Misplaced Pages

#387612

133-749: It was originally founded in 1909, called the Louisiana State Library Association, after a call for a statewide library group from the New Orleans Library Club. An initial meeting of thirty people was held at Tulane University in 1909 with the goal of increasing the number of trained librarians in the state and drafting library legislation. The main speaker was Chalmers Hadley president of the American Library Association . The LLA fell into some disorder during and after World War I, and

266-410: A marker gene . This gene, called GFP , or green fluorescent protein, would cause live samples of the virus to glow green under fluorescent light. The insertion of this gene, which would not influence the virulence of the virus, would be the only allowed modification of the genome. The committee stated the proposed modification would aid in research of treatments by making it easier to assess whether

399-454: A 21 percent increase over the last five years. The acceptance rate for the class of 2026 was 8.4 percent. The yield rate was 52 percent. Among freshman students who committed to enroll in Fall 2022, the average converted SAT score was 1474. Composite ACT scores for the middle 50% ranged from 31 to 34. The most impressive incoming undergraduate students are invited to join the honors program by

532-589: A College of Commerce, the first business school in the South . In 1925, Tulane established the independent Graduate School. Two years later, the university set up a School of Social Work , also the first in the southern United States. Tulane was instrumental in promoting the arts in New Orleans and the South in establishing the Newcomb School of Art with William Woodward as director, thus establishing

665-443: A clinical case was observed, smallpox was confirmed using laboratory tests. Microscopically , poxviruses produce characteristic cytoplasmic inclusion bodies , the most important of which are known as Guarnieri bodies , and are the sites of viral replication . Guarnieri bodies are readily identified in skin biopsies stained with hematoxylin and eosin, and appear as pink blobs. They are found in virtually all poxvirus infections but

798-479: A commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 10%, getting students involved by providing an Energy Smart Shopping Guide and electronics "greening" services from IT. In 2010 Tulane completed its renovation of 88-year-old Dinwiddie Hall, which was subsequently LEED Gold certified. A new residential college, Weatherhead Hall, opened in 2011 as housing for sophomore honors students. The residence has also applied for LEED Gold certification. Tulane received an "A−" on

931-498: A course credit involving service learning became a requirement for an undergraduate degree. In 2006 Tulane became the first Carnegie ranked "high research activity" institution to have an undergraduate public service graduation requirement. In May 2006, graduation ceremonies included commencement speakers former Presidents George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton , who commended the students for their desire to return to Tulane and serve New Orleans in its renewal. Tulane's primary campus

1064-415: A discrete rash, in which the pustules stood out on the skin separately. The distribution of the rash was most dense on the face, denser on the extremities than on the trunk, and denser on the distal parts of the extremities than on the proximal. The palms of the hands and soles of the feet were involved in most cases. Sometimes, the blisters merged into sheets, forming a confluent rash, which began to detach

1197-518: A doctor in Berkeley, Gloucestershire , rural England, discovered that immunity to smallpox could be produced by inoculating a person with material from a cowpox lesion. Cowpox is a poxvirus in the same family as variola. Jenner called the material used for inoculation vaccine from the root word vacca , which is Latin for cow. The procedure was much safer than variolation and did not involve a risk of smallpox transmission. Vaccination to prevent smallpox

1330-455: A fatality rate of around 30%, while variola minor’s mortality rate was about 1%. Throughout the 18th century, variola major was responsible for around 400,000 deaths annually in Europe alone. Survivors of the disease often faced lifelong consequences, such as blindness and severe scarring, which were nearly universal among those who recovered. In the first half of the 20th century, variola major

1463-614: A host cell varies across the poxviridae . Recombination of the genome occurs within actively infected cells. Following the onset of viral DNA replication, an intermediate set of genes codes for transcription factors of late gene expression. The products of the later genes include transcription factors necessary for transcribing the early genes for new virions, as well as viral RNA polymerase and other essential enzymes for new viral particles. These proteins are then packaged into new infectious virions capable of infecting other cells. Two live samples of variola major virus remain, one in

SECTION 10

#1732793527388

1596-601: A potential treatment was effective in killing viral samples. The recommendation could only take effect if approved by the WHA . When the WHA discussed the proposal in 2005, it refrained from taking a formal vote on the proposal, stating that it would review individual research proposals one at a time. Addition of the GFP gene to the Vaccinia genome is routinely performed during research on

1729-423: A region of roughly 100 base pairs necessary for resolving concatomeric DNA (a stretch of DNA containing multiple copies of the same sequence), a few open reading frames , and short tandemly repeating sequences of varying number and length. The ITRs of poxviridae vary in length across strains and species. The coding sequence for most of the viral proteins in variola major virus have at least 90% similarity with

1862-421: A source of infection”; noted that “Current recommendations for control of secondary smallpox infections emphasize transmission ‘by expelled droplets to close contacts (those within 6–7 feet)’”; but warned that the “emphasis on spread via large droplets may reduce the vigilance with which more difficult airborne precautions [i.e. against finer droplets capable of traveling longer distances and penetrating deeply into

1995-602: A year. The final known fatal case occurred in the United Kingdom in 1978 . Inoculation for smallpox appears to have started in China around the 1500s. Europe adopted this practice from Asia in the first half of the 18th century. In 1796, Edward Jenner introduced the modern smallpox vaccine. In 1967, the WHO intensified efforts to eliminate the disease. Smallpox is one of two infectious diseases to have been eradicated,

2128-582: Is a severe form accompanied by extensive bleeding into the skin, mucous membranes, gastrointestinal tract, and viscera . This form develops in approximately 2% of infections and occurs mostly in adults. Pustules do not typically form in hemorrhagic smallpox. Instead, bleeding occurs under the skin, making it look charred and black, hence this form of the disease is also referred to as variola nigra or "black pox". Hemorrhagic smallpox has very rarely been caused by variola minor virus. While bleeding may occur in mild cases and not affect outcomes, hemorrhagic smallpox

2261-420: Is also a later form of hemorrhagic smallpox (referred to late hemorrhagic smallpox, or variolosa pustula hemorrhagica ). The prodrome is severe and similar to that observed in early hemorrhagic smallpox, and the fever persists throughout the course of the disease. Bleeding appears in the early eruptive period (but later than that seen in purpura variolosa ), and the rash is often flat and does not progress beyond

2394-490: Is also under research as a viral vector for vaccines for unrelated diseases. The genome of variola major virus was first sequenced in its entirety in the 1990s. The complete coding sequence is publicly available online. The current reference sequence for variola major virus was sequenced from a strain that circulated in India in 1967. In addition, there are sequences for samples of other strains that were collected during

2527-541: Is believed to have had a mortality rate of less than 1%, as compared to variola major's 30%. Like variola major, variola minor was spread through inhalation of the virus in the air, which could occur through face-to-face contact or through fomites. Infection with variola minor virus conferred immunity against the more dangerous variola major virus. Because variola minor was a less debilitating disease than smallpox, people were more frequently ambulant and thus able to infect others more rapidly. As such, variola minor swept through

2660-411: Is caused by infection with variola virus, which belongs to the family Poxviridae , subfamily Chordopoxvirinae , genus Orthopoxvirus . The date of the appearance of smallpox is not settled. It most probably evolved from a terrestrial African rodent virus between 68,000 and 16,000 years ago. The wide range of dates is due to the different records used to calibrate the molecular clock . One clade

2793-488: Is complicated by having multiple infectious forms, with differing mechanisms of cell entry. Poxviruses are unique among human DNA viruses in that they replicate in the cytoplasm of the cell rather than in the nucleus . To replicate, poxviruses produce a variety of specialized proteins not produced by other DNA viruses , the most important of which is a viral-associated DNA-dependent RNA polymerase . Both enveloped and unenveloped virions are infectious. The viral envelope

SECTION 20

#1732793527388

2926-447: Is consistent with the other published estimates, it suggests that the archaeological and historical evidence is very incomplete. Better estimates of mutation rates in these viruses are needed. Examination of a strain that dates from c.  1650 found that this strain was basal to the other presently sequenced strains. The mutation rate of this virus is well modeled by a molecular clock. Diversification of strains only occurred in

3059-624: Is deemed a "Most Selective" university. Tulane is the only institution in Louisiana to have that distinction. The school accepts the Common Application for admission. Tulane has the second lowest percentage of Pell Grant recipients in the United States, only after Fairfield University . It is need-blind for domestic applicants. The Office of Undergraduate Admission received over 43,000 applications for fall 2022 — over

3192-535: Is directly adjacent to Tulane, on the downriver side. Audubon Place , where the President of Tulane resides, is on the upriver side. The President's residence is the former home of "banana king" Sam Zemurray , who donated it in his will. The centerpiece of the Gibson Quad is the first academic building built on campus, Gibson Hall , in 1894. The School of Architecture is also located on the oldest section of

3325-692: Is for students enrolled in full-time study toward a Master's Degree in Library Science at Louisiana State University School of Library and Information Science. The Mary Moore Mitchell Scholarship is for part-time study. Recipients of both scholarships are selected by the Scholarship Committee with advice of the faculty at the Louisiana State University School of Library and Information Science. Tulane University Tulane University , officially

3458-583: Is located in Uptown New Orleans on St. Charles Avenue , directly opposite Audubon Park , and extends north to South Claiborne Avenue through Freret and Willow Street. The campus is known colloquially as the Uptown or St. Charles campus. It was established in the 1890s and occupies more than 110 acres (0.45 km ) of land. The campus is known both for its large live oak trees as well as its architecturally historic buildings. It has been listed on

3591-415: Is made of modified Golgi membranes containing viral-specific polypeptides, including hemagglutinin . Infection with either variola major virus or variola minor virus confers immunity against the other. The more common, infectious form of the disease was caused by the variola major virus strain, known for its significantly higher mortality rate compared to its counterpart, variola minor. Variola major had

3724-493: Is rapidly followed by the development of petechiae and bleeding in the skin, conjunctiva and mucous membranes. Death often occurs suddenly between the fifth and seventh days of illness, when only a few insignificant skin lesions are present. Some people survive a few days longer, during which time the skin detaches and fluid accumulates under it, rupturing at the slightest injury. People are usually conscious until death or shortly before. Autopsy reveals petechiae and bleeding in

3857-453: Is typically fatal. Vaccination does not appear to provide any immunity to either form of hemorrhagic smallpox and some cases even occurred among people that were revaccinated shortly before. It has two forms. The early or fulminant form of hemorrhagic smallpox (referred to as purpura variolosa ) begins with a prodromal phase characterized by a high fever, severe headache, and abdominal pain. The skin becomes dusky and erythematous, and this

3990-473: The Civil War . The closing affected the first semester of the school calendar year. The School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine's distance learning programs and courses stayed active. The School of Medicine relocated to Houston , Texas for a year. Aside from student-athletes attending college classes together on the same campuses, most undergraduate and graduate students dispersed to campuses throughout

4123-698: The East India Company stationed in China and another by Clopton Havers . Lady Mary Wortley Montagu observed smallpox inoculation during her stay in the Ottoman Empire , writing detailed accounts of the practice in her letters, and enthusiastically promoted the procedure in England upon her return in 1718. According to Voltaire (1742), the Turks derived their use of inoculation from neighbouring Circassia . Voltaire does not speculate on where

Louisiana Library Association - Misplaced Pages Continue

4256-597: The New World , resulting in large swathes of Native Americans dying . In 18th-century Europe, it is estimated that 400,000 people died from the disease per year, and that one-third of all cases of blindness were due to smallpox. Smallpox is estimated to have killed up to 300 million people in the 20th century and around 500 million people in the last 100 years of its existence. Earlier deaths included six European monarchs , including Louis XV of France in 1774. As recently as 1967, 15 million cases occurred

4389-633: The Tulane School of Professional Advancement . Tulane has several academic and research institutes and centers including The Murphy Institute , Newcomb College Center for Research on Women, The Roger Thayer Stone Center for Latin American Studies, the Middle American Research Institute, and the law school's Payson Center for International Development . As part of the post-Hurricane Katrina Renewal Plan,

4522-753: The Tulane University of Louisiana , is a private research university in New Orleans , Louisiana , United States. Founded as the Medical College of Louisiana in 1834 by a cohort of medical doctors, it became a comprehensive public university in the University of Louisiana in 1847. The institution became private under the endowments of Paul Tulane and Josephine Louise Newcomb in 1884 and 1887. The Tulane University Law School and Tulane University Medical School are, respectively,

4655-542: The V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission. In 1963, Tulane enrolled its first African American students. In 1990, Rhonda Goode-Douglas, alongside other black, female students, founded the first African American sorority in Tulane's history, AKA Omicron Psi. A detailed account of the history of Tulane University from its founding through 1965

4788-422: The common cold : fever of at least 38.3 °C (101 °F), muscle pain , malaise , headache and fatigue. As the digestive tract was commonly involved, nausea, vomiting, and backache often occurred. The early prodromal stage usually lasted 2–4 days. By days 12–15, the first visible lesions – small reddish spots called enanthem – appeared on mucous membranes of the mouth, tongue, palate , and throat, and

4921-470: The horsepox virus using publicly available sequence data for horsepox. The researchers argued that their work would be beneficial to creating a safer and more effective vaccine for smallpox, although an effective vaccine is already available. The horsepox virus had previously seemed to have gone extinct, raising concern about potential revival of variola major and causing other scientists to question their motives. Critics found it especially concerning that

5054-468: The replication of viral DNA. The first set of expressed genes are transcribed by pre-existing viral machinery packaged within the infecting virion. These genes encode the factors necessary for viral DNA synthesis and for transcription of the next set of expressed genes. Unlike most DNA viruses, DNA replication in variola virus and other poxviruses takes place within the cytoplasm of the infected cell. The exact timing of DNA replication after infection of

5187-494: The 12th oldest law school and 15th oldest medical school in the United States. Tulane has been a member of the Association of American Universities since 1958 and is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". Alumni include twelve governors of Louisiana ; one Chief Justice of the United States ; various members of Congress, including a Speaker of the U.S. House ; two Surgeons General of

5320-624: The 18th and 19th centuries. Variola virus is large and brick-shaped and is approximately 302 to 350 nanometers by 244 to 270 nm, with a single linear double stranded DNA genome 186 kilobase pairs (kbp) in size and containing a hairpin loop at each end. Four orthopoxviruses cause infection in humans: variola, vaccinia , cowpox , and monkeypox . Variola virus infects only humans in nature, although primates and other animals have been infected in an experimental setting. Vaccinia, cowpox, and monkeypox viruses can infect both humans and other animals in nature. The life cycle of poxviruses

5453-601: The 2011 College Sustainability Report Card , garnering an award as one of the top 52 most sustainable colleges in the country. Tulane University, as a private institution, has been governed since 1884 by the Board of Tulane (also known as the Board of Administrators of the Tulane Educational Fund) that was established in 1882. There have been 15 presidents of Tulane since then. The board comprises more than 30 regular members (plus several members emeriti) and

Louisiana Library Association - Misplaced Pages Continue

5586-593: The COVID-19 pandemic. The Lavin-Bernick Center for University Life (LBC) was renovated to be a green, environmentally friendly building and opened for student use in January 2007. In 2009, the university altered McAlister Drive, a street that ran through the middle of the uptown campus into a pedestrian walkway renamed McAlister Place. The area was resurfaced, and the newly added green spaces were adorned with Japanese magnolias, irises and new lighting. In late November 2008

5719-779: The Circassians derived their technique from, though he reports that the Chinese have practiced it "these hundred years". In 1721, Cotton Mather and colleagues provoked controversy in Boston by inoculating hundreds. After publishing The present method of inoculating for the small-pox in 1767, Dr Thomas Dimsdale was invited to Russia to variolate the Empress Catherine the Great of Russia and her son, Grand Duke Paul , which he successfully did in 1768. In 1796, Edward Jenner ,

5852-648: The City of New Orleans announced plans to add bicycle lanes to the St. Charles Avenue corridor that runs in front of campus. In 2019, a new student space located in the middle of the uptown campus, The Malkin Sacks Commons, was opened by President Mike Fitts. The Commons is the central dining area on campus. Catering to most dietary restrictions, The Commons directly connects to the Lavin-Bernick Center on

5985-638: The College of Technology, the Tulane School of Architecture was separately formed as a school in 1953. The A.B. Freeman School of Business was named in honor of Alfred Bird Freeman, former chair of the Louisiana Coca-Cola Bottling Co. and a prominent New Orleans philanthropist and civic leader. The business school is ranked 44th nationally and 28th among programs at private universities by Forbes magazine. U.S. News & World Report' s Best Graduate Schools 2015 edition ranked

6118-613: The Health Sciences campus are also involved in community-wide health promotion, such as community health fairs and distributing condoms to address the high rate of STIs in New Orleans. In 2014, the Tulane School of Social Work relocated from the Uptown campus to the Health Sciences campus, with facilities located in a renovated historic building on Elk Place. Tulane University Square consists of 80,000 square feet (7,400 m ) of space and 6 acres (24,000 m ) of surrounding land located on Broadway and Leake Avenue adjacent to

6251-511: The MBA program 63rd overall. The Tulane University Law School , established in 1847, is the 12th oldest law school in the United States. In 1990, it became the first law school in the United States to mandate pro bono work as a graduation requirement. U.S. News & World Report ' s 2015 edition ranked the School of Law 46th overall and 6th in environmental law, while the 2022 edition ranked

6384-691: The Mississippi River. Outside of New Orleans, the Tulane National Primate Research Center in Covington, Louisiana is one of eight such centers funded by the National Institutes of Health . The F. Edward Hebert Research Center near Belle Chasse, Louisiana provides facilities for graduate training and research in computer science , bioengineering , and biology . Satellite campuses of

6517-519: The National Register of Historic Places since 1978. The campus architecture consists of several styles, including Richardsonian Romanesque , Elizabethan, Italian Renaissance , Mid-Century Modern, and contemporary styles. The front campus buildings use Indiana White Limestone or orange brick for exteriors, while the middle campus buildings are mostly adorned in red St. Joe brick, the staple of Newcomb College Campus buildings. Loyola University

6650-492: The Newcomb-Tulane College (NTC) created programming for First Year Honors Scholars and phased out its honors program. Many of the components of the honors program have been incorporated into other NTC programs. Smallpox Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus), which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus . The last naturally occurring case

6783-517: The Office of Admission. Incoming freshmen who did not receive an invitation are allowed to apply for one after completing their first semester with at least a 3.8 cumulative GPA. To remain in good standing with the honors program, honors students are required to maintain at least a 3.8 cumulative GPA and enroll in honors classes their first year in the program. Honors students have access to special privileges and learning opportunities on campus. In 2021,

SECTION 50

#1732793527388

6916-1001: The School of Continuing Studies, Tulane's open admissions school of continuing studies , are located in downtown New Orleans, in Elmwood, Louisiana , and in Biloxi, Mississippi . From 2010 to 2017, Tulane also operated a satellite campus in Madison, Mississippi . Tulane offers an executive MBA program in Cali, Colombia ; Santiago, Chile ; Shanghai, China ; and Taipei, Taiwan . Tulane hosted an Environmental Summit at its law school in April 2009, an event that all students could attend for free. Many students from Tulane's two active environmental groups, Green Club and Environmental Law Society, attended. These student groups push for global citizenship and environmental stewardship on campus. In 2007 Tulane made

7049-490: The School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine was not established until 1912 as a separate entity from the College of Medicine. In 1919 the separate school ceased to be an independent unit and was merged with the College of Medicine. By 1967 the School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine reestablished as a separate academic unit of Tulane. In the fall of 2006, the School of Public Health began admitting undergraduate students. The Tulane University School of Science and Engineering

7182-399: The School of Law 60th overall. "The Law School 100" ranks Tulane as 34th, relying on a qualitative (rather than quantitative) assessment. The 2010 Leiter law-school rankings put Tulane at 38th, based on student quality, using LSAT and GPA data. The Hylton law-school rankings , conducted in 2006, put Tulane at 39th. The school's maritime law program is widely considered to be the best in

7315-477: The TEF in 1884. This act created the Tulane University of Louisiana . The university was privatized, and is one of only a few American universities to be converted from a state public institution to a private one. Paul Tulane's endowment to the school specified that the institution could only admit white students, and Louisiana law passed in 1884 reiterated this condition. In 1884, William Preston Johnston became

7448-552: The U.S. The storm inflicted more than $ 650 million in damages to the university, with some of the greatest losses impacting the Howard-Tilton Memorial Library and its collections. Facing a budget shortfall, the Board of Administrators announced a "Renewal Plan" in December 2005 to reduce its annual operating budget and create a "student-centric" campus. Addressing the school's commitment to New Orleans,

7581-622: The US representative of Louisiana's 1st Congressional District. During the historic speech, Ford announced that the Vietnam War was "finished as far as America is concerned" one week before the fall of Saigon . Ford drew parallels to the Battle of New Orleans and said that such positive activity could do for America's morale what the battle did in 1815. During World War II , Tulane was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in

7714-408: The United States ; 23 Marshall Scholars ; 18 Rhodes Scholars ; 15 Truman Scholars ; 155 Fulbright Scholars ; four living billionaires; and a former President of Costa Rica . Two Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the university. The university was founded as the Medical College of Louisiana in 1834 partly as a response to the fears of smallpox , yellow fever , and cholera in

7847-770: The United States at the CDC in Atlanta, and one at the Vector Institute in Koltsovo, Russia. Research with the remaining virus samples is tightly controlled, and each research proposal must be approved by the WHO and the World Health Assembly (WHA). Most research on poxviruses is performed using the closely related Vaccinia virus as a model organism. Vaccinia virus, which is used to vaccinate for smallpox,

7980-565: The United States, Great Britain, and South Africa in the early 20th century, becoming the dominant form of the disease in those areas and thus rapidly decreasing mortality rates. Along with variola major, the minor form has now been totally eradicated from the globe. The last case of indigenous variola minor was reported in a Somali cook, Ali Maow Maalin, in October 1977, and smallpox was officially declared eradicated worldwide in May 1980. Variola minor

8113-535: The United States, with the Tulane Maritime Law Journal being the paramount admiralty law journal of the country. In May 2007, Tulane Law announced a Strategic Plan to increase student selectivity by gradually reducing the incoming JD class size from a historical average of 350 students per year to a target of 250 students per year within several years. The School of Liberal Arts encompasses 16 departments and 19 interdisciplinary programs in

SECTION 60

#1732793527388

8246-406: The United States. The university became the second medical school in the South, and the 15th in the United States at the time. In 1847, the state legislature established the school as the University of Louisiana , a public university , and the law department was added to the university. Subsequently, in 1851, the university established its first academic department. The first president chosen for

8379-531: The WHO eradication campaign. A genome browser for a complete database of annotated sequences of variola virus and other poxviruses is publicly available through the Viral Bioinformatics Resource Center . The WHO currently bans genetic engineering of the variola virus. However, in 2004, a committee advisory to the WHO voted in favor of allowing editing of the genome of the two remaining samples of variola major virus to add

8512-507: The absence of Guarnieri bodies could not be used to rule out smallpox. The diagnosis of an orthopoxvirus infection can also be made rapidly by electron microscopic examination of pustular fluid or scabs. All orthopoxviruses exhibit identical brick-shaped virions by electron microscopy. If particles with the characteristic morphology of herpesviruses are seen this will eliminate smallpox and other orthopoxvirus infections. Definitive laboratory identification of variola virus involved growing

8645-448: The bloodstream in large numbers, a condition known as viremia . This resulted in the second wave of multiplication in the spleen , bone marrow , and lymph nodes. The clinical definition of ordinary smallpox is an illness with acute onset of fever equal to or greater than 38.3 °C (101 °F) followed by a rash characterized by firm, deep-seated vesicles or pustules in the same stage of development without other apparent cause. When

8778-548: The campus, occupying the Richardson Memorial Building. The middle of the campus, between Feret and Willow Streets, and bisected by McAlister Place and Newcomb Place, serves as the center of campus activities. The Lavin-Bernick Center for University Life, Devlin Fieldhouse , McAlister Auditorium, Howard-Tilton Memorial Library , and most of the student residence halls and academic buildings populate

8911-617: The center of campus. The Howard-Tilton Memorial Library is located on Freret Street . It was under construction from 2013 to 2016, but it now has two additional floors, as well as a Rare Books room. The facilities for the Freeman School of Business line McAlister Place and sit next to the Tulane University Law School . The center of campus is also home to the historic Newcomb College Campus, which sits between Newcomb Place and Broadway. The Newcomb campus

9044-477: The central region of the genome is highly consistent across orthopoxviruses , and the arrangement of genes is consistent across chordopoxviruses. The center of the variola virus genome contains the majority of the essential viral genes, including the genes for structural proteins , DNA replication , transcription , and mRNA synthesis. The ends of the genome vary more across strains and species of orthopoxviruses . These regions contain proteins that modulate

9177-670: The change. The history of the association under Jim Crow has been documented by Alma Dawson in "The Participation of African Americans in the Louisiana Library Association." Before 1965 the Louisiana Colored Teachers’ Association (later called the Louisiana Education Association) had a libraries section which counted public, school, and academic librarians among its members. In 1992 a joint conference

9310-516: The characteristic fluid-filled blisters with a dent in the center. The bumps then scabbed over and fell off, leaving scars. The disease was transmitted from one person to another primarily through prolonged face-to-face contact with an infected person or rarely via contaminated objects . Prevention was achieved mainly through the smallpox vaccine . Once the disease had developed, certain antiviral medications could potentially have helped, but such medications did not become available until after

9443-503: The closely related Vaccinia virus . The public availability of the variola virus complete sequence has raised concerns about the possibility of illicit synthesis of infectious virus. Vaccinia , a cousin of the variola virus, was artificially synthesized in 2002 by NIH scientists. They used a previously established method that involved using a recombinant viral genome to create a self-replicating bacterial plasmid that produced viral particles. In 2016, another group synthesized

9576-621: The course of the illness, but this happened most frequently during the first week of the rash when most of the skin lesions were intact. Infectivity waned in 7 to 10 days when scabs formed over the lesions, but the infected person was contagious until the last smallpox scab fell off. Concern about possible use of smallpox for biological warfare led in 2002 to Donald K. Milton's detailed review of existing research on its transmission and of then-current recommendations for controlling its spread. He agreed, citing Rao, Fenner and others, that “careful epidemiologic investigation rarely implicated fomites as

9709-612: The demolition of Phelps Hall and Irby Hall. Weatherhead Hall was completed in 2011, and it now houses sophomore students. Construction on Greenbaum House, a Residential College in the Newcomb Campus area, began in January 2013 and was completed by Summer 2014. The Lallage Feazel Wall Residential College was completed in August 2005 and took in its first students when Tulane re-opened in January 2006. Usually an honors dorm, Wall began accommodating students of all academic standings during

9842-403: The diagnosis of infection. Chickenpox was commonly confused with smallpox in the immediate post-eradication era. Chickenpox and smallpox could be distinguished by several methods. Unlike smallpox, chickenpox does not usually affect the palms and soles. Additionally, chickenpox pustules are of varying size due to variations in the timing of pustule eruption: smallpox pustules are all very nearly

9975-512: The disease was eradicated. The risk of death was about 30%, with higher rates among babies. Often, those who survived had extensive scarring of their skin, and some were left blind. The earliest evidence of the disease dates to around 1500 BC in Egyptian mummies . The disease historically occurred in outbreaks . It was one of several diseases introduced by the Columbian exchange to

10108-580: The downtown New Orleans Central Business District between the Mercedes-Benz Superdome and Canal Street in 18 mid/high-rise buildings, which house the School of Medicine, the School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, and the main campus of the Tulane Medical Center . In addition to medical and public health education, the Health Sciences campus is the central location for biomedical research. Students and faculty from

10241-587: The establishment of the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College within Tulane University. Newcomb was the first coordinate college for women in the United States and became a model for such institutions as Pembroke College and Barnard College . In 1894 the College of Technology formed, which would later become the School of Engineering. In the same year, the university moved to its present-day uptown campus on historic St. Charles Avenue , five miles (8 km) by streetcar from downtown New Orleans. With

10374-421: The first major center in the U.S. to focus on research using adult stem cells . The school has highly selective admissions, accepting only 175 medical students from more than 10,000 applications. It comprises 20 academic departments. The Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine is the first public health school established in the U.S. Although a program in hygiene was initiated in 1881,

10507-470: The first president of Tulane. He had succeeded Robert E. Lee as president of Washington and Lee University after Lee's death. He had moved to Louisiana and become president of Louisiana State University in 1880. In 1885, the university established its graduate division, later becoming the Graduate School. One year later, gifts from Josephine Louise Newcomb totaling over $ 3.6 million, led to

10640-408: The genome of vaccinia , a related virus used for vaccination against smallpox. Gene expression of variola virus occurs entirely within the cytoplasm of the host cell , and follows a distinct progression during infection. After entry of an infectious virion into a host cell, synthesis of viral mRNA can be detected within 20 minutes. About half of the viral genome is transcribed prior to

10773-429: The group was able to recreate viable virus in a short time frame with relatively little cost or effort. Although the WHO bans individual laboratories from synthesizing more than 20% of the genome at a time, and purchases of smallpox genome fragments are monitored and regulated, a group with malicious intentions could compile, from multiple sources, the full synthetic genome necessary to produce viable virus. Smallpox

10906-498: The hosts' immune systems, and are primarily responsible for the variability in virulence across the orthopoxvirus family. These terminal regions in poxviruses are inverted terminal repetitions (ITR) sequences. These sequences are identical but oppositely oriented on either end of the genome, leading to the genome being a continuous loop of DNA. Components of the ITR sequences include an incompletely base paired A/T rich hairpin loop ,

11039-638: The improvements to Tulane University in the late 19th century, Tulane had a firm foundation to build upon as the premier university of the Deep South and continued the legacy with growth in the 20th century. During 1907, the school established a four-year professional curriculum in architecture through the College of Technology, growing eventually into the Tulane School of Architecture . One year later, Schools of Dentistry and Pharmacy were established, albeit temporarily. The School of Dentistry ended in 1928, and Pharmacy six years later. In 1914, Tulane established

11172-478: The leading research universities in North America. The School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine again became independent from the School of Medicine in 1967. It was established in 1912. Tulane's School of Tropical Medicine also remains the only one of its kind in the country. On April 23, 1975, US President Gerald Ford spoke at Tulane University's Fogelman Arena at the invitation of F. Edward Hebert ,

11305-436: The lesions remained almost flush with the skin at the time when raised vesicles would have formed in the ordinary type. It is unknown why some people developed this type. Historically, it accounted for 5–10% of cases, and most (72%) were children. Malignant smallpox was accompanied by a severe prodromal phase that lasted 3–4 days, prolonged high fever, and severe symptoms of viremia . The prodromal symptoms continued even after

11438-406: The lower respiratory tract] are maintained”. Once inhaled, the variola virus invaded the mucous membranes of the mouth, throat, and respiratory tract. From there, it migrated to regional lymph nodes and began to multiply. In the initial growth phase, the virus seemed to move from cell to cell, but by around the 12th day, widespread lysis of infected cells occurred and the virus could be found in

11571-408: The malignant and hemorrhagic forms were usually fatal. The modified form was almost never fatal. In early hemorrhagic cases, hemorrhages occurred before any skin lesions developed. The incubation period between contraction and the first obvious symptoms of the disease was 7–14 days. At least 90% of smallpox cases among unvaccinated persons were of the ordinary type. In this form of the disease, by

11704-550: The new university was Francis Lister Hawks , an Episcopal priest and prominent citizen of New Orleans at the time. The university was closed from 1861 to 1865 during the American Civil War . After reopening, it went through a period of financial challenges because of an extended agricultural depression in the South which affected the nation's economy. Paul Tulane , owner of a prospering dry goods and clothing business, donated extensive real estate within New Orleans for

11837-404: The onset of the rash. The rash on the mucous membranes ( enanthem ) was extensive. Skin lesions matured slowly, were typically confluent or semi-confluent, and by the seventh or eighth day, they were flat and appeared to be buried in the skin. Unlike ordinary-type smallpox, the vesicles contained little fluid, were soft and velvety to the touch, and may have contained hemorrhages. Malignant smallpox

11970-429: The oral, nasal, or pharyngeal mucosa of an infected person. It was transmitted from one person to another primarily through prolonged face-to-face contact with an infected person. Some infections of laundry workers with smallpox after handling contaminated bedding suggested that smallpox could be spread through direct contact with contaminated objects ( fomites ), but this was found to be rare. Also rarely, smallpox

12103-464: The other being rinderpest (a disease of even-toed ungulates ) in 2011. The term "smallpox" was first used in England in the 16th century to distinguish the disease from syphilis , which was then known as the "great pox". Other historical names for the disease include pox, speckled monster, and red plague. The United States and Russia retain samples of variola virus in laboratories, which has sparked debates over safety . There are two forms of

12236-523: The outer layers of skin from the underlying flesh. Patients with confluent smallpox often remained ill even after scabs had formed over all the lesions. In one case series, the case-fatality rate in confluent smallpox was 62%. Referring to the character of the eruption and the rapidity of its development, modified smallpox occurred mostly in previously vaccinated people. It was rare in unvaccinated people, with one case study showing 1–2% of modified cases compared to around 25% in vaccinated people. In this form,

12369-588: The person was infected with variola virus, a severe infection could result, and the person could transmit smallpox to others. Variolation had a 0.5–2 percent mortality rate, considerably less than the 20–30 percent mortality rate of smallpox. Two reports on the Chinese practice of inoculation were received by the Royal Society in London in 1700; one by Dr. Martin Lister who received a report by an employee of

12502-497: The practice arrived in Europe. The idea that inoculation originated in India has been challenged, as few of the ancient Sanskrit medical texts described the process of inoculation. Accounts of inoculation against smallpox in China can be found as early as the late 10th century, and the procedure was widely practiced by the 16th century, during the Ming dynasty . If successful, inoculation produced lasting immunity to smallpox. Because

12635-491: The prodromal illness still occurred but may have been less severe than in the ordinary type. There was usually no fever during the evolution of the rash. The skin lesions tended to be fewer and evolved more quickly, were more superficial, and may not have shown the uniform characteristic of more typical smallpox. Modified smallpox was rarely, if ever, fatal. This form of variola major was more easily confused with chickenpox . In malignant-type smallpox (also called flat smallpox)

12768-433: The remaining two weeks. In June 2024, non-tenure track faculty at Tulane voted to form Tulane Workers United, the first higher education faculty union in the state of Louisiana. The union is formally affiliated with Workers United and SEIU . As a result of Hurricane Katrina in August 2005 and its damaging effects on New Orleans, most of the university was closed for the second time in its history—the first being during

12901-414: The renowned Newcomb Pottery . The Middle American Research Institute was established in 1925 at Tulane "for the purpose of advanced research into the history (both Indian and colonial), archaeology, tropical botany (both economic and medical), the natural resources and products, of the countries facing New Orleans across the waters to the south; to gather, index and disseminate data thereupon; and to aid in

13034-454: The same size since the viral effect progresses more uniformly. A variety of laboratory methods were available for detecting chickenpox in the evaluation of suspected smallpox cases. The earliest procedure used to prevent smallpox was inoculation with variola minor virus (a method later known as variolation after the introduction of smallpox vaccine to avoid possible confusion), which likely occurred in India, Africa, and China well before

13167-479: The second day of the rash the macules had become raised papules . By the third or fourth day, the papules had filled with an opalescent fluid to become vesicles . This fluid became opaque and turbid within 24–48 hours, resulting in pustules . By the sixth or seventh day, all the skin lesions had become pustules. Between seven and ten days the pustules had matured and reached their maximum size. The pustules were sharply raised, typically round, tense, and firm to

13300-532: The second floor, and on its third floor houses the Newcomb Institute. There is one graduate housing complex for Tulane University, Bertie M. and John W. Deming Pavilion, in the Downtown Campus. As of 2016 it is not operated by the university's Department of Housing and Residence Life. There were previously two other complexes: The Tulane University Health Sciences campus is located in

13433-491: The separation of variola virus from Taterapox (an Orthopoxvirus of some African rodents including gerbils ) at 3,000 to 4,000 years ago. This is consistent with archaeological and historical evidence regarding the appearance of smallpox as a human disease which suggests a relatively recent origin. If the mutation rate is assumed to be similar to that of the herpesviruses , the divergence date of variola virus from Taterapox has been estimated to be 50,000 years ago. While this

13566-427: The smallpox. Variola major is the severe and most common form, with a more extensive rash and higher fever. Variola minor is a less common presentation, causing less severe disease, typically discrete smallpox, with historical death rates of 1% or less. Subclinical ( asymptomatic ) infections with variola virus were noted but were not common. In addition, a form called variola sine eruptione (smallpox without rash)

13699-652: The social sciences, humanities, and fine and performing arts—including 50 undergraduate majors and two dozen M.A., M.F.A., and Ph.D. programs—plus the Shakespeare Festival, Summer Lyric Theatre, Carroll Gallery, Tulane Marching Band, and the Middle America Research Institute. The School of Liberal Arts is the largest of Tulane's nine schools with the greatest number of enrolled students, faculty members, majors, minors, and graduate programs. The Tulane University School of Medicine

13832-520: The spleen, kidney, serous membranes , skeletal muscles, pericardium , liver, gonads and bladder. Historically, this condition was frequently misdiagnosed, with the correct diagnosis made only at autopsy. This form is more likely to occur in pregnant women than in the general population (approximately 16% of cases in unvaccinated pregnant women were early hemorrhagic smallpox, versus roughly 1% in nonpregnant women and adult males). The case fatality rate of early hemorrhagic smallpox approaches 100%. There

13965-474: The support of education. This donation led to the establishment of a Tulane Educational Fund (TEF), whose board of administrators sought to support the University of Louisiana instead of establishing a new university. In response, through the influence of former Confederate general Randall Lee Gibson , the Louisiana state legislature transferred control of the University of Louisiana to the administrators of

14098-425: The temperature fell to near-normal. These lesions rapidly enlarged and ruptured, releasing large amounts of virus into the saliva. Variola virus tended to attack skin cells, causing the characteristic pimples, or macules , associated with the disease. A rash developed on the skin 24 to 48 hours after lesions on the mucous membranes appeared. Typically the macules first appeared on the forehead, then rapidly spread to

14231-411: The touch. The pustules were deeply embedded in the dermis, giving them the feel of a small bead in the skin. Fluid slowly leaked from the pustules, and by the end of the second week, the pustules had deflated and began to dry up, forming crusts or scabs. By day 16–20 scabs had formed over all of the lesions, which had started to flake off, leaving depigmented scars. Ordinary smallpox generally produced

14364-476: The university before course registration. Some schools' core requirements differ (e.g., students in the School of Science and Engineering are required to take fewer language classes than students in the School of Liberal Arts). Tulane was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1958. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity" and had research expenditure of $ 193.3 million in fiscal year 2018. In 2008, Tulane

14497-526: The university initiated an extensive university-wide core curriculum. Several major elements of the university core include freshman seminars called TIDES classes, a two-tier writing course sequence, and a two-tier course sequence for public service. Many other course requirements of the core curriculum can be certified through Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) exam scores, or placement exams in English and foreign languages offered by

14630-770: The university president. In 2008, Tulane became one of 76 U.S. colleges and the only Louisiana college to maintain an endowment above $ 1 billion. Tulane is organized into 10 schools centered around liberal arts, sciences, and specialized professions. All undergraduate students are enrolled in the Newcomb-Tulane College . The graduate programs are governed by the individual schools. Newcomb-Tulane College serves as an administrative center for all aspects of undergraduate life at Tulane, while individual schools direct specific courses of study. The first architecture courses at Tulane leading to an architectural engineering degree were offered in 1894. After beginning as part of

14763-484: The university's total endowment to more than $ 1.1 billion; by March 2009, Yvette Jones, Tulane's Chief Operating Officer, told Tulane's Staff Advisory Council that the endowment "has lost close to 37%", affected by the Great Recession . In 2021, Tulane had to evacuate all students and close down for a month due to damage from Hurricane Ida . No classes took place for two weeks, then there were virtual classes for

14896-428: The upbuilding of the best commercial and friendly relations between these Trans-Caribbean peoples and the United States." University College was established in 1942 as Tulane's division of continuing education. By 1950, the School of Architecture had grown out of Engineering into an independent school. In 1958, the university was elected to the Association of American Universities , an organization consisting of 62 of

15029-475: The vesicular stage. Hemorrhages in the mucous membranes appear to occur less often than in the early hemorrhagic form. Sometimes the rash forms pustules which bleed at the base and then undergo the same process as in ordinary smallpox. This form of the disease is characterized by a decrease in all of the elements of the coagulation cascade and an increase in circulating antithrombin . This form of smallpox occurs anywhere from 3% to 25% of fatal cases, depending on

15162-439: The virulence of the smallpox strain. Most people with the late-stage form die within eight to 10 days of illness. Among the few who recover, the hemorrhagic lesions gradually disappear after a long period of convalescence. The case fatality rate for late hemorrhagic smallpox is around 90–95%. Pregnant women are slightly more likely to experience this form of the disease, though not as much as early hemorrhagic smallpox. Smallpox

15295-442: The virus on chorioallantoic membrane (part of a chicken embryo ) and examining the resulting pock lesions under defined temperature conditions. Strains were characterized by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. Serologic tests and enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), which measured variola virus-specific immunoglobulin and antigen were also developed to assist in

15428-554: The whole face, proximal portions of extremities, the trunk, and lastly to distal portions of extremities. The process took no more than 24 to 36 hours, after which no new lesions appeared. At this point, variola major disease could take several very different courses, which resulted in four types of smallpox disease based on the Rao classification: ordinary, modified, malignant (or flat), and hemorrhagic smallpox. Historically, ordinary smallpox had an overall fatality rate of about 30%, and

15561-431: Was also called white pox, kaffir pox, Cuban itch, West Indian pox, milk pox, and pseudovariola. The genome of variola major virus is about 186,000 base pairs in length. It is made from linear double stranded DNA and contains the coding sequence for about 200 genes . The genes are usually not overlapping and typically occur in blocks that point towards the closer terminal region of the genome. The coding sequence of

15694-657: Was broken on Tulane's Yulman Stadium between Reily Recreation Center and Turchin Stadium. Tulane Green Wave football had played in the Mercedes-Benz Superdome since Tulane Stadium 's demolition in 1980. They now play in Yulman Stadium , which opened in September 2014. After Hurricane Katrina , Tulane has continued to build new facilities and renovate old spaces on its campus. The newest dorm buildings, Lake and River Residence Halls, were completed in 2023 following

15827-400: Was designed by New York architect James Gamble Rogers , noted for his work with Yale University 's campus. The Newcomb campus is home to Tulane's performing and fine arts venues. The back of campus, between Willow Street and South Claiborne, is home to two residence halls (Aron Residences and Décou-Labat Residences), Reily Recreation Center, and Turchin Stadium , and in January 2013, ground

15960-478: Was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) certified the global eradication of the disease in 1980, making smallpox the only human disease to have been eradicated to date. The initial symptoms of the disease included fever and vomiting. This was followed by formation of ulcers in the mouth and a skin rash . Over a number of days, the skin rash turned into

16093-587: Was established in 2005. In 1914 the Southern School of Social Sciences and Public Services was the first training program for social workers in the Deep South . By 1927 the school became a separate program with a two-year Master of Arts. The Tulane University School of Social Work has awarded the master of social work degrees to more than 4,700 students from all 50 of the United States and more than 30 other countries. Tulane offers continuing education courses and associate's and bachelor's degrees through

16226-464: Was founded in 1834 and is the 15th oldest medical school in the United States. Faculty have been noted for innovation. For example, in 1850 J. Lawrence Smith invented the inverted microscope . In the following year John Leonard Riddell invented the first practical microscope to allow binocular viewing through a single objective lens. In 2001 the Tulane Center for Gene Therapy started as

16359-650: Was held in New Orleans with the Southeastern Library Association . The first Black president of LLA was Idella Washington who was elected in 1998. In 1999 the LLA Bulletin was renamed Louisiana Libraries. The 2021 conference was held as a virtual conference during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Louisiana Library Association established its Awards program in 1944. The LLA offers multiple scholarships each year. The LLA Scholarship

16492-428: Was highly contagious, but generally spread more slowly and less widely than some other viral diseases, perhaps because transmission required close contact and occurred after the onset of the rash. The overall rate of infection was also affected by the short duration of the infectious stage. In temperate areas, the number of smallpox infections was highest during the winter and spring. In tropical areas, seasonal variation

16625-442: Was less evident and the disease was present throughout the year. Age distribution of smallpox infections depended on acquired immunity . Vaccination immunity declined over time and was probably lost within thirty years. Smallpox was not known to be transmitted by insects or animals and there was no asymptomatic carrier state. Transmission occurred through inhalation of airborne variola virus, usually droplets expressed from

16758-421: Was nearly always fatal and death usually occurred between the 8th and 12th day of illness. Often, a day or two before death, the lesions turned ashen gray, which, along with abdominal distension, was a bad prognostic sign. This form is thought to be caused by deficient cell-mediated immunity to smallpox. If the person recovered, the lesions gradually faded and did not form scars or scabs. Hemorrhagic smallpox

16891-485: Was published by Dyer. In July 2004, Tulane received two $ 30 million donations to its endowment , the largest individual or combined gifts in the university's history. The donations came from James H. Clark , a member of the university's board of trustees and founder of Netscape , and David Filo , a graduate of its School of Engineering and co-founder of Yahoo! . A fund-raising campaign called "Promise & Distinction" raised $ 730.6 million by October 3, 2008, increasing

17024-554: Was ranked by the Ford Foundation as the major international studies research institution in the South and one of the top 15 nationally. The National Institutes of Health ranks funding to Tulane at 79th. The university is home to various research centers, including the Amistad Research Center . Overall university rankings and ratings include: According to U.S. News & World Report Tulane

17157-667: Was reorganized in 1925. The LLA Convention or Conference began in 1909 has been held annually (except for 1914-1924, 1933, and 1945). LLA became a chapter member of the American Library Association in 1939, and has been a member since then with the exception of a period from March 5, 1963 through mid-1965 when the Executive Board of LLA resigned from ALA because the organization was not integrated. LLA had voted in 1947 to admit Black members, but because of state segregation laws had not been able to implement

17290-456: Was seen generally in vaccinated persons. This form was marked by a fever that occurred after the usual incubation period and could be confirmed only by antibody studies or, rarely, by viral culture . In addition, there were two very rare and fulminating types of smallpox, the malignant (flat) and hemorrhagic forms, which were usually fatal. The initial symptoms were similar to other viral diseases that are still extant, such as influenza and

17423-440: Was spread by virus carried in the air in enclosed settings such as buildings, buses, and trains. The virus can cross the placenta , but the incidence of congenital smallpox was relatively low. Smallpox was not notably infectious in the prodromal period and viral shedding was usually delayed until the appearance of the rash, which was often accompanied by lesions in the mouth and pharynx. The virus can be transmitted throughout

17556-404: Was the primary cause of smallpox outbreaks across Asia and most of Africa. Meanwhile, variola minor was more commonly found in regions of Europe, North America, South America, and certain parts of Africa. Variola minor virus, also called alastrim, was a less common form of the virus, and much less deadly. Although variola minor had the same incubation period and pathogenetic stages as smallpox, it

17689-516: Was the variola major strains (the more clinically severe form of smallpox) which spread from Asia between 400 and 1,600 years ago. A second clade included both alastrim (a phenotypically mild smallpox) described from the American continents and isolates from West Africa which diverged from an ancestral strain between 1,400 and 6,300 years before present. This clade further diverged into two subclades at least 800 years ago. A second estimate has placed

#387612