93-469: In historical Indo-European religion , the concept of an otherworld , also known as an otherside , is reconstructed in comparative mythology . Its name is a calque of orbis alius ( Latin for "other world/side"), a term used by Lucan in his description of the Celtic Otherworld . Comparable religious , mythological or metaphysical concepts, such as a realm of supernatural beings and
186-584: A Zoroastrian high priest of the 9th century AD. From the name of the sacrificed First King * Yemo ("Twin") derive the Indic Yama , god of death and the underworld; the Avestan Yima , king of the golden age and guardian of hell; the Norse Ymir (from PGmc. * Jumijaz ), ancestor of the giants ( jötnar ); and, most likely, Remus (from Proto-Latin *Yemos or *Yemonos , with
279-482: A realm of the dead , are found in cultures throughout the world. Spirits are thought to travel between worlds or layers of existence in such traditions, usually along an axis such as a giant tree , a tent pole, a river, a rope or mountains. Many Indo-European mythologies show evidence for a belief in some form of "Otherworld". In many cases such as in Persian , Greek, Germanic, Celtic, Slavic and Indic mythologies,
372-499: A boar), and this beast is cooked every day and is again whole every night. Grímnismál stanza 18 is recounted. Gangleri asks if Odin eats the same food as the Einherjar, and High responds Odin needs nothing to eat—Odin only consumes wine—and he gives his food to his wolves Geri and Freki . Grímnismál stanza 19 is recounted. High additionally states, at sunrise, Odin sends his ravens Huginn and Muninn from Valhalla to fly throughout
465-668: A character named Bloodhound, who often references Valhalla and the Allfather, a commonly used kenning for the Norse god Odin. Valhalla is also referenced in the manga 'Heart Gear' by Tsuyoshi Takaki as a battle ground where the 'combat' gears take turns in fighting each other to the death as their leader, Odin, observes. Elton John 's first album, Empty Sky (1969), contains a song called "Valhalla". Led Zeppelin 's " Immigrant Song " from their third album, Led Zeppelin III (1970), contains
558-469: A day, it fills a massive vat large enough for all of the Einherjar in Valhalla to satisfy their thirst from it. High further states the stag Eikþyrnir stands atop Valhalla and chews on the branches of Læraðr. So much moisture drips from his horns, it falls down to the well Hvelgelmir, resulting in numerous rivers. In chapter 40, Gangleri muses Valhalla must be quite crowded, to which High responds Valhalla
651-635: A dog either in the capacity of a guardian of the Otherworld or as the wanderer's guide. Examples of this are the Greek Cerberus , the three-headed hound of Hades , and the Indic सर्वरा Sarvarā , one of the hounds of Yama , whose names may derive from an Indo-European *ḱerberos meaning "spotted" . In Indo-European mythologies the Otherworld is depicted in many ways, including peaceful meadows, islands, or buildings, making it hard to determine how
744-410: A dream is it," said Óðinn, in which just before daybreak, I thought I cleared Valhǫll, for coming of slain men? I waked the Einherjar, bade valkyries rise up, to strew the bench, and scour the beakers, wine to carry, as for a king's coming, here to me I expect heroes' coming from the world, certain great ones, so glad is my heart. The god Bragi asks where a thundering sound
837-591: A hall. Valhalla is referenced at length in the Poetic Edda poem Grímnismál , and Helgakviða Hundingsbana II , while Valhalla receives lesser direct references in stanza 32 of the Völuspá , where the god Baldr 's death is referred to as the "woe of Valhalla", and in stanzas 1 to 3 of Hyndluljóð , where the goddess Freyja states her intention of riding to Valhalla with Hyndla , in an effort to help Óttar , as well as in stanzas 6 through 7, where Valhalla
930-507: A hero named * Trito ("Third") who ensured the continuity of the original sacrifice. Regarding the primordial state that may have preceded the creation process, West notes that the Vedic, Norse and, at least partially, the Greek traditions give evidence of an era when the cosmological elements were absent, with similar formulae insisting on their non-existence: "neither non-being was nor being
1023-401: A host of men. An unnamed maid of Sigrún, Helgi's valkyrie wife, sees Helgi and his large host of men riding into the mound. The maid asks if she is experiencing a delusion, if Ragnarök is started, or if Helgi and his men were allowed to return. In the following stanzas, Helgi responds none of these things occurred, and so Sigrún's maid goes home to Sigrún. The maid tells Sigrún the burial mound
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#17327660581721116-839: A male half and a female half, embodying a prototypal separation of the sexes. Cognates deriving from the Proto-Indo-European First Priest * Manu (" Man ", "ancestor of mankind") include the Indic Manu , legendary first man in Hinduism , and Manāvī, his sacrificed wife; the Germanic Mannus ( Proto-Germanic : * Mannaz ), mythical ancestor of the West Germanic tribes ; and the Persian Manūščihr (from Aves. Manūš.čiθra ),
1209-401: A priest for it to be properly sacrificed. Trito is now the first warrior, maintaining through his heroic actions the cycle of mutual giving between gods and mortals. According to Lincoln, Manu and Yemo seem to be the protagonists of "a myth of the sovereign function, establishing the model for later priests and kings", while the legend of Trito should be interpreted as "a myth of
1302-405: A proper noun employed for both the name of another afterlife location and a supernatural female entity as its overseer, as well as the modern English noun hell . In Swedish folklore, some mountains traditionally regarded as abodes of the dead were also called Valhall . According to many researchers , the hǫll element derives from hallr , "rock", and referred to an underworld, not
1395-405: A prose narrative states that after the death of her husband Eric Bloodaxe , Gunnhild Mother of Kings had a poem composed about him. The composition is by an anonymous author from the 10th century and is referred to as Eiríksmál , and describes Eric Bloodaxe and five other kings arriving in Valhalla after their death. The poem begins with comments by Odin (as Old Norse Óðinn ): "What kind of
1488-443: A river had to be crossed to allow entrance to it, and it is usually an old man that would transport the soul across the water. In Greek and Indic mythology the waters of this river were thought to wash away sins or memories whereas Celtic and Germanic myths feature wisdom-imparting waters, suggesting that while the memories of the deceased are washed away a drinker of the waters would gain inspiration. The wayfarer will commonly encounter
1581-447: A similar lifestyle and culture, their mythology has very rarely been examined in an Indo-European context and infrequently discussed in regards to the nature of the ancestral Indo-European mythology. At least three deities, Tabiti , Papaios and Api , are generally interpreted as having Indo-European origins, while the remaining have seen more disparate interpretations. Influence from Siberian, Turkic and even Near Eastern beliefs, on
1674-507: A wolf hangs in front of its west doors, and an eagle hovers above it. From stanzas 22 to 24, more details are given by Odin about Valhalla: the holy doors of the ancient gate Valgrind stand before Valhalla, Valhalla has five hundred and forty doors so eight hundred men can pass through simultaneously (from which the einherjar will flow forth to engage the wolf Fenrir at Ragnarök ). Within Valhalla exists Thor 's hall Bilskirnir , and within it exist five hundred and forty rooms, and of all
1767-569: Is Vedic mythology , especially the mythology of the Rigveda , the oldest of the Vedas . Early scholars of comparative mythology such as Friedrich Max Müller stressed the importance of Vedic mythology to such an extent that they practically equated it with Proto-Indo-European myths. Modern researchers have been much more cautious, recognizing that, although Vedic mythology is still central, other mythologies must also be taken into account. Another of
1860-733: Is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, in the Prose Edda (written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson ), in Heimskringla (also written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson), and in stanzas of an anonymous 10th-century poem commemorating the death of Eric Bloodaxe known as Eiríksmál as compiled in Fagrskinna . Valhalla has inspired innumerable works of art, publication titles, and elements of popular culture and
1953-613: Is coming from, and says that the benches of Valhalla are creaking—as if the god Baldr had returned to Valhalla—and that it sounds like the movement of a thousand. Odin responds that Bragi knows well that the sounds are for Eric Bloodaxe, who will soon arrive in Valhalla. Odin tells the heroes Sigmund and Sinfjötli to rise to greet Eric and invite him into the hall, if it is indeed he. Sigmund asks Odin why he would expect Eric more than any other king, to which Odin responds that Eric has reddened his gore-drenched sword with many other lands. Eric arrives, and Sigmund greets him, tells him that he
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#17327660581722046-464: Is guarded by two four-eyed dogs. A similar myth is that of Yama , the ruler of Hell in Hindu mythology , who watches the gates of underworld with his two four-eyed dogs . The Irish Otherworld is more usually described as a paradisal fairyland than a frightening place. Many Celtic Immrams or "voyage stories" and other medieval texts provide evidence of a Celtic belief in an otherworld. One example which
2139-637: Is helpful to understand the Celtic concept of the otherworld is The Voyage of Saint Brendan . Another classic example of a Celtic "otherworld" appears in the Voyage of Bran . In Celtic oral tradition, the Otherworld is often portrayed as an island out to the west, and even appears on some maps of Ireland during the medieval era. The Celtic concept of the Otherworld became intertwined with the Christian ideas of hell and heaven, as they were explained via analogy to
2232-639: Is known as the comparative method . Different schools of thought have approached the subject of Proto-Indo-European mythology from different angles. The Meteorological or Naturist School holds that Proto-Indo-European myths initially emerged as explanations for natural phenomena, such as the Sky , the Sun , the Moon , and the Dawn . Rituals were therefore centered around the worship of those elemental deities. This interpretation
2325-557: Is massive and remains roomy despite the large amount of inhabitants, and then quotes Grímnismál stanza 23. In chapter 41, Gangleri says Odin seems to be quite a powerful lord, controlling quite a big army, but he wonders how the Einherjar keep busy while they are not drinking. High replies daily, after they dressed and put on their war gear, they go out to the courtyard and battle one-on-one combat for sport. Then, before mealtime, they ride home to Valhalla and drink. High quotes Vafþrúðnismál stanza 41. In chapter 42, High describes "right at
2418-461: Is mentioned again during a dispute between the two. In stanzas 8 to 10 of Grímnismál , the god Odin (in the guise of Grímnir ) proclaims Valhalla is in the realm of Glaðsheimr . Odin describes Valhalla as shining and golden, and it "rises peacefully" as seen from afar. From Valhalla, every day Odin chooses from those killed in combat. Valhalla has spear -shafts for rafters, a roof thatched with shields, coats of mail are strewn over its benches,
2511-399: Is opened, and Sigrún should go to Helgi there. Helgi asked her to come and tend his wounds after they opened and are bleeding. Sigrún goes into the mound, and finds Helgi is drenched in gore, his hair is thick with frost. Filled with joy at the re-union, Sigrún kisses him before he can remove his coat of mail, and asks how she can heal him. Sigrún makes a bed there, and the two sleep together in
2604-653: Is synonymous with a martial (or otherwise) hall of the chosen dead. The name is rendered in modern Scandinavian languages as Valhöll in Icelandic, while the Swedish and Norwegian form is Valhall ; in Faroese it is Valhøll , and in Danish it is Valhal . The Modern English noun Valhalla derives from Old Norse Valhǫll , a compound noun composed of two elements: the masculine noun valr 'the slain' and
2697-480: Is the body of myths and deities associated with the Proto-Indo-Europeans , speakers of the hypothesized Proto-Indo-European language . Although the mythological motifs are not directly attested – since Proto-Indo-European speakers lived in preliterate societies – scholars of comparative mythology have reconstructed details from inherited similarities found among Indo-European languages , based on
2790-576: Is very like Valhalla—a place that a lot of people have heard of, and that very few can tell you anything about" ( Proud Highway: Saga of a Desperate Southern Gentleman, chapter 20). In the 2015 film Mad Max: Fury Road , the cult of the War Boys believe a heroic death in the service of dictator Immortan Joe will take them to Valhalla. A video game Assassin's Creed Valhalla was released in November 2020. The video game Apex Legends features
2883-497: Is welcome to come into the hall, and asks him what other lords he has brought with him to Valhalla. Eric says that with him are five kings, that he will tell them the name of them all, and that he, himself, is the sixth. The concept of Valhalla continues to influence modern popular culture. Examples include the Walhalla temple built by Leo von Klenze for Ludwig I of Bavaria between 1830 and 1847 near Regensburg , Germany , and
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2976-644: The Finno-Ugric and other peoples of central and northern Asia." There is no scholarly consensus as to which of the variants is the most accurate reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European cosmogonic myth. Bruce Lincoln 's reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European motif known as "Twin and Man" is supported by a number of scholars such as Jaan Puhvel , J. P. Mallory , Douglas Q. Adams , David W. Anthony , and, in part, Martin L. West . Although some thematic parallels can be made with traditions of
3069-685: The Munich , Germany-based Germanic Neopagan magazine Walhalla (1905–1913), the book series Magnus Chase and the Gods of Asgard by Rick Riordan, the comic series Valhalla (1978–2009) by Peter Madsen, and its subsequent animated film of the same name (1986). Valhalla also gives its name to a thrill ride at Blackpool Pleasure Beach , UK. Before Hunter S. Thompson became the counter-culture's Gonzo journalist , he lived in Big Sur , California, while writing his novel The Rum Diary . He wrote "Big Sur
3162-673: The Tresco Abbey Gardens Valhalla museum built by August Smith around 1830 to house ship figureheads from shipwrecks that occurred at the Isles of Scilly , England , near the museum. References to Valhalla appear in literature, art, and other forms of media. Examples include K. Ehrenberg's charcoal illustration Gastmahl in Walhalla (mit einziehenden Einheriern) (1880), Richard Wagner 's depiction of Valhalla in his opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen (1848–1874),
3255-592: The cosmos , accompanied by the primordial cow. To create the world, Manu sacrifices his brother and, with the help of heavenly deities (the Sky-Father , the Storm-God and the Divine Twins ), forges both the natural elements and human beings from his remains. Manu thus becomes the first priest after initiating sacrifice as the primordial condition for the world order, and his deceased brother Yemo
3348-489: The earth mother ; his daughter * H₂éwsōs , the dawn goddess ; his sons the Divine Twins ; and * Seh₂ul and * Meh₁not , a solar deity and moon deity , respectively. Some deities, like the weather god * Perkʷunos or the herding-god * Péh₂usōn , are only attested in a limited number of traditions—Western (i.e. European) and Graeco-Aryan , respectively—and could therefore represent late additions that did not spread throughout
3441-402: The trifunctional system proposed by Georges Dumézil , which postulates a tripartite ideology reflected in a threefold division between a clerical class (encompassing both the religious and social functions of the priests and rulers), a warrior class (connected with the concepts of violence and bravery), and a class of farmers or husbandmen (associated with fertility and craftsmanship), on
3534-418: The "historical" Odin is described as ordaining burial laws over his country. These laws include that all the dead are to be burned on a pyre on a burial mound with their possessions, and their ashes are to be brought out to sea or buried in the earth. The dead would then arrive in Valhalla with everything that one had on their pyre, and whatever one had hidden in the ground. Valhalla is additionally referenced in
3627-542: The Ancient Near East, and even Polynesian or South American legends, Lincoln argues that the linguistic correspondences found in descendant cognates of * Manu and * Yemo make it very likely that the myth has a Proto-Indo-European origin. According to Edgar C. Polomé , "some elements of the [Scandinavian myth of Ymir] are distinctively Indo-European", but the reconstruction proposed by Lincoln "makes too [many] unprovable assumptions to account for
3720-720: The Celtic Otherworld, or the Scandinavian world tree. This is likely because of Roman and Scandinavian influences on Celtic cultures. An example of Scandinavian influence is apparent in the Voyage of Saint Brendan, from the likeness of Lasconius the serpent to the Scandinavian Midgard Serpent . Red and white are the colors of animals in the Celtic Otherworld, and these colors still animate transcendent religious and political symbols today. As
3813-536: The Einheriar, bade them get up to strew the benches, clean the beer-cups, the valkyries to serve wine for the arrival of a prince. In chapter 17 of Skáldskaparmál , the jötunn Hrungnir is in a rage and, while attempting to catch up and attack Odin on his steed Sleipnir , ends up at the doors to Valhalla. There, the Æsir invite him in for a drink. Hrungnir goes in, demands a drink, and becomes drunk and belligerent, stating that he will remove Valhalla and take it to
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3906-575: The Gods were said to dwell on Mount Olympus , whereas the dead usually went to the Underworld or Fortunate Isles after death. The idea of the Otherworld has been adapted and used by several modern authors. J. R. R. Tolkien drew upon the Sir Orfeo text, which depicts a journey to the Otherworld, as inspiration for the Mirkwood Elves of The Hobbit . C. S. Lewis also drew upon
3999-589: The Proto-Indo-Europeans is not directly attested and it is difficult to match their language to archaeological findings related to any specific culture from the Chalcolithic . Nonetheless, scholars of comparative mythology have attempted to reconstruct aspects of Proto-Indo-European mythology based on the existence of linguistic and thematic similarities among the deities , religious practices, and myths of various Indo-European peoples. This method
4092-467: The Ritual School argue that those rituals should be interpreted as attempts to manipulate the universe in order to obtain its favours. This interpretation reached the height of its popularity during the early twentieth century, and many of its most prominent early proponents, such as James George Frazer and Jane Ellen Harrison , were classical scholars. Bruce Lincoln , a contemporary member of
4185-517: The Ritual School, argues for instance that the Proto-Indo-Europeans believed that every sacrifice was a reenactment of the original sacrifice performed by the founder of the human race on his twin brother. The Functionalist School, by contrast, holds that myths served as stories reinforcing social behaviours through the meta-narrative justification of a traditional order. Scholars of the Functionalist School were greatly influenced by
4278-560: The Roman reflexes were influenced by earlier Greek versions. Valhalla In Norse mythology , Valhalla ( / v æ l ˈ h æ l ə / val- HAL -ə , US also / v ɑː l ˈ h ɑː l ə / vahl- HAH -lə ; Old Norse : Valhǫll [ˈwɑlhɒlː] , lit. ' Hall of the Slain ' ) is described as a majestic hall located in Asgard and presided over by
4371-610: The Slavic populations were gradually turning to Christianity (e.g. during the Christianization of Kievan Rus' and the Baptism of Poland ), a new version of this belief became widespread in which there were two of these realms – one analogous to the original myth, a heavenly place where birds departed, and the other an underworld for snakes and zmeys , often associated with the Christian idea of hell. In Greco-Roman mythology
4464-460: The animal form of a raróg , grasping in its claws the keys to the otherworlds. Vyraj was sometimes also connected to the deity known as Rod – it was apparently located far beyond the sea, at the end of the Milky Way . It was usually imagined as a garden, located in the crown of the cosmic tree . The branches were said to be nested on by the birds, who were usually identified as human souls. When
4557-429: The assumption that parts of the Proto-Indo-Europeans' original belief systems survived in the daughter traditions. The Proto-Indo-European pantheon includes a number of securely reconstructed deities, since they are both cognates —linguistic siblings from a common origin—and associated with similar attributes and body of myths: such as * Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr , the daylight-sky god ; his consort * Dʰéǵʰōm ,
4650-451: The basis that many historically known groups speaking Indo-European languages show such a division. Dumézil's theory had a major influence on Indo-European studies from the mid-20th century onwards, and some scholars continue to operate under its framework, although it has also been criticized as aprioristic and too inclusive, and thus impossible to be proved or disproved. The Structuralist School argues that Proto-Indo-European mythology
4743-561: The beginning, while the gods were settling", they established Asgard, then built Valhalla. The death of the god Baldr is recounted in chapter 49, with the mistletoe used to kill Baldr is described as growing west of Valhalla. At the beginning of Skáldskaparmál , a partially euhemerized account is given of Ægir visiting the gods in Asgard and shimmering swords are brought out and used as their sole source of light as they drink. There, numerous gods feast, they have plenty of strong mead , and
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#17327660581724836-610: The dwellings of the gods, such as Odin's hall of Valhalla , or Ullr 's dwelling of Ydalar ( "Yewdale" ). The Gylfaginning and the later Norwegian poem the Draumkvaede feature travels into the Otherworld. The Early Slavs believed in a mythical place where birds flew for the winter and souls went after death; this realm was often identified with paradise and is called Vyraj . It was also said that spring arrived on Earth from Vyraj. The gates of Vyraj stopped mortals from entering. They were guarded by Veles , who sometimes took
4929-463: The earth, his hair grass, his bone yields stone, his blood water, his eyes the sun, his mind the moon, his brain the clouds, his breath the wind, and his head the heavens. The traditions of sacrificing an animal to disperse its parts according to socially established patterns, a custom found in Ancient Rome and India, has been interpreted as an attempt to restore the balance of the cosmos ruled by
5022-434: The enclosed burial mound. Helgi awakens, stating he must "ride along the blood-red roads, to set the pale horse to tread the path of the sky," and return before the rooster Salgófnir crows. Helgi and the host of men ride away, and Sigrún and her servant go back to their house. Sigrún orders her maid to wait for him by the mound the next night, but after she arrives at dawn, she finds he is still journeying. The prose narrative at
5115-483: The end of the poem relates Sigrún dies of sadness, but the two are thought to be re-born as Helgi Haddingjaskati and the valkyrie Kára . Valhalla is referenced in the Prose Edda books Gylfaginning and Skáldskaparmál . Valhalla is first mentioned in chapter 2 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , where it is described partially in euhemerized form. In the chapter, King Gylfi sets out to Asgard in
5208-449: The entire world, and they return in time for the first meal there. In chapter 39, Gangleri asks about the food and drinks the Einherjar consume, and asks if only water is available there. High replies of course, Valhalla has food and drinks fit for kings and jarls , for the mead consumed in Valhalla is produced from the udders of the goat Heiðrún, who in turn feeds on the leaves of the "famous tree" Læraðr. The goat produces so much mead in
5301-527: The feminine noun hǫll 'hall'. The form " Valhalla " comes from an attempt to clarify the grammatical gender of the word. Valr has cognates in other Germanic languages such as Old English wæl 'the slain, slaughter, carnage', Old Saxon wal-dād 'murder', Old High German 'battlefield, blood bath'. All of these forms descend from the Proto-Germanic masculine noun * walaz . Among related Old Norse concepts, valr also appears as
5394-520: The first element of the noun valkyrja 'chooser of the slain, valkyrie '. The second element, hǫll , is a common Old Norse noun. It is cognate to Modern English hall and offers the same meaning. Both developed from Proto-Germanic * xallō or * hallō , meaning 'covered place, hall', from the Proto-Indo-European root * kol- . As philologists such as Calvert Watkins note, the same Indo-European root produced Old Norse hel ,
5487-512: The first king as social classes emerge from his anatomy (priesthood from his head, the warrior class from his breast and arms, and the commoners from his sexual organs and legs). Although the European and Indo-Iranian versions differ on this matter, Lincoln argues that the primeval cow was most likely sacrificed in the original myth, giving birth to the other animals and vegetables, since the pastoral way of life of Proto-Indo-Iranian speakers
5580-539: The following Valhalla reference: "The hammer of the gods/ Will drive our ships to new lands/ To fight the horde, sing and cry/ Valhalla, I am coming". Judas Priest 's seventeenth studio album Redeemer of Souls released in 2014 included the song Halls of Valhalla , as lead singer Rob Halford describes as "singing about being on the North Sea and heading to Denmark or Sweden searching for Valhalla". Australian band Skegss 's third album, Rehearsal (2021), contains
5673-462: The fundamental changes implied by the Scandinavian version". David A. Leeming also notes that the concept of the Cosmic Egg , symbolizing the primordial state from which the universe arises, is found in many Indo-European creation myths. Lincoln reconstructs a creation myth involving twin brothers, * Manu ("Man") and * Yemo ("Twin"), as the progenitors of the world and humankind, and
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#17327660581725766-516: The god Odin . Half of those who die in combat enter Valhalla, while the other half are chosen by the goddess Freyja to reside in Fólkvangr . The masses of those killed in combat (known as the Einherjar ), along with various legendary Germanic heroes and kings, live in Valhalla until Ragnarök , when they will march out of its many doors to fight in aid of Odin against the jötnar . Valhalla
5859-410: The guise of an old man going by the name of Gangleri to find the source of the power of the gods. The narrative states the Æsir prophesied his arrival and prepared grand illusions for him, so as Gangerli enters the fortress, he sees a hall of such a height, he has trouble seeing over it, and notices the roof of the hall is covered in golden shields, as if they were shingles. Snorri quotes a stanza by
5952-473: The hall has wall-panels covered with attractive shields. This location is confirmed as Valhalla in chapter 33. In chapter 2, a quote from the anonymous 10th-century poem Eiríksmál is provided (see the Fagrskinna section below for more detail and another translation from another source): What sort of dream is that, Odin? I dreamed I rose up before dawn to clear up Val-hall for slain people . I aroused
6045-416: The halls within Valhalla, Odin states he thinks his son's may be greatest. In stanzas 25 through 26, Odin states the goat Heiðrún and the hart Eikþyrnir stand on top of Valhalla and graze on the branches of the tree Læraðr. Heiðrún's udder produces vats of mead , a liquor beyond compare, and Eikþyrnir's antlers drip liquid into the spring Hvergelmir from which flows forth all waters. In stanza 38 of
6138-672: The initial y - shifting to r - under the influence of Rōmulus ), killed in the Roman foundation myth by his twin brother Romulus . Cognates stemming from the First Warrior * Trito ("Third") include the Vedic Trita , the Avestan Thrita , and the Norse þriði . Many Indo-European beliefs explain the origin of natural elements as the result of the original dismemberment of Yemo : his flesh usually becomes
6231-513: The land of the jötunn, Jötunheimr , among various other things. Eventually, the gods tire of his boasting and invoke Thor, who arrives. Hrungnir states that he is under the Aesir's protection as a guest and therefore he can't be harmed while in Valhalla. After an exchange of words, Hrungnir challenges Thor to a duel at the location of Griotunagardar , resulting in Hrungnir's death. In chapter 34,
6324-520: The lowest throne, Just-As-High sitting on the next highest throne, and Third sitting on the highest. The man guiding Gangleri tells him High is the king of the hall. In chapter 20, Third states Odin mans Valhalla with the Einherjar: those killed in battle and become Odin's adopted sons. In chapter 36, High states valkyries serve drinks and see to the tables in Valhalla, and Grímnismál stanzas 40 to 41 are quoted in reference to this. High continues
6417-515: The most important source mythologies for comparative research is Roman mythology . The Romans possessed a very complex mythological system, parts of which have been preserved through the characteristic Roman tendency to rationalize their myths into historical accounts. Despite its relatively late attestation, Norse mythology is still considered one of the three most important of the Indo-European mythologies for comparative research, due to
6510-399: The nature of marriage proposed by Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav Ivanov . It also offers refinements of the trifunctional system by highlighting the oppositional elements present within each function, such as the creative and destructive elements both found within the role of the warrior. One of the earliest attested and thus one of the most important of all Indo-European mythologies
6603-596: The original Proto-Indo-European Otherworld was viewed. The ruler of the dead was possibly Yemo, the divine twin of Manu, the first man. The Chinvat Bridge (Avestan Cinvatô Peretûm, "bridge of judgement" or "beam-shaped bridge") or the Bridge of the Requiter in Zoroastrianism is the sifting bridge which separates the world of the living from the world of the dead. All souls must cross the bridge upon death. The bridge
6696-429: The original legend, Trito is only taking back what rightfully belongs to his people, those who sacrifice properly to the gods. The myth has been interpreted either as a cosmic conflict between the heavenly hero and the earthly serpent, or as an Indo-European victory over non-Indo-European people, the monster symbolizing the aboriginal thief or usurper. Some scholars have proposed that the primeval being * Yemo
6789-644: The original sacrifice. The motif of Manu and Yemo has been influential throughout Eurasia following the Indo-European migrations . The Greek, Old Russian ( Poem on the Dove King ) and Jewish versions depend on the Iranian, and a Chinese version of the myth has been introduced from Ancient India. The Armenian version of the myth of the First Warrior Trito depends on the Iranian, and
6882-452: The other hand, are more widely discussed in literature. There was a fundamental opposition between the never-aging gods dwelling above in the skies and the mortal humans living beneath on the earth. Earth ( * dʰéǵʰōm ) was perceived as a vast, flat and circular continent surrounded by waters ("the Ocean"). Although they may sometimes be identified with mythical figures or stories,
6975-532: The other in order to create the world; and probably the belief that the Otherworld was guarded by a watchdog and could only be reached by crossing a river. Various schools of thought exist regarding possible interpretations of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European mythology. The main mythologies used in comparative reconstruction are Indo-Iranian , Baltic , Roman , Norse , Celtic , Greek , Slavic , Hittite , Armenian , and Albanian . The mythology of
7068-430: The phrase "visiting Odin" in a work by the 10th-century skald Þjóðólfr of Hvinir describing that, upon his death, King Vanlandi went to Valhalla. In chapter 32 of Hákonar saga Góða , Haakon I of Norway is given a pagan burial, which is described as sending him on his way to Valhalla. Verses from Hákonarmál are then quoted in support, themselves containing references to Valhalla. In chapter 8 of Fagrskinna
7161-414: The poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana II , the hero Helgi Hundingsbane dies and goes to Valhalla. In stanza 38, Helgi's glory there is described: So was Helgi beside the chieftains like the bright-growing ash beside the thorn-bush and the young stag, drenched in dew, who surpasses all other animals and whose horns glow against the sky itself. Prose follows after this stanza, stating a burial-mound
7254-519: The popularity of Greek mythology in western culture, Greek mythology is generally seen as having little importance in comparative mythology due to the heavy influence of Pre-Greek and Near Eastern cultures, which overwhelms what little Indo-European material can be extracted from it. Consequently, Greek mythology received minimal scholarly attention until the first decade of the 21st century. Although Scythians are considered relatively conservative in regards to Proto-Indo-European cultures, retaining
7347-572: The skald Þjóðólfr of Hvinir (c. 900). As he continues, Gangleri sees a man in the doorway of the hall juggling short swords, and keeping seven in the air simultaneously. Among other things, the man says the hall belongs to his king, and adds he can take Gangleri to the king. Gangleri follows him, and the door closes behind him. All around him, he sees many living areas, and throngs of people, some of which are playing games, some are drinking, and others are fighting with weapons. Gangleri sees three thrones, and three figures sitting upon them: High sitting on
7440-469: The stars ( * h₂stḗr ) were not bound to any particular cosmic significance and were perceived as ornamental more than anything else. According to Martin L. West , the idea of the world-tree (L. axis mundi ) is probably a later import from North Asiatic cosmologies: "The Greek myth might be derived from the Near East, and the Indic and Germanic ideas of a pillar from the shamanistic cosmologies of
7533-448: The tree Glasir is stated as located in front of the doors of Valhalla. The tree is described as having foliage of red gold and being the most beautiful tree among both gods and men. A quote from a work by the 9th-century skald Bragi Boddason is presented that confirms the description. Valhalla is mentioned in euhemerized form and as an element of remaining Norse pagan belief in Heimskringla . In chapter 8 of Ynglinga saga ,
7626-1046: The tropes of the Celtic Otherworld in his creation of The Chronicles of Narnia , which depicts the journey from this world to another. Andoni Cossio (2021) Sir Orfeo as the Source for the Medieval Romance Topoi of Abduction and Otherworld Rampant within The Hobbit’s Mirkwood, ANQ: A Quarterly Journal of Short Articles, Notes and Reviews, DOI: 10.1080/0895769X.2021.1967105 Indo-European religion Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European Proto-Indo-European mythology
7719-562: The valkyries are sent by Odin to every battle; they choose who is to die, and determine victory. In chapter 38, Gangleri says: "You say all men who have fallen in battle from the beginning of the world are now with Odin in Valhalla. With what does he feed them? I should think the crowd there is large." High responds this is indeed true, a huge amount are already in Valhalla, but yet this amount will seem to be too few before "the wolf comes." High describes there are never too many to feed in Valhalla, for they feast from Sæhrímnir (here described as
7812-410: The various Indo-European dialects. Some myths are also securely dated to Proto-Indo-European times, since they feature both linguistic and thematic evidence of an inherited motif: a story portraying a mythical figure associated with thunder and slaying a multi-headed serpent to release torrents of water that had previously been pent up; a creation myth involving two brothers , one of whom sacrifices
7905-449: The vast bulk of surviving Icelandic material. Baltic mythology has also received a great deal of scholarly attention, as it is linguistically the most conservative and archaic of all surviving branches, but has so far remained frustrating to researchers because the sources are so comparatively late. Nonetheless, Latvian folk songs are seen as a major source of information in the process of reconstructing Proto-Indo-European myth. Despite
7998-555: The warrior function, establishing the model for all later men of arms". The myth indeed recalls the Dumézilian tripartition of the cosmos between the priest (in both his magical and legal aspects), the warrior (the Third Man), and the herder (the cow). The story of Trito served as a model for later cattle raiding epic myths and most likely as a moral justification for the practice of raiding among Indo-European peoples. In
8091-499: Was at that time; there was not the air, nor the heaven beyond it" ( Rigveda ), "there was not sand nor sea nor the cool waves; earth was nowhere nor heaven above; Ginnungagap there was, but grass nowhere" ( Völuspá ), "there was Chasm and Night and dark Erebos at first, and broad Tartarus , but earth nor air nor heaven there was" ( The Birds ). In the creation myth, the first man Manu and his giant twin Yemo are crossing
8184-483: Was closer to that of Proto-Indo-European speakers. To the third man Trito , the celestial gods then offer cattle as a divine gift, which is stolen by a three-headed serpent named * Ngʷhi ("serpent"). Trito first suffers at his hands, but the hero eventually manages to overcome the monster, fortified by an intoxicating drink and aided by the Sky-Father. He eventually gives the recovered cattle back to
8277-526: Was depicted as a two-fold hermaphrodite rather than a twin brother of * Manu , both forming indeed a pair of complementary beings entwined together. The Germanic names Ymir and Tuisto were understood as twin , bisexual or hermaphrodite , and some myths give a sister to the Vedic Yama, also called Twin and with whom incest is discussed. In this interpretation, the primordial being may have self-sacrificed, or have been divided in two,
8370-403: Was largely centered around the concept of dualistic opposition. They generally hold that the mental structure of all human beings is designed to set up opposing patterns in order to resolve conflicting elements. This approach tends to focus on cultural universals within the realm of mythology rather than the genetic origins of those myths, such as the fundamental and binary opposition rooted in
8463-468: Was made for Helgi. After Helgi arrived in Valhalla, he was asked by Odin to manage things with him. In stanza 39, Helgi, now in Valhalla, has his former enemy Hunding—also in Valhalla—do menial tasks; fetching foot-baths for all of the men there, kindling fire, tying dogs, keeping watch of horses, and feeding the pigs before he can get any sleep. In stanzas 40 to 42, Helgi returns to Midgard from Valhalla with
8556-533: Was popular among early scholars, such as Friedrich Max Müller , who saw all myths as fundamentally solar allegories. Although recently revived by some scholars like Jean Haudry and Martin L. West , this school lost most of its scholarly support in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The Ritual School, which first became prominent in the late nineteenth century, holds that Proto-Indo-European myths are best understood as stories invented to explain various rituals and religious practices. Scholars of
8649-611: Was the case in the Celtic mythologies , in Germanic myths apples were particularly associated with the Otherworld . In the Scandinavian tradition mythological localities are featured, as in Irish mythology ; however, unlike Irish mythology, an attempt was made to map the localities of the Otherworld rather than list locales associated with it. In the Edda , many locations are named, including
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