The Middle American Research Institute was established at Tulane University in 1924.
111-447: The Middle American Research Institute seeks to study and safeguard the culture and history of the areas of Mesoamerica and lower Central America. The Institute supports education and research in archaeology , ethnography , ethnohistory , linguistics , and art history throughout Mexico and Central America . The Middle American Research Institute seeks to disseminate the results of its scholarship to academics, students, educators, and
222-565: A social science and a branch of the humanities . It is usually considered an independent academic discipline , but may also be classified as part of anthropology (in North America – the four-field approach ), history or geography . Archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology
333-577: A 6 foot tall stucco mask. Francisco Estrada-Belli, a Research Assistant Professor at the Middle American Research Institute, discovered an impressive stucco frieze in Holmul , Guatemala in 2013. Additionally, Marc Zender is an epigrapher studying Maya hieroglyphic writing and comparative writing systems, and he also teaches and studies on the linguistics of Mesoamerican languages. The Middle American Research Institute gallery
444-401: A bacterial relative of syphilis . According to study lead researcher Wolfgang Stinnesbeck, "It really looks as if this woman had a very hard time and an extremely unhappy end of her life. Obviously, this is speculative, but given the traumas and the pathological deformations on her skull, it appears a likely scenario that she may have been expelled from her group and was killed in the cave, or
555-464: A basic level of analysis, artifacts found are cleaned, catalogued and compared to published collections. This comparison process often involves classifying them typologically and identifying other sites with similar artifact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through archaeological science , meaning that artifacts can be dated and their compositions examined. Bones, plants, and pollen collected from
666-563: A big impact throughout Europe. However, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard; the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. In the mid-18th century, the German Johann Joachim Winckelmann lived in Rome and devoted himself to the study of Roman antiquities, gradually acquiring an unrivalled knowledge of ancient art. Then, he visited
777-628: A certain settlement and the response in Yucatec Mayan was "I don't understand", which sounded like yucatán to the Spaniards. There are many possibilities of what the natives could have actually said, among which " mathan cauyi athán ", " tectecán ", " ma'anaatik ka t'ann " and " ci u t'ann ". This origin story was first told by Hernán Cortés in his letters to Charles V . Later 16th century historians Motolinia and Francisco López de Gómara also repeat this version. In some versions
888-401: A clear objective as to what the archaeologists are looking to achieve must be agreed upon. This done, a site is surveyed to find out as much as possible about it and the surrounding area. Second, an excavation may take place to uncover any archaeological features buried under the ground. And, third, the information collected during the excavation is studied and evaluated in an attempt to achieve
999-451: A field survey. Regional survey is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. Site survey is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and middens , within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods. Survey was not widely practised in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering
1110-484: A lack of public interest, and opposition to the excavation of human remains. In Ancient Mesopotamia , a foundation deposit of the Akkadian Empire ruler Naram-Sin (ruled c. 2200 BC ) was discovered and analysed by king Nabonidus , c. 550 BC , who is thus known as the first archaeologist. Not only did he lead the first excavations which were to find the foundation deposits of
1221-528: A large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ sampling methods.) As with other forms of non-destructive archaeology, survey avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as settlement patterns and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into maps , which may show surface features and/or artifact distribution. The simplest survey technique
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#17327761353321332-432: A site can all be analyzed using the methods of zooarchaeology , paleoethnobotany , palynology and stable isotopes while any texts can usually be deciphered . Yucat%C3%A1n Peninsula The Yucatán Peninsula ( / ˌ j uː k ə ˈ t ɑː n , - ˈ t æ n / YOO -kə- TA(H)N , UK also / ˌ j ʊ k -/ YUU - ; Spanish : Península de Yucatán [peˈninsula ðe ʝukaˈtan] )
1443-504: A site excavated depends greatly on the country and "method statement" issued. Sampling is even more important in excavation than in survey. Sometimes large mechanical equipment, such as backhoes ( JCBs ), is used in excavation, especially to remove the topsoil ( overburden ), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with trowels or hoes to ensure that all features are apparent. The next task
1554-414: A site reveals its stratigraphy; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct cultures, artifacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures. Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research, in relative terms. Also, as a destructive process, it carries ethical concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. Again the percentage of
1665-408: A sole source. The material record may be closer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own biases, such as sampling bias and differential preservation. Often, archaeology provides the only means to learn of the existence and behaviors of people of the past. Across the millennia many thousands of cultures and societies and billions of people have come and gone of which there
1776-527: A stone wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as middens ) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening grain , which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial photographs taken at different times of day will help show the outlines of structures by changes in shadows. Aerial survey also employs ultraviolet , infrared , ground-penetrating radar wavelengths, Lidar and thermography . Geophysical survey can be
1887-487: A systematic guide to the ruins and topography of ancient Rome in the early 15th century, for which he has been called an early founder of archaeology. Antiquarians of the 16th century, including John Leland and William Camden , conducted surveys of the English countryside, drawing, describing and interpreting the monuments that they encountered. The OED first cites "archaeologist" from 1824; this soon took over as
1998-455: A tripling of the number of graduate students working in Maya archaeology. In the late 1970s Andrews gathered grants to begin research on Maya farming settlements around Komchen , Mexico. Work at Komchen revealed trade networks spanning into the highlands of Guatemala. The Copan Acropolis Archaeological Project was directed by Andrews from 1990 to 1994 following the director Robert J. Sharer of
2109-495: A wide range of influences, including systems theory , neo-evolutionary thought , [35] phenomenology , postmodernism , agency theory , cognitive science , structural functionalism , Marxism , gender-based and feminist archaeology , queer theory , postcolonial thoughts , materiality , and posthumanism . An archaeological investigation usually involves several distinct phases, each of which employs its own variety of methods. Before any practical work can begin, however,
2220-502: A woman approximately 30 years of age who lived at least 9,900 years ago. According to craniometric measurements, the skull is believed to conform to the mesocephalic pattern, like the other three skulls found in Tulum caves. Three different scars on the skull of the woman showed that she was hit with something hard and her skull bones were broken. Her skull also had crater-like deformations and tissue deformities that appeared to be caused by
2331-585: Is a large peninsula in southeast Mexico and adjacent portions of Belize and Guatemala . The peninsula extends towards the northeast, separating the Gulf of Mexico to the north and west of the peninsula from the Caribbean Sea to the east. The Yucatán Channel , between the northeastern corner of the peninsula and Cuba , connects the two bodies of water. The peninsula is approximately 181,000 km (70,000 sq mi) in area. It has low relief and
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#17327761353322442-792: Is almost entirely composed of porous limestone . The peninsula lies east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec , the narrowest point in Mexico separating the Atlantic Ocean, including the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, from the Pacific Ocean. Some consider the isthmus to be the geographic boundary between Central America and the rest of North America , placing the peninsula in Central America. Politically, all of Mexico, including
2553-709: Is also working on community outreach through the continuation of the Tulane Maya Symposium as well as school group visits, and updated exhibits. Since the Institute was founded a century ago, M.A.R.I. has sponsored archaeological, linguistic, historical, and ethnographic research in Mesoamerica. In the early 1900s, expeditions focused on Mexico, and have since expanded to include research in Guatemala , Honduras , Belize , and El Salvador . Recently,
2664-606: Is distinct from palaeontology , which is the study of fossil remains. Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for which, by definition, there are no written records. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies around the world. Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. Derived from Greek,
2775-451: Is little or no written record or existing records are misrepresentative or incomplete. Writing as it is known today did not exist in human civilization until the 4th millennium BC, in a relatively small number of technologically advanced civilizations. In contrast, Homo sapiens has existed for at least 200,000 years, and other species of Homo for millions of years (see Human evolution ). These civilizations are, not coincidentally,
2886-426: Is no one approach to archaeological theory that has been adhered to by all archaeologists. When archaeology developed in the late 19th century, the first approach to archaeological theory to be practised was that of cultural-historical archaeology , which held the goal of explaining why cultures changed and adapted rather than just highlighting the fact that they did, therefore emphasizing historical particularism . In
2997-446: Is open to the public Monday through Friday from 9am to 4pm at Tulane University , Dinwiddie Hall, 3rd Floor, New Orleans, LA 70118. For further information contact the Institute at mari@tulane.edu or (504)-865-5110. Archaeological artifacts, ethnographic materials, and miscellanea comprise the M.A.R.I. physical collection. M.A.R.I. curates objects from all over the world with emphasis on collections from Middle America. Stone tools from
3108-443: Is reflected or emitted from the observed scene. Passive instruments sense only radiation emitted by the object being viewed or reflected by the object from a source other than the instrument. Active instruments emit energy and record what is reflected. Satellite imagery is an example of passive remote sensing. Here are two active remote sensing instruments: The archaeological project then continues (or alternatively, begins) with
3219-428: Is surface survey. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanized transport, to search for features or artifacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as augers , corers, and shovel test pits. If no materials are found,
3330-586: Is the site of the Chicxulub crater impact, which was created 66 million years ago by an asteroid of about 10 to 15 kilometers (6 to 9 miles) in diameter at the end of the Cretaceous Period . In 2020, an underwater archaeological expedition led by Jerónimo Avilés excavated Chan Hol cave, near the Tulum archaeological site in the state of Quintana Roo on the peninsula, and revealed the skeleton of
3441-596: Is through archaeology. Because archaeology is the study of past human activity, it stretches back to about 2.5 million years ago when the first stone tools are found – The Oldowan Industry . Many important developments in human history occurred during prehistory, such as the evolution of humanity during the Paleolithic period, when the hominins developed from the australopithecines in Africa and eventually into modern Homo sapiens . Archaeology also sheds light on many of humanity's technological advances, for instance
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3552-431: Is to form a site plan and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the natural subsoil are normally excavated in portions to produce a visible archaeological section for recording. A feature, for example a pit or a ditch, consists of two parts: the cut and the fill . The cut describes the edge of the feature, where the feature meets the natural soil. It is the feature's boundary. The fill
3663-420: Is what the feature is filled with, and will often appear quite distinct from the natural soil. The cut and fill are given consecutive numbers for recording purposes. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and recording sheets are filled in describing the context of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of
3774-600: The Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania . Work focused on variation in material culture and behavior within the Late Classic royal residence. This was achieved through ceramic and obsidian artifact analysis, study of sculpture, and investigations of El Cementerio Marcello Canuto is the current director of Tulane University's Middle American Research Institute. His field work focuses on
3885-580: The trench method , on several Native American burial mounds in Virginia . His excavations were prompted by the "Moundbuilders" question ; however, his careful methods led him to admit he saw no reason why ancestors of the Native Americans of his time could not have raised those mounds. One of the major achievements of 19th-century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy . The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods
3996-559: The 1870s. These scholars individuated nine different cities that had overlapped with one another, from prehistory to the Hellenistic period . Meanwhile, the work of Sir Arthur Evans at Knossos in Crete revealed the ancient existence of an equally advanced Minoan civilization . The next major figure in the development of archaeology was Sir Mortimer Wheeler , whose highly disciplined approach to excavation and systematic coverage in
4107-642: The 1920s and 1930s brought the science on swiftly. Wheeler developed the grid system of excavation , which was further improved by his student Kathleen Kenyon . Archaeology became a professional activity in the first half of the 20th century, and it became possible to study archaeology as a subject in universities and even schools. By the end of the 20th century nearly all professional archaeologists, at least in developed countries, were graduates. Further adaptation and innovation in archaeology continued in this period, when maritime archaeology and urban archaeology became more prevalent and rescue archaeology
4218-660: The Department, Blom participated in four major expeditions covering areas and topics including Guatemalan ancestral ritual calendars, investigations of Mayan ritual cycles at Jacaltenango , and a long trek from the southern coast of Chiapas to Chichen Itza on the Yucatán. Tulane's location in New Orleans (a major port city servicing Latin America) meant that the Department was often frequented by researchers on their way into
4329-492: The First Tulane Expedition, Tribes and Temples, became the Department's first publication. More staff hires included Ralph Roys, and Oliver La Farge. Following disputes between members of the Department of Middle American Research and the president of Tulane, Frans Blom took over in the position of Director of the Department. In this position, Blom decided to promote “ archaeology as the major function of
4440-541: The Guatemalan highlands. During Wauchope's time as director, the Institute became increasingly integrated with Tulane. Researchers took roles as professors, and projects spanned multiple departments within the university. Wauchope was praised for his “revitalization of the Middle American Research Institute in less than a decade.” In 1954, he became President of the Society for American Anthropology, and in 1957 Wauchope
4551-1309: The Institute, promoting both education and research. Middle American Research Institute Official Site: http://mari.tulane.edu/ Barr, Kenneth. Find amazing relics of Mayas’ empire. The New York Times, 20 August 1925, p. 1, 6. Barr, Kenneth. Tales of Maya Indians recounted by explorer. The New York Times 30 August 1925, p. XX6, New York. Brunhouse, Robert L. Pursuit of the Ancient Maya: Some Archaeologists of Yesterday. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. 1975. Kelker, Nancy L., and Karen O. Bruhns. Faking Ancient Mesoamerica. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, California. 2010. McVicker, Donald. Institutional Autonomy and Its Consequences: The Middle American Research Institute at Tulane University. Histories of Anthropology Annual 4:34–57. 2008. New York Times. Tulane explorers find sacred island. 29 March, p. E4, New York. 1925. New York Times. Mayan ruins found near Puerto. 2 April, p. 14, New York. 1925. New York Times. Marvels in tomb of Maya monarch. 21 August, p. 1, 6, New York. 1925. New York Times. Back with relics of ancient Mayas. 24 November, p. 13, New York. 1925. Wauchope, Robert. Lost Tribes and Sunken Continents: Myth and Method in
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4662-553: The Maya ruins of Tulum and Coba . The population of the Yucatán Peninsula is very different throughout each part of the Peninsula. Population density and ethnic composition are two factors that play into the total population. The most populated area is Mérida in Yucatán state and the surrounding region, contrasted by the state of Quintana Roo, the least populated part of the peninsula. In terms of ethnic composition,
4773-671: The Middle American Research Institute has received some attention for Dr. Canuto's role as director of excavations at La Corona in Guatemala. For this research, Canuto was awarded the National Geographic Society grant. Other recent findings include a broken stone monument at the site of El Achiotal, which speaks of the anniversary of an Early Classic king installed by Siyaj K'ak' from the Valley of Mexico, discovered by graduate student Luke Auld-Thomas in 2015, as well as
4884-411: The Middle American Research Institute in 1975. Andrew's main goal was to publish the archaeological research of the Institute from the archaeological program in Yucatán from the 1950s through the 1970s. Such publications include Excavations at Dzibilchaltun, Yucatán, Mexico and Prehistoric Maya Settlement Patterns at Becan , Campeche, Mexico. This continued focus on publication and field research lead to
4995-609: The Pepper Collection of photographs from the U.S. Southwest; field journals, maps, and photos from the Institute's early expeditions in Middle America; and miscellaneous personal archives donated to the Institute by scholars interested in Mesoamerican archaeology and ethnography. Records concerning the acquisition and documentation of the physical collection are also included in the archives. Starting in 2002,
5106-505: The Song period, were revived in the 17th century during the Qing dynasty , but were always considered a branch of Chinese historiography rather than a separate discipline of archaeology. In Renaissance Europe , philosophical interest in the remains of Greco - Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Ages , with humanism . Cyriacus of Ancona
5217-676: The Spanish military engineer Roque Joaquín de Alcubierre in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum , both of which had been covered by ash during the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 . These excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, as well the unearthing of frescos , had
5328-470: The Stone Center at Tulane University began hosting an annual Tulane Maya Symposium. The Middle American Research Institute took over this program in 2010. Yearly, a weekend is dedicated to workshops and talks centered on the study of the Maya civilization of Mexico and Central America, with each year focusing on a specific theme in Maya studies. This effort in scholarship reflects the mission statement of
5439-713: The Study of American Indians. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 1962. Wicks, Robert S., and Roland H. Harrison. Buried Cities, Forgotten Gods: William Niven's Life of Discovery and Revolution in Mexico and the American Southwest. Texas Tech University Press, Lubbock. 1999. Archaeology Archaeology or archeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture . The archaeological record consists of artifacts , architecture , biofacts or ecofacts, sites , and cultural landscapes . Archaeology can be considered both
5550-767: The UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the Portable Antiquities Scheme . Regional survey in underwater archaeology uses geophysical or remote sensing devices such as marine magnetometer, side-scan sonar , or sub-bottom sonar. Archaeological excavation existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as stratigraphy , three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context. Modern excavation techniques require that
5661-520: The United States, Honduran pot sherds, Egyptian coffins, Mexican masks, Guatemalan textiles, Amazonian featherwork, and the iconic Tulane pennant exemplify the range of materials in the collection. The Institute houses an extensive archive of primary and secondary sources including Institute correspondence, maps, journals, and photographs. The archive spans the entirety of the Americas including
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#17327761353325772-520: The Yucatán Peninsula any time of year. Although these storms pummel the area with heavy rains and high winds, they tend to be short-lived, clearing after about an hour. The average percentage of days with rain per month ranges from a monthly low of 7% in April to a high of 25% in October. Breezes can have a cooling effect, humidity is generally high, particularly in the remaining rainforest areas. Due to
5883-664: The Yucatán Peninsula is an unconfined flat lying karst landscape. Sinkholes, known locally as cenotes , are widespread in the northern lowlands. According to the Alvarez hypothesis , the mass extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs at the transition from the Cretaceous to the Paleogene Period, the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–Pg boundary), 66 million years ago was caused by an asteroid impact somewhere in
5994-525: The Yucatán Peninsula was largely a cattle ranching, logging, chicle and henequen production area. Since the 1970s, the Yucatán Peninsula has reoriented its economy towards tourism, especially in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo. Aside from tourism, another source of income that is important in the Peninsula is logging as well as chicle industries specifically in Belize. Oil was also found in certain parts of
6105-411: The Yucatán, bringing in more economic opportunities. Once a small fishing village, Cancún in the northeast of the peninsula has grown into a thriving city. The Riviera Maya , which stretches along the east coast of the peninsula between Cancún and Tulum , houses over 50,000 beds. The best-known locations are the former fishing town of Playa del Carmen , the ecological parks Xcaret and Xel-Há and
6216-408: The Yucatán, is generally considered part of North America, while Guatemala and Belize are considered part of Central America. The proper derivation of the word Yucatán is widely debated. 17th-century Franciscan historian Diego López de Cogolludo offers two theories in particular. In the first one, Francisco Hernández de Córdoba , having first arrived to the peninsula in 1517, inquired the name of
6327-426: The ability to use fire, the development of stone tools , the discovery of metallurgy , the beginnings of religion and the creation of agriculture . Without archaeology, little or nothing would be known about the use of material culture by humanity that pre-dates writing. However, it is not only prehistoric, pre-literate cultures that can be studied using archaeology but historic, literate cultures as well, through
6438-450: The aforementioned "Ring of Cenotes", as well as the presence of impact debris such as shocked quartz and tektites , a type of glass formed during meteorite impacts . The Arrowsmith Bank is a submerged bank located off the northeastern end of the peninsula. The peninsula has a tropical climate, which ranges from semi-arid in the northwest to humid in the south. Average annual rainfall ranges from less than 800 mm (30 inches) in
6549-408: The archaeological excavations being conducted at Pompeii and Herculaneum . He was one of the founders of scientific archaeology and first applied the categories of style on a large, systematic basis to the history of art He was one of the first to separate Greek art into periods and time classifications. Winckelmann has been called both "The prophet and founding hero of modern archaeology " and
6660-434: The area surveyed is deemed sterile . Aerial survey is conducted using cameras attached to airplanes , balloons , UAVs , or even Kites . A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial photographs are used to document the status of the archaeological dig. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. Plants growing above a buried human-made structure, such as
6771-551: The areas of La Corona in Guatemala and the El Paraíso valley in Honduras, where he studies the socio-political organization of the prehispanic Maya. During his time as director the Institute's home, Dinwiddie Hall, was renovated. This renovation allowed the Institute the opportunity to build a larger modern exhibit gallery, as well as digitized storage systems for archives and collections. The Middle American Research Institute
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#17327761353326882-560: The artifacts they had found in chronological order. A major figure in the development of archaeology into a rigorous science was army officer and ethnologist Augustus Pitt Rivers , who began excavations on his land in England in the 1880s. Highly methodical by the standards of the time, he is widely regarded as the first scientific archaeologist. He arranged his artifacts by type or " Typology (archaeology) ", and within types chronologically. This style of arrangement, designed to highlight
6993-563: The best-known; they are open to the inquiry of historians for centuries, while the study of pre-historic cultures has arisen only recently. Within a literate civilization many events and important human practices may not be officially recorded. Any knowledge of the early years of human civilization – the development of agriculture, cult practices of folk religion, the rise of the first cities – must come from archaeology. In addition to their scientific importance, archaeological remains sometimes have political or cultural significance to descendants of
7104-457: The coastal margins. The thousands of sinkholes known as cenotes throughout the region provide access to the groundwater system. The cenotes have long been relied on by ancient and contemporary Maya people. The vegetation and plant communities of the peninsula vary from north to south. The Yucatán dry forests occupy the dry northwestern peninsula, and include dry forests and scrublands and cactus scrub. The Yucatán moist forests occur across
7215-511: The department.” During Blom's time as director, he led multiple extensive expeditions to Latin America. In his own words, Blom describes the first expedition: “We discovered twenty-four ruined cities hitherto unrecorded by scientists… To sum up the matter in a few words, the work that we have begun in Central America will put Tulane University on the map as having the greatest department in the country on Maya Indian study.” Throughout his time with
7326-764: The driest parts of the northwest up to 2,000 mm (80 inches) in the Petén Basin to the south. Rainfall varies seasonally, with August and September generally the wettest months. Like much of the Caribbean , the peninsula lies within the Atlantic Hurricane Belt, and with its almost uniformly flat terrain it is vulnerable to these large storms coming from the east, and the area has been devastated by many hurricanes, such as Hurricane Gilbert , Hurricane Emily , Hurricane Wilma , and Hurricane Dean . Strong storms called nortes can quickly descend on
7437-473: The early 20th century, many archaeologists who studied past societies with direct continuing links to existing ones (such as those of Native Americans , Siberians , Mesoamericans etc.) followed the direct historical approach , compared the continuity between the past and contemporary ethnic and cultural groups. In the 1960s, an archaeological movement largely led by American archaeologists like Lewis Binford and Kent Flannery arose that rebelled against
7548-531: The east along the Caribbean Sea. The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System is an immense coral barrier reef which stretches over 1,100 km (700 miles) along the eastern coast of the peninsula. The peninsula comprises the Mexican states of Yucatán , Campeche , and Quintana Roo , as well as Guatemala 's Petén Department and almost all of Belize . In the late historic and early modern eras,
7659-643: The empirical evidence that existed for the understanding of the past, encapsulated in the motto of the 18th century antiquary, Sir Richard Colt Hoare : "We speak from facts, not theory". Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment period in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. In Imperial China during the Song dynasty (960–1279), figures such as Ouyang Xiu and Zhao Mingcheng established
7770-644: The established cultural-history archaeology. They proposed a "New Archaeology", which would be more "scientific" and "anthropological", with hypothesis testing and the scientific method very important parts of what became known as processual archaeology . In the 1980s, a new postmodern movement arose led by the British archaeologists Michael Shanks , Christopher Tilley , Daniel Miller , and Ian Hodder , which has become known as post-processual archaeology . It questioned processualism's appeals to scientific positivism and impartiality, and emphasized
7881-633: The evolutionary trends in human artifacts, was of enormous significance for the accurate dating of the objects. His most important methodological innovation was his insistence that all artifacts, not just beautiful or unique ones, be collected and catalogued. William Flinders Petrie is another man who may legitimately be called the Father of Archaeology. His painstaking recording and study of artifacts, both in Egypt and later in Palestine , laid down many of
7992-601: The existence of at least two morphologically diverse groups of people living separately in Mexico during the transition from Pleistocene to Holocene . The Yucatán Peninsula constitutes a significant proportion of the ancient Maya lowlands and was the central location of the Maya Civilization. The Maya culture also extended south of the Yucatán Peninsula into Guatemala , Honduras , and the highlands of Chiapas . There are many Maya archaeological sites throughout
8103-569: The expedition is not the one captained by Córdoba but instead the one a year later captained by Juan de Grijalva . The second major theory is that the name is in some way related to the yuca crop, as written by Bernal Díaz del Castillo . Others theories claim that it is a derivative of Chontal Tabascan word yokat'an meaning speaker of the Yoko ochoco language, or an incorrect Nahuatl term yokatlan as supposedly "place of richness" ( yohcāuh cannot be paired with tlán ). The Yucatán Peninsula
8214-419: The extreme karst nature of the whole peninsula, the northern half is devoid of aboveground rivers. Where lakes and swamps are present, the water is marshy and generally unpotable. Due to its coastal location, the whole of the peninsula is underlain by an extensive contiguous density stratified coastal aquifer , where a fresh water lens formed from meteoric water floats on top of intruding saline water from
8325-538: The father of the discipline of art history . The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington (1754–1810). He undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of Neolithic and Bronze Age barrows , and the terms he used to categorize and describe them are still used by archaeologists today. Future U.S. President Thomas Jefferson also did his own excavations in 1784 using
8436-522: The field. The Department of Middle American Research became known internationally when reproductions of architecture from the Nunnery Quadrangle at Uxmal , discovered during the Institute's expeditions, were displayed at the World's Fair of 1933 . These early expeditions account for most of the Institute's current anthropological collections. In 1938 the Department of Middle American Research
8547-765: The fifteenth century, and the general accuracy of his records entitles him to be called the founding father of modern classical archeology." He traveled throughout Greece and all around the Eastern Mediterranean, to record his findings on ancient buildings, statues and inscriptions, including archaeological remains still unknown to his time: the Parthenon , Delphi , the Egyptian pyramids , the hieroglyphics . He noted down his archaeological discoveries in his diary, Commentaria (in six volumes). Flavio Biondo , an Italian Renaissance humanist historian, created
8658-528: The first history books of India. One of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey (1626–1697) was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other field monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings. He attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out by
8769-424: The greater Caribbean Basin . The deeply buried Chicxulub crater is centered off the north coast of the peninsula near the town of Chicxulub . The now-famous "Ring of Cenotes," a geologic structure composed of sinkholes arranged in a semi-circle, outlines one of the shock-waves from this impact event in the approximately 66-million-year-old rock. The existence of the crater has been supported by evidence including
8880-475: The ideas behind modern archaeological recording; he remarked that "I believe the true line of research lies in the noting and comparison of the smallest details." Petrie developed the system of dating layers based on pottery and ceramic findings , which revolutionized the chronological basis of Egyptology . Petrie was the first to scientifically investigate the Great Pyramid in Egypt during the 1880s. He
8991-472: The importance of a more self-critical theoretical reflexivity . However, this approach has been criticized by processualists as lacking scientific rigor, and the validity of both processualism and post-processualism is still under debate. Meanwhile, another theory, known as historical processualism , has emerged seeking to incorporate a focus on process and post-processual archaeology's emphasis of reflexivity and history. Archaeological theory now borrows from
9102-732: The largest continuous tracts of tropical rainforest in Central America . However, these forests are suffering extensive deforestation . Mangroves occur along the coast, with the Usumacinta mangroves around the Laguna de Términos in the southwest, the Petenes mangroves along the west coast, Ría Lagartos mangroves along the northern shore of the peninsula, and the Mayan Corridor mangroves and Belizean Coast mangroves to
9213-444: The lives and interests of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into libraries and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases, assumptions, cultural values and possibly deceptions of a limited range of individuals, usually a small fraction of the larger population. Hence, written records cannot be trusted as
9324-671: The locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible features there. Gordon Willey pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the Viru Valley of coastal Peru , and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later. Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artifacts. (Nevertheless, surveying
9435-538: The middle and east of the peninsula, and are characterized by semi-deciduous forests where 25 to 50% of the trees lose their leaves during the summer dry season. The Belizian pine forests are found in several enclaves across central Belize. The southernmost portion of the peninsula is in the Petén–Veracruz moist forests ecoregion, an evergreen rain forest. Northern Guatemala ( El Petén ), Mexico ( Campeche and Quintana Roo ), and western Belize are still occupied by
9546-724: The most effective way to see beneath the ground. Magnetometers detect minute deviations in the Earth's magnetic field caused by iron artifacts, kilns , some types of stone structures , and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the electrical resistivity of the soil are also widely used. Archaeological features whose electrical resistivity contrasts with that of surrounding soils can be detected and mapped. Some archaeological features (such as those composed of stone or brick) have higher resistivity than typical soils, while others (such as organic deposits or unfired clay) tend to have lower resistivity. Although some archaeologists consider
9657-443: The now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site. Once artifacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them. This process is known as post-excavation analysis , and is usually the most time-consuming part of an archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for final excavation reports for major sites to take years to be published. At
9768-529: The original research objectives of the archaeologists. It is then considered good practice for the information to be published so that it is available to other archaeologists and historians, although this is sometimes neglected. Before actually starting to dig in a location, remote sensing can be used to look where sites are located within a large area or provide more information about sites or regions. There are two types of remote sensing instruments—passive and active. Passive instruments detect natural energy that
9879-413: The past. Since its early development, various specific sub-disciplines of archaeology have developed, including maritime archaeology , feminist archaeology , and archaeoastronomy , and numerous different scientific techniques have been developed to aid archaeological investigation. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology , the looting of artifacts,
9990-493: The peninsula; some of the better-known are Chichen Itza , Coba , Tulum , and Uxmal . Indigenous Maya and Mestizos of partial Maya descent make up a sizable portion of the region's population, and Mayan languages are widely spoken there. The peninsula is the exposed portion of the larger Yucatán Platform , all of which is composed of carbonate and soluble rocks, being mostly limestone although dolomite and evaporites are also present at various depths. The whole of
10101-698: The people who produced them, monetary value to collectors, or strong aesthetic appeal. Many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic, religious, political, or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies. This view is often espoused in works of popular fiction, such as Raiders of the Lost Ark, The Mummy, and King Solomon's Mines. When unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously, accusations of pseudoscience are invariably levelled at their proponents (see Pseudoarchaeology ) . However, these endeavours, real and fictional, are not representative of modern archaeology. There
10212-550: The precise locations of objects and features, known as their provenance or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see Primary Laws of Archaeology ). Likewise, their association , or relationship with nearby objects and features , needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce which artifacts and features were likely used together and which may be from different phases of activity. For example, excavation of
10323-492: The prehistory of Mexico and linguistics of the Maya area. At its beginning, the department was housed in a part of Dinwiddie Hall with a library containing 2,500 pieces, mostly from Gate's private collection. These texts would one day become the core of Tulane's Latin American Library. In 1925, Gates hired field archaeologist Frans Blom to lead the Department's first expedition into the Mexican hinterland. The report of
10434-490: The public. The Department of Middle American research started at Tulane in 1924 with William E. Gates as its director. Samuel Zemurray , president of the Cuyamel Fruit Company , generously donated $ 300,000 to “support the new Department of Middle American Research in the university, and supply money for an archaeological expedition.” Additionally, Zemurray bought Gates’ private library of original sources on
10545-563: The responsibility to the son of an old friend and coworker, E. Wyllys Andrews V. Andrews began his time with the Middle American Research Institute as the director of the Program of Research on the Yucatán Peninsula from 1972-1974. He soon followed in the footsteps of his father, archaeologist E. Wyllys Andrews IV, who worked with M.A.R.I. at the site of Dzibilchaltun in Yucatán, Mexico until 1971. Andrews took over as Director of
10656-475: The sub-discipline of historical archaeology . For many literate cultures, such as Ancient Greece and Mesopotamia , their surviving records are often incomplete and biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the elite classes, such as the clergy , or the bureaucracy of court or temple. The literacy of aristocrats has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from
10767-519: The temples of Šamaš the sun god, the warrior goddess Anunitu (both located in Sippar ), and the sanctuary that Naram-Sin built to the moon god, located in Harran , but he also had them restored to their former glory. He was also the first to date an archaeological artifact in his attempt to date Naram-Sin's temple during his search for it. Even though his estimate was inaccurate by about 1,500 years, it
10878-476: The term archaeology means "the study of ancient history". The discipline involves surveying , excavation , and eventually analysis of data collected, to learn more about the past. In broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, and has since become a discipline practiced around the world. Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of
10989-559: The tradition of Chinese epigraphy by investigating, preserving, and analyzing ancient Chinese bronze inscriptions from the Shang and Zhou periods. In his book published in 1088, Shen Kuo criticized contemporary Chinese scholars for attributing ancient bronze vessels as creations of famous sages rather than artisan commoners, and for attempting to revive them for ritual use without discerning their original functionality and purpose of manufacture. Such antiquarian pursuits waned after
11100-576: The use of metal detectors to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on English Civil War battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a 19th-century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to archaeology where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In
11211-472: The usual term for one major branch of antiquarian activity. "Archaeology", from 1607 onward, initially meant what we would call "ancient history" generally, with the narrower modern sense first seen in 1837. However, it was Jacob Spon who, in 1685, offered one of the earliest definitions of "archaeologia" to describe the study of antiquities in which he was engaged, in the preface of a collection of transcriptions of Roman inscriptions which he had gleaned over
11322-412: The years of his travels, entitled Miscellanea eruditae antiquitatis. Twelfth-century Indian scholar Kalhana 's writings involved recording of local traditions, examining manuscripts, inscriptions, coins and architectures, which is described as one of the earliest traces of archaeology. One of his notable work is called Rajatarangini which was completed in c. 1150 and is described as one of
11433-525: Was a restlessly itinerant Italian humanist and antiquarian who came from a prominent family of merchants in Ancona , a maritime republic on the Adriatic . He was called by his contemporaries pater antiquitatis ('father of antiquity') and today "father of classical archaeology": "Cyriac of Ancona was the most enterprising and prolific recorder of Greek and Roman antiquities, particularly inscriptions, in
11544-421: Was also responsible for mentoring and training a whole generation of Egyptologists, including Howard Carter who went on to achieve fame with the discovery of the tomb of 14th-century BC pharaoh Tutankhamun . The first stratigraphic excavation to reach wide popularity with public was that of Hissarlik , on the site of ancient Troy , carried out by Heinrich Schliemann , Frank Calvert and Wilhelm Dörpfeld in
11655-423: Was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith , James Hutton and Charles Lyell . The systematic application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites. In the third and fourth decades of the 19th century, archaeologists like Jacques Boucher de Perthes and Christian Jürgensen Thomsen began to put
11766-421: Was developed as a result of increasing commercial development. The purpose of archaeology is to learn more about past societies and the development of the human race . Over 99% of the development of humanity has occurred within prehistoric cultures, who did not make use of writing , thereby no written records exist for study purposes. Without such written sources, the only way to understand prehistoric societies
11877-415: Was done with the help of Margaret Harrison, an editor of the handbook. The University of Texas Press published the handbook between 1957 and 1974. During the 1960s the Middle American Research Institute began, once again, to focus more heavily on anthropology as opposed to multi-disciplinary research. After over three decades as the Middle American Research Institute's Director, Wauchope retired, passing on
11988-541: Was left in the cave to die there”. The newly discovered skeleton was 140 meters away from the Chan Hol 2 site. Although archaeologists assumed the divers had found the remains of the missing Chan Hol 2, the analysis soon proved that these assumptions were erroneous. Stinnesbeck compared the new bones to old photographs of Chan Hol 2 and showed that the two skeletons represent different individuals. Due to their distinctive features, study co-researcher Samuel Rennie suggest
12099-598: Was named the general editor for the Handbook of Middle American Indians. The Handbook became the “most ambitious single project of scholarly editing ever undertaken at Tulane.” The project was funded by the National Science Foundation, and strived to create an encyclopedia of all current knowledge of North and South American Indians. Wauchope was responsible for organizing the content of more than three hundred authorities who submitted articles. This work
12210-572: Was renamed the Middle American Research Institute. Blom's career at the Institute lasted until he was asked to resign for health reasons in November 1941. Robert Wauchope taught archaeology at the University of Georgia and then directed the Laboratory of Anthropology and Archaeology at the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill. Following World War II, Wauchope came to the Middle American Research Institute to pursue his research at Zacualpa in
12321-464: Was still a very good one considering the lack of accurate dating technology at the time. The science of archaeology (from Greek ἀρχαιολογία , archaiologia from ἀρχαῖος , arkhaios , "ancient" and -λογία , -logia , " -logy ") grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism . Antiquarians studied history with particular attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts, as well as historical sites. Antiquarianism focused on
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