamnum Legatorum , the quarters of officers who were below general but higher than company commanders ( Legati ). Near the Principia were the Valetudinarium (hospital), Veterinarium (for horses), Fabrica ("workshop", metals and wood), and further to

9717-472: The main façade, with arcades of pointed arches, dates from the 13th century. The recumbent marble lions guarding the portals are copies of the originals, now in the cathedral's museum. An elaborated 13th-century relief depicting the Last Judgement is found in the second storey of the porch. The interior was restored in baroque style in 1712. The marble campanile attributed to Leon Battista Alberti

9840-476: The maintenance of a permanent base was called its territoria . In it were located all the resources of nature and the terrain required by the base: pastures, woodlots, water sources, stone quarries, mines, exercise fields and attached villages. The central castra might also support various fortified adjuncts to the main base, which were not self-sustaining as was the base. In this category were speculae , "watchtowers", castella , "small camps", and naval bases. All

9963-402: The major bases near rivers featured some sort of fortified naval installation, one side of which was formed by the river or lake. The other sides were formed by a polygonal wall and ditch constructed in the usual way, with gates and watchtowers. The main internal features were the boat sheds and the docks. When not in use, the boats were drawn up into the sheds for maintenance and protection. Since

10086-513: The medium of exchange. The aureus was the preferred coin of the late republic and early empire; in the late empire the solidus came into use. The larger bases, such as Moguntiacum , minted their own coins. As does any business, the base quaestorium required careful record keeping, performed mainly by the optiones. A chance cache of tablets from Vindolanda in Britain gives us a glimpse of some supply transactions. They record, among other things,

10209-582: The most ancient times Roman camps were constructed according to a certain ideal pattern, formally described in two main sources, the De Munitionibus Castrorum and the works of Polybius . Alan Richardson compares both original authors and concludes that "the Hyginian model greatly reduced the area and perimeter length for any given force." P. Fl. Vegetius Renatus has a small section on entrenched camps as well. The terminology varies, but

10332-539: The name Via Decumana or the entire Via Praetoria be replaced with Decumanus Maximus . In peaceful times the camp set up a marketplace with the natives in the area. They were allowed into the camp as far as the units numbered 5 (half-way to the praetorium). There another street crossed the camp at right angles to the Via Decumana , called the Via Quintana , (English: 5th street , from Latin: quintana ,

10455-449: The names of Andrea Mantegna , Vicino da Ferrara , Giovanni Bellini , Leon Battista Alberti , Pisanello , Piero della Francesca , Battista Dossi , Dosso Dossi , Cosmé Tura , Francesco del Cossa and Titian . In the 19th and 20th centuries, Ferrara again hosted and inspired numerous painters who grew fond of its eerie atmosphere. Among them Giovanni Boldini , Filippo de Pisis and Giorgio de Chirico . A large collection of paintings

10578-420: The northern places like Britain, where it got cold in the winter, they would make wood or stone barracks. The Romans would also put a fireplace in the barracks. They had about three bunk beds in it. They had a small room beside it where they put their armour; it was as big as the tents. They would make these barracks if the fort they had was going to stay there for good. A tent was 3 by 3.5 metres (0.6 m for

10701-475: The occasional mythological motif, they are so rare that they should be considered an exception among his work. Throughout his career, scenes from everyday life gain an increasingly dominant share of his paintings. In his later works, his love of detail is lost and replaced with stencil-like motifs, their basic compositions indistinguishable from typical mass-produced wares. His lines become more casual, but don't lose their certainty, so that even these works preserve

10824-463: The oldest such competition in the world. The Ferrara Buskers Festival is a non-competitive parade of street musicians from all over the world. At the 2017 edition, more than 1,000 artists from 35 different nations took part in the festival, including dancers, clowns, equilibrists, jugglers and other original performers. Additionally, the town hosts the yearly Ferrara Balloons Festival , a large hot-air balloon show. The town's football team, SPAL ,

10947-467: The original decorations in the inner rooms have been saved. The house features fresco cycles in the "Sala delle Sibille" ("room of sibyls"), an original terracotta fireplace bearing the coat of arms of Giovanni Romei in the adjoining Saletta dei Profeti ("room of the prophets"), depicting allegories from the Bible, and in other rooms, some of which were commissioned by cardinal Ippolito d'Este , paintings by

11070-529: The other side was the forum , a small duplicate of an urban forum, where public business could be conducted. The Via Principalis went through the vallum in the Porta Principalis Dextra ("right principal gate") and Porta Principalis Sinistra ("left, etc."), which were gates fortified with turres ("towers"). Which was on the north and which on the south depends on whether the praetorium faced east or west, which remains unknown. Along

11193-518: The palisade. The streets, gates and buildings present depended on the requirements and resources of the camp. The gates might vary from two to six and not be centred on the sides. Not all the streets and buildings might be present. Many settlements in Europe originated as Roman military camps and still show traces of their original pattern (e.g. Castres in France , Barcelona in Spain ). The pattern

11316-482: The population was Italian . The largest immigrant group was other European nations with Ukraine and Albania : 2.59% followed by North Africa: 0.51%, and East Asia : 0.39%. The city is predominantly Roman Catholic , with small Orthodox Christian adherents. The historical Jewish community is still surviving. The Jewish community of Ferrara is the only one in Emilia Romagna with a continuous presence from

11439-528: The praetorium the Via Praetoria continued to the wall, where it went through the Porta Decumana . In theory this was the back gate. Supplies were supposed to come in through it and so it was also called, descriptively, the Porta Quaestoria . The term Decumana, "of the 10th", came from the arranging of manipuli or turmae from the first to the 10th, such that the 10th was near the intervallum on that side. The Via Praetoria on that side might take

11562-462: The purchase of consumables and raw supplies, the storage and repair of clothing and other items, and the sale of items, including foodstuffs, to achieve an income. Vindolanda traded vigorously with the surrounding natives. Another feature of the camp was the military hospital ( valetudinarium , later hospitium ). Augustus instituted the first permanent medical corps in the Roman army . Its physicians,

11685-517: The regional capital, Bologna , and 87 km (54 mi) south of Venice . The territory of the municipality, entirely part of the Padan plain , is overwhelmingly flat, situated on average just 9 metres (30 ft) above sea-level. The proximity to the largest Italian river has been a constant concern in the history of Ferrara, that has been affected by recurrent, disastrous floods, the latest occurring as recently as 1951. The Idrovia Ferrarese links

11808-530: The river Po from Ferrara to the Adriatic at Porto Garibaldi. The climate of the Po valley is classified as humid subtropical (Cfa) under the Köppen climate classification , a type of climate commonly referred to as "warm temperate" that features mild winters and hot summers, heavy rains in spring and autumn but there is also a lot of rain even in the driest month of January for Ferrara. The legislative body of

11931-482: The same derivation, from the diminutive castellum or "little fort", but does not usually indicate a former Roman camp. Whitley Castle however is an exception, referring to the Roman fort of Epiacum in Northumberland . Activities conducted in a castra can be divided into ordinary and "the duty" or "the watch". Ordinary activity was performed during regular working hours. The duty was associated with operating

12054-435: The school of Camillo and Cesare Filippi (16th century). Palazzo Schifanoia was built in 1385 for Alberto V d'Este . The palazzo includes frescoes depicting the life of Borso d'Este , the signs of the zodiac and allegorical representations of the months. The vestibule was decorated with stucco mouldings by Domenico di Paris  [ it ] . The building also contains fine choir-books with miniatures and

12177-504: The soldiers at large as required. A unit could throw up a camp under enemy attack in as little as a few hours. Judging from the names, they probably used a repertory of camp plans, selecting the one appropriate to the length of time a legion would spend in it: tertia castra , quarta castra , etc. ( a camp of three days , four days , etc.). More permanent camps were castra stativa ( standing camps ). The least permanent of these were castra aestiva or aestivalia , "summer camps", in which

12300-427: The soldiers were housed sub pellibus or sub tentoriis , "under tents". The largest castra were legionary fortresses built as bases for one or more whole legions. Summer was the campaign season. For the winter the soldiers retired to castra hiberna containing barracks and other buildings of more solid materials, with timber construction gradually being replaced by stone. Castra hibernas held eight soldiers to

12423-622: The subsidiary or exterior images on his vases himself. An exception is his very early "bowl T 212" at the Museo Archeologico Nazionale in Ferrara , with exterior images by the Splanchnoptes Painter . The Penthesilea Painter's works are dominated by depictions of boys and youths engaged in athletic activity, teaching scenes, weaponry and armour, as well as scenes of people talking to horses. While he painted

12546-475: The summit and along the side of a low hill, with spring water running in rivulets through the camp ( aquatio ) and pastureland to provide grazing ( pabulatio ) for the animals. In case of attack, arrows, javelins and sling missiles could be fired down at an enemy tiring himself to come up. For defence, troops could be formed in an acies , or "battle-line", outside the gates where they could be easily resupplied and replenished as well as being supported by archery from

12669-473: The tents of the Nationes ("natives"), who were auxiliaries of foreign troops, and the legionaries in double rows of tents or barracks ( Strigae ). One Striga was as long as required and 18 m wide. In it were two Hemistrigia of facing tents centered in its 9 m strip. Arms could be stacked before the tents and baggage carts kept there as well. Space on the other side of the tent was for passage. In

12792-532: The term castrum for different sizes of camps – including large legionary fortresses, smaller forts for cohorts or for auxiliary forces, temporary encampments , and "marching" forts. The diminutive form castellum was used for fortlets, typically occupied by a detachment of a cohort or a centuria . Castrum appears in Oscan and Umbrian , two other Italic languages , suggesting an origin at least as old as Proto-Italic language . Julius Pokorny traces

12915-655: The throne in 1505 and married the notorious Lucrezia Borgia . He again fought Venice in the Italian Wars after joining the League of Cambrai . In 1509 he was excommunicated by Pope Julius II , but was able to overcome the Papal and Spanish armies in 1512 at the Battle of Ravenna . These successes were based on Ferrara's artillery, produced in his own foundry which was the best of its time. Upon his death in 1534, Alfonso I

13038-610: The town's fortress. After making the standard request for surrender at 08:00, which was refused, Klenau ordered a barrage from his mortars and howitzers. After two magazines caught fire, the commandant was summoned again to surrender; there was some delay, but a flag of truce was sent at 21:00, and the capitulation was concluded at 01:00 the next day. Upon taking possession of the fortress, Klenau found 75 new artillery pieces, plus ammunition and six months worth of provisions. In 1938, Mussolini's fascist government instituted racial laws reintroducing segregation of Jews which lasted until

13161-437: The town. During the last decades of the 1800s and the early 1900s, Ferrara remained a modest trade centre for its large rural hinterland that relied on commercial crops such as sugar beet and industrial hemp . Large land reclamation works were carried out for decades with the aim to expand the available arable land and eradicate malaria from the wetlands along the Po delta. Mass industrialisation came to Ferrara only at

13284-464: The tribesmen tended to build around a permanent base for purposes of trade, but also the base sponsored villages ( vici ) of dependents and businessmen. Dependants were not allowed to follow an army on the march into hostile territory. Military service was for about 25 years. At the end of that time, the veteran was given a certificate of honorable discharge ( honesta missio ). Some of these have survived engraved on stone. Typically they certify that

13407-446: The very centre of the town, is iconic of Ferrara. A very large manor house featuring four massive bastions and a moat, it was erected in 1385 by architect Bartolino da Novara with the function to protect the town from external threats and to serve as a fortified residence for the Este family. It was extensively renovated in the 15th and 16th centuries. The Cathedral of Saint George , designed by Wiligelmus and consecrated in 1135,

13530-458: The veteran, his wife (one per veteran) and children or his sweetheart were now Roman citizens, which is a good indication that troops, which were used chiefly on the frontier, were from peoples elsewhere on the frontier who wished to earn Roman citizenship. However, under Antoninus Pius , citizenship was no longer granted to the children of rank-and-file veterans, the privilege becoming restricted only to officers. Veterans often went into business in

13653-635: The wrestling for power between two preeminent families, the Guelph Adelardi and the Ghibelline Salinguerra. The powerful Imperial House of Este threw their decisive weight behind the Salinguerra and eventually reaped the benefits of victory for themselves. Thus, in 1264 Obizzo II d'Este was proclaimed lifelong ruler of Ferrara, taking the additional titles of Lord of Modena in 1288 and of Reggio in 1289. His rule marked

13776-423: Was 8 men or fewer. The centurion , or company commander, had a double-sized tent for his quarters, which served also as official company area. Other than there, the men had to find other places to be. To avoid mutiny, it was important for the officers to keep them busy. A covered portico might protect the walkway along the tents. If barracks had been constructed, one company was housed in one barracks building, with

13899-757: Was a 1553 publication of the Ladino version of the Tanakh used by Sephardi Jews . It was paid for and made by Yom-Tob ben Levi Athias (the Spanish Marrano Jerónimo de Vargas , as typographer) and Abraham ben Salomon Usque (the Portuguese Jew Duarte Pinhel , as translator), and was dedicated to Ercole II d'Este . In the 20th century, Ferrara was the home and workplace of writer Giorgio Bassani , well known for his novels that were often adapted for cinema ( The Garden of

14022-513: Was a geometric exercise conducted by experienced officers called metatores , who used graduated measuring rods called decempedae ("10-footers") and gromatici who used a groma , a sighting device consisting of a vertical staff with horizontal cross pieces and vertical plumb-lines. Ideally the process started in the centre of the planned camp at the site of the headquarters tent or building ( principia ). Streets and other features were marked with coloured pennants or rods. Richardson writes that from

14145-613: Was also used by Spanish colonizers in America following strict rules by the Spanish monarchy for founding new cities in the New World . Many of the towns of England still retain forms of the word castra in their names, usually as the suffixes "-caster", "-cester" or "-chester" – Lancaster , Tadcaster , Worcester , Gloucester , Mancetter , Uttoxeter , Colchester , Chester , Manchester and Ribchester for example. Castle has

14268-543: Was designed to house and protect the soldiers, their equipment and supplies when they were not fighting or marching. The most detailed description that survives about Roman military camps is De Munitionibus Castrorum , a manuscript of 11 pages that dates most probably from the late 1st to early 2nd century AD. Regulations required a major unit in the field to retire to a properly constructed camp every day. "… as soon as they have marched into an enemy's land, they do not begin to fight until they have walled their camp about; nor

14391-553: Was established in 1907. In 2017 it was promoted to Serie A , Italy's top-level football league, after a 49-year absence. Its home ground is Paolo Mazza Memorial Stadium , with a capacity of 16,134. Ferrara's basketball team Kleb Basket Ferrara competes in the Serie A2 Basket and plays its home games at the Palasport di Ferrara . The culinary tradition of Ferrara features many typical dishes that can be traced back to

14514-644: Was given back to the Pope, now guaranteed by the Empire of Austria . A bastion fort was erected in the 1600s by Pope Paul V on the site the Castel Tedaldo , an old castle at the south-west angle of the town, this was occupied by an Austrian garrison from 1832 until 1859. The fortress was completely dismantled following the birth of the Kingdom of Italy and the bricks were used for new constructions throughout

14637-501: Was initiated in 1412 but is still incomplete, missing one projected additional storey and a dome, as it can be observed from numerous historical prints and paintings on the subject. Near the cathedral and the castle also lies the 15th-century city hall, that served as an earlier residence of the Este family, featuring a grandiose marble flight of stairs and two ancient bronze statues of Niccolò III and Borso of Este. The southern district

14760-407: Was quadrangular, aligned on the cardinal points of the compass. The construction crews dug a trench ( fossa ), throwing the excavated material inward, to be formed into the rampart ( agger ). On top of this a palisade of stakes ( sudes or valli ) was erected. The soldiers had to carry these stakes on the march. Over the course of time, the palisade might be replaced by a brick or stone wall, and

14883-536: Was succeeded by his son Ercole II , whose marriage in 1528 to the second daughter of Louis XII , Renée of France , brought great prestige to the court of Ferrara. Under his reign, the Duchy remained an affluent country and a cultural powerhouse. However, an earthquake struck the town in 1570, causing the economy to collapse, and when Ercole II's son Alfonso II died without heirs in 1597, the House of Este lost Ferrara to

15006-408: Was the garment of soldiers. Every camp included "main street", which ran through the camp in a north–south direction and was very wide. The names of streets in many cities formerly occupied by the Romans suggest that the street was called cardo or cardus maximus . This name applies more to cities than it does to ancient camps. Typically "main street" was the via principalis . The central portion

15129-424: Was used as a parade ground and headquarters area. The "headquarters" building was called the praetorium because it housed the praetor or base commander ("first officer"), and his staff. In the camp of a full legion he held the rank of consul or proconsul but officers of lesser ranks might command. On one side of the praetorium was the quaestorium , the building of the quaestor (supply officer). On

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