Misplaced Pages

#871128

75-516: The park is located 145 kilometres (90 mi) east of Arica and 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) west of Putre , between 18°03' S - 18°27' S and 69°02' W - 69°39' W, and 3,200 metres (10,500 ft) to 6,342 metres (20,807 ft) msnm. One of the main attractions of the park is the small lacustrine area formed by Chungará and Cotacotani lakes, which lies at the foothills of the Payachata volcanic group . Other majestic volcanoes forming part of

150-628: A 10-month training there for 50 North Americans from the Esalen Institute in California. The Arica School , based in the United States of America, has influenced thousands of people all over the world. The commune of Arica is composed of 19 census districts. Source : INE 2007 report, "Territorial division of Chile" Arica is the economical powerhouse of its region. It is an enormous trade and shipping point and vital for

225-447: A Spanish point of view, for their sexual liberalism and engaged often sexually with men from other ethnicities. The same was true for the black slaves who due to their "many" intercourses with other groups were strictly prohibited by law to engage in sexual activities with other ethnicities in order to avoid the proliferation of black individuals. 16th century Spaniards are generally known to have been pessimistic about marriage. Many of

300-461: A commune, Arica is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council , headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. The 2008–2012 alcalde is Waldo Sankán Martínez ( Independent ). Within the electoral divisions of Chile , Arica is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Mr. Vlado Mirosevic (Partido Liberal) and Mr. Luis Rocaful as part of

375-551: A farmer in the outskirts of old cities ( La Serena , Valparaíso , Santiago and Concepción ) was overall more popular than joining a new city since it secured a larger consumer market for agricultural products. Chilean haciendas ( latifundia ) engaged little in the supply of Chilean cities but focused on international exports for revenues. Haciendas of central Chile are believed to had become labour-saturated by 1780 generating an "excess" population that could not be incorporated into their economy. Some of this population settled in

450-427: A homogeneous group and were judged more by appearance than by actual ancestry. Indigenous people enjoyed the lowest prestige among societal groups in colonial Chile; many of them were used as cheap labour in encomienda but their numbers decreased over time due to diseases and miscegenation . Pehuenche , Huilliche , and Mapuche living south of La Frontera were not part of the colonial society since they were outside

525-429: A hot desert climate , abbreviated "BWh" on climate maps. Unlike many other cities with arid climates, Arica seldom sees extreme temperatures throughout the course of the year and it is also relatively overcast. Arica is also known as the driest inhabited place on Earth, at least as measured by rainfall: average annual precipitation is 0.76 mm (0.03 inches), as measured at the airport meteorological station. As

600-795: A large inland region of South America. The city serves a free port for Bolivia and manages a substantial part of that country's trade. In addition it is the end station of the Bolivian oil pipeline beginning in Oruro . The city's strategic position is enhanced by being next to the Pan-American Highway , being connected to both Tacna in Peru and La Paz in Bolivia by railroad and being served by an international airport . Arica has an extremely dry climate , with almost no rainfall. Even so,

675-717: A leg of the International Bodyboarding Association's world tour event every year at the notorious "el flops" surf break. The event has been running since 2004. Other attractions include the former house of the Governor, the Former Arica Custom House , railway station Arica-La Paz, the Archaeological and Anthropological Museum of San Miguel de Azapa, Sea and Historical Arms and Arica. For evening entertainment there

750-577: A peace agreement with the Mapuche in order to concentrate the empire's resources in fighting the Catalans. This way, the Mapuche obtained a peace treaty and a recognition on behalf of the crown in a case unique for any indigenous group in the Americas. This peace treaty did end the hostilities for a time, but they continued to flare up through the colonial era, most notably in 1655 . In Colonial times

825-486: Is adapted to the harsh puna environment, as are the bofedales, llaretales and Andean steppes. Arica Arica ( / ə ˈ r iː k ə / ə- REE -kə ; Spanish: [aˈɾika] ) is a commune and a port city with a population of 222,619 in the Arica Province of northern Chile 's Arica y Parinacota Region . It is Chile's northernmost city, being located only 18 km (11 mi) south of

SECTION 10

#1732798482872

900-621: Is not clear if they found the Spanish by accident or if they had followed them. The warriors, led by Pelantaro , killed both the governor and all his troops. In the years following the Battle of Curalaba, a general uprising developed among the Mapuches and Huilliches. The Spanish cities of Angol , La Imperial , Osorno , Santa Cruz de Oñez , Valdivia and Villarrica were either destroyed or abandoned. Only Chillán and Concepción resisted

975-639: Is the Casino de Arica. More than 20 km of beaches, many known for the quality of surfing, span across the Coastal Range in the northern sector. The harbored location makes these beaches unique from other cities in Chile in terms of topography. From north to south the beaches are located Las Machas , Chinchorro , del Alacrán , El Laucho , La Lisera , Brava , Arenillas Negras , La Capilla , Corazones and La Liserilla . Passenger train services on

1050-815: Is the period from 1600 to 1810, beginning with the Destruction of the Seven Cities and ending with the onset of the Chilean War of Independence . During this time, the Chilean heartland was ruled by Captaincy General of Chile . The period was characterized by a lengthy conflict between Spaniards and native Mapuches known as the Arauco War . Colonial society was divided in distinct groups including Peninsulars , Criollos , Mestizos , Indians and Black people . Relative to other Spanish colonies, Chile

1125-711: The Afro-Chilean population was negligible, reaching a height of only 2,500 – or 0.1% of the total population – during the colonial period. While a minority black slaves had special status due to their high cost of import and maintenance. Black slaves were often used as housekeepers and other posts of confidence. Peninsulares, Spaniards born in Spain, were a rather small group in late colonial times, some of them came as government officials and some other as merchants. Their role in high government positions in Chile led to resentment among local criollos. Mixing of different groups

1200-495: The Araucanía in 1550 the Mapuches frequently laid siege to the Spanish cities in the 1550–1598 period. The war was mostly a low intensity conflict . A watershed event happened in 1598. That year, a party of warriors from Purén were returning south from a raid against the surroundings of Chillán . In their way back home, they ambushed Martín García Óñez de Loyola and his troops that were sleeping without any night watch. It

1275-454: The Arauco War , a long period of intermittent war, between Mapuches and Spaniards broke out. A contributing factor was the lack a tradition of forced labour like the Andean mita among the Mapuches who largely refused to serve the Spanish. On the other hand, the Spanish, in particular those from Castile and Extremadura , came from an extremely violent society. Since the Spanish arrival to

1350-774: The Arica–La Paz railway ceased in 1996, but as of 2017 there were proposals to restart services from Arica as a tourist attraction (and for freight). In 2011, Chile announced plans to privatise the Port of Arica . These were opposed by Bolivia, as Arica is its main sea port. Chacalluta International Airport is the main airport in Arica and is located 18.5 km north of the city. LATAM Chile , Amaszonas , JetSmart , and Sky Airline have scheduled commercial service to several Chilean airports. Colonial Chile In Chilean historiography , Colonial Chile (Spanish: La colonia )

1425-772: The Peru–Chile Trench where the Nazca Plate dives beneath the South American Plate , the city is subject to megathrust earthquakes . Chilean forces occupied the region following the War of the Pacific . The Treaty of Ancón in 1883 formally acceded the region to Chilean control. The 1929 Tacna-Arica compromise in the Treaty of Lima subsequently restored Tacna to Peru but Arica remained part of Chile. In 1958,

1500-693: The Seven Years' War , the Valdivian Fort System, a Spanish defensive complex in southern Chile , was rebuilt and reinforced from 1764 onwards. Other vulnerable localities of colonial Chile such as Chiloé Archipelago , Concepción , Juan Fernández Islands and Valparaíso were also made ready for an eventual English attack. With Spain and Great Britain at war again in the 1770s due to the American Revolutionary War , local Spanish authorities in Chile received in 1779

1575-529: The Spanish Empire diverted significant resources to fortify the Chilean coast as consequence of Dutch and English raids. In 1600, local Huilliche joined the Dutch corsair Baltazar de Cordes to attack the Spanish settlement of Castro . While this was a sporadic attack, the Spanish believed the Dutch could attempt to ally the Mapuches and establish a stronghold in southern Chile. The Spanish knew of

SECTION 20

#1732798482872

1650-476: The War of the Pacific . Near to the city center is the Azapa Valley , an oasis where vegetables and, famously, Azapa olives are grown. Economically, it is also an important port for Chilean ore . The semi-tropical latitude, combined with the low humidity and the city's beaches, have made Arica a popular tourist destination. It is also a center of Chilean rail networks with Bolivia . For air travel,

1725-484: The de facto borders of Chile. Spanish agriculture, centered on the hacienda, absorbed most of the scattered and declining indigenous populations of Central Chile. Thus populations that had previously lived apart in their own villages ( pueblo de indios ) from their Spanish masters begun to live in Spanish estancias. In Central Chile the dwindling population of Picunche occurred in parallel to import of Mapuche and Huilliche slaves from Araucanía and Chiloé, as well as

1800-817: The "Junta de Adelanto de Arica" was abolished. The Arica and Parinacota Region was created on October 8, 2007, under Law 20.175, promulgated on March 23, 2007, by President Michelle Bachelet in the city of Arica. In 1984-1985, the Swedish metal company Boliden Mineral AB paid a local mineral extracting company, Promel Ldta., 10 million SEK ($ 1.2 million, $ 3.15 million in 2021 dollars) to receive, treat and confine around 20,000 tonnes of smeltery sludge from Rönnskärsverken in Skellefteå, containing among other things high levels of lead, arsenic, cadmium, mercury and iron and smaller amounts of gold and silver. To earn additional income, Promel planned to extract various substances from

1875-472: The 1687 events were only the detonant factor for exports to start. The Chilean Central Valley , La Serena and Concepción were the districts that came to be involved in cereal export to Peru. It should be pointed out that compared with the 19th century the area cultivated with wheat was very small and production modest. Initially Chilean latifundia could not meet the wheat demand due to a labour shortage, so had to incorporate temporal workers in addition to

1950-480: The 17th century the century of suet (Spanish: Siglo del sebo). Other products exported included dry fruits, mules, wines and minor amounts of copper. Trade with Peru was controlled by merchants from Lima that not only managed also the trade with Chile and Panama but also enjoyed protection by the authorities in Lima. In addition to the exports to coastal Peru Chile also exported products inland to Upper Peru through

2025-411: The 1890s. These long-established groups of Ariqueños have been augmented by various later settlers, mostly other criollos and mestizo Chileans from elsewhere around Chile, but also numerous Europeans, who arrived in the 1900s, including more Spaniards arriving from Spain, as well as Italians, Greeks, British, and French. These arrived at different times during the last century. Some Ariqueños, primarily

2100-548: The 1st electoral district, which includes the entire Arica and Parinacota Region. The commune is represented in the Senate by José Miguel Insulza ( PS , 2018–2026) and José Durana (UDI, 2018–2026) as part of the 1st senatorial constituency (Arica and Parinacota Region and Tarapacá Region ). Arica was one of the four host cities of the 1962 FIFA World Cup , and it was the venue for a Rip Curl Pro Search surfing event that took place from June 20 to July 1, 2007. Arica plays host to

2175-697: The 6600 people that got results back from the Chilean Health Authority, 12.9% showed arsenic in their urine samples. Studies have found very high rates of arsenic related lung cancer, bladder cancer, kidney cancer and skin cancer in the local population. Other health effects include non-cancerous heart and lung diseases and fertility problems such as low birth weights and spontaneous miscarriages. In 2013, 796 Arica residents, including human rights defenders, started legal action in Sweden against Boliden. The Court of Appeal for Northern Norrland held that

2250-528: The Americas the proportion of women among and merchants among Spanish immigrants to Chile were lower and the proportion of non-Spanish immigrants (e.g. French, Irish) higher. In 1812, the Diocese of Concepción conducted a census to the south of the Maule river , however, this did not include the indigenous population – at that time estimated at 8,000 people – nor the inhabitants of the province of Chiloé. It put

2325-614: The Chilean Government established the "Junta de Adelanto de Arica" (Board of Development for Arica), which promulgated many tax incentives for the establishment of industries, such as vehicle assembly plants, a tax-free zone, and a casino, among others. Many car manufacturers opened plants in Arica, such as Citroën , Peugeot , Volvo , Ford and General Motors , which produced the Chevrolet LUV pickup until 2008. In 1975, together with Chile's new open economy policies,

Lauca National Park - Misplaced Pages Continue

2400-533: The Dutch plans to establish themselves at the ruins of Valdivia so they attempted to re-establish Spanish rule there before the Dutch arrived again. The Spanish attempts were thwarted in the 1630s when Mapuches did not allow the Spanish to pass by their territory. The Dutch occupation of Valdivia in 1643 caused great alarm among Spanish authorities and triggered the construction of the Valdivian Fort System that begun in 1645. As consequence of

2475-606: The Mapuche sieges and attacks. With the exception of Chiloé Archipelago all the Chilean territory south of Bío Bío River became free of Spanish rule. As the Spanish Empire faced a direct threat to its heartland in with the Catalan Revolt of 1640, all resources were put to crush the rebellion. With the Arauco War being a lengthy and costly conflict, the Spanish crown ordered its authorities in Chile to sign

2550-471: The abolition. The collapse of the Spanish cities in the south following the battle of Curalaba (1598) meant for the Spaniards the loss of both the main gold districts and the largest indigenous labour sources. After those dramatic years the colony of Chile became concentrated in the central valley which became increasingly populated, explored and economically exploited. Following a tendency common in

2625-422: The arrival of indigenous people from Peru , Tucumán and the transfer of encomienda Huarpes from Cuyo . This mix of disparate populations cohabitating with the Spanish contributed to the loss of indigenous identities. For many years, Spanish-descent settlers and religious orders imported African slaves to the country, which in the early 19th century constituted 1.5% of the national population. Despite this,

2700-598: The border with Peru . The city is the capital of both the Arica Province and the Arica and Parinacota Region. Arica is located at the bend of South America's western coast known as the Arica Bend or Arica Elbow. At the location of the city are two valleys that dissect the Atacama Desert converge: Azapa and Lluta . These valleys provide citrus and olives for export. Arica is an important port for

2775-463: The city with an estimated magnitude of 8.0 to 9.0 Estimates on the death toll vary greatly, some estimates have the number at 25,000 to 70,000 people. Others estimate that the population of Arica was less than 3,000 people and the death toll was around 300. It triggered a tsunami , measurable across the Pacific in Hawaii , Japan and New Zealand. As Arica lies very close to the subduction zone known as

2850-591: The city. Following the collapse of Spanish rule, in 1821, Arica was part of the recently independent Peruvian Republic. The Peruvian Constitution of 1823 regards it as a province of the Department of Arequipa . In 1855, Peru inaugurated the Arica- Tacna railroad (53 km long), one of the first in Latin America. The rail line still functions today. The earthquake of August 13, 1868 struck near

2925-561: The claims of the victims were time limited, and the Swedish Supreme Court declined to hear the case. According to the 2017 census by the National Statistics Institute , Arica spans an area of 4,799.4 km (1,853 sq mi) and has 222,619 inhabitants (110,115 men and 112,504 women). The population grew by 20% (37,351 people) between the 2002 and 2017 censuses. Arica is home to 97.7% of

3000-472: The desert and the Peru-Chile border. The Azapa Valley has developed a year-round agricultural economy due to improvements in irrigation and transportation of its products. The villages that make up the commune are Villa Frontera and San Miguel de Azapa. Some hamlets are Poconchile, Molinas, Sora, Las Maitas and Caleta Vitor. Arica was made famous in 1970 by the spiritual master Oscar Ichazo when he held

3075-409: The emergence of Chile relative to Peru as a wine-making region. Compared to the 16th and 18th centuries, Chilean mining activity in the 17th century was very limited. Chile saw an unprecedented revival of its mining activity in the 18th century with annual gold production rising from 400 to 1000 kg over the course of the century and the silver annual production rising from 1000 to 5000 kg in

Lauca National Park - Misplaced Pages Continue

3150-583: The encomienda. Rich Spanish settlers had over time to face opposition to their mode of production by Jesuits , Spanish officials and indigenous Mapuches . Over the course of the 17th century, the indigenous population of Chile declined making the encomiendas less and less important. Chilean encomenderos who had encomiendas in Cuyo , across the Andes, introduced to Chile indigenous Huarpes who they hired to other Spanish without encomiendas. The encomienda system

3225-466: The extraction of wood had little importance in colonial Chile but Chiloé Archipelago and Valdivia were exceptions. These two areas exported planks to Peru. With the destruction of Valdivia in 1599 Chiloé gained increased importance as the only locale that could supply the Vice royalty of Peru with Fitzroya wood. In 1641 the first large shipment of Fitzroya wood left Chiloé. In the 18th century

3300-401: The former plant and the residential area existed at the time. Residents of the new neighborhood had no knowledge about the contents of the sludge at the site, which became used as a playground by children. In the 1990s, many residents around the former plant began to show symptoms of lead and arsenic poisoning. In 1998, the Chilean authorities ordered Promel to move the toxic waste. Promel moved

3375-552: The frequent maritime winds from the cold waters nearby renders a moderate desert climate. Its mild weather has made Arica known as the "city of the eternal spring" in Chile while its beaches are frequented by Bolivian society. The city was an important port already during Spanish colonial rule . Chile seized the city from Peru in 1880 during the War of the Pacific , being recognized as Chilean by Peru in 1929 . A substantial part of African Chileans live in or trace their origins to Arica. Archaeological findings indicate that Arica

3450-467: The indigenous Amerindians, but also the afro-descendants, share cultural affinities to counterpart populations in neighbouring border areas of Peru, and more distantly, Bolivia. The urban area of Arica has 175,441 inhabitants in an area of 41.89 km . Arica in 2007 had more than 185,000 inhabitants (not counting the inhabitants of the valleys and Lluta Azapa, with that reach almost to the 194.000 inhabitants). The growing city of Arica spreads outward into

3525-502: The initial conquistadores had left their wives in Spain and engaged in adultery in Chile. An example of this is Pedro de Valdivia who held Inés de Suárez as lover. Adultery was explicitly forbidden for Catholics and the Council of Trent (1545–1563) made the climate prone for accusations of adultery. Over the course of the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries marital fidelity increased in Chile. The government of Chile or Nueva Toledo

3600-466: The maritimal access of Bolivia . The Morro de Arica is a tall, nearly-vertical rock formation and hill located in the city, situated approximately 139 meters above sea level. It was the last bulwark of defense for the Peruvian troops who garrisoned the city. It was attacked and captured on 7 June 1880 by Chilean troops, as the final effort of their Campaña del Desierto ( Desert Campaign ) during

3675-546: The national park are the Guallatiri and the Acotango . Lauca features include archaeological sites, lava fields and volcanic calderas. Within the park is located the town of Parinacota with its colonial church. The headwaters of Lauca River are also found within the park and bordering it to the west is Lluta River . The international Chile Route 11 passes through this protected area. It runs from Chile Route 5 in

3750-417: The older term of corregimientos . The partidos were further divided into distritos (districts) akin to Chile's modern communes . In 1786 two intendencias were created: Santiago and Concepción . By the end of the 18th century, Santiago was divided into thirteen partidos . The intendencia of Concepcion had six partidos : Cauquenes, Chillán, Itata, Rere, Laja, and Puchacay. A third intendencia, Coquimbo

3825-466: The outskirts of larger cities while other migrated to the mining districts of Norte Chico . without Chile, Lima would not exist Chile began exporting cereals to Peru in 1687 when Peru was struck by both an earthquake and a stem rust epidemic. Chilean soil and climatic conditions were better for cereal production than those of Peru and Chilean wheat was cheaper and of better quality than Peruvian wheat. According to historians Villalobos et al .

SECTION 50

#1732798482872

3900-627: The permanent staff. Another response by the latifundia to labour shortages was to act as merchants buying wheat produced by independent farmers or from farmers that hired land. In the period 1700 to 1850 this second option was overall more lucrative. The 1687 Peru earthquake also ended a Peruvian wine-boom as the earthquake destroyed wine cellars and mud containers used for wine storage. The gradual decline of Peruvian wine even caused Peru to import some wine from Chile as it happened in 1795 when Lima imported 5.000 troves (Spanish: botijas ) from Concepción in southern Chile. This particular export showed

3975-497: The port of Arica . Trade inside Chile was small since cities were tiny and self-sufficient . Direct trade with Spain over the Straits of Magellan and Buenos Aires begun first in the 18th century constituting primarily an export route for gold, silver and copper from Chilean mining. By the same time Spains trade monopoly with its colonies was successively weakened by smugglers from England, France and United States. Generally,

4050-572: The region is serviced by Chacalluta International Airport . Arica has strong ties with the city of Tacna , Perú . Many people cross the border daily as they travel between the two cities, partially due to the many services (for example, dentists, doctors, etc.) that are cheaper in Perú. Arica is connected to both Tacna and to La Paz via separate railroad lines. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Arica has

4125-499: The same interval. In the 17th century, economy of the Viceroyalty of Peru , Chile's husbandry and agriculture based economy had a peripheral role, contrasting to ore-rich districts like Potosí and the wealthy city of Lima . Husbandry products made up the bulk of Chilean exports to the rest of the viceroyalty. These products included suet , charqui and leather. This trade made Chilean historian Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna label

4200-646: The shipbuilding industry in Valdivia , one of the city's main economic activities, reached its peak building numerous ships including frigates . Other shipyards of Chile included those of Concepción and Chiloé Archipelago . The Chiloé shipyards constructed he bulk of the ships in Chile until the mid-18th century. In 1794 a new shipyard was established the mouth of Maule River (present day Constitución ). Despite some navigators expressing that Valdivia had better conditions than Guayaquil in Ecuador, this last port

4275-534: The slave labour system used in the sugar cane plantations of the Mediterranean islands and Macaronesia . This system of labour successively killed the production base leading to the imposition of the encomienda system by the Spanish Crown in order to prevent excesses. In Chile Spanish settlers managed to continue to exploit indigenous labour under slave like conditions despite the implementation of

4350-444: The sludge to a walled area on the other side of a nearby hill and covered the material with a plastic mat. It was supposed to be a temporary storage site, yet the material remains there to this day. Cleanup of the remaining parts of Sitio F finished as late as 2010. Even after the removal of the sludge, the health effects on the local population continue to be devastating. Almost 8,000 residents were tested for toxic substances in 2010. Of

4425-547: The third and last shipment of sludge arrived to Promel's plant in Arica in July 1985, contact between Boliden and Promel ceased. In the late 1980s, Promel ceased all activities at Sitio F for unknown reasons and abandoned the remaining 10,000 tons of the highly toxic smelting sludge out in the open exposed to the elements. The area surrounding the plant was later used by the local authorities to build state-sponsored social housing aimed at low-income families. No physical barrier between

4500-563: The time, with captured Mapuches being treated as property in the way that they were bought and sold among the Spanish. Legalisation made Spanish slave raiding increasingly common in the Arauco War . Mapuche slaves were exported north to La Serena and Lima . Slavery for Mapuches "caught in war" was abolished in 1683 after decades of legal attempts by the Spanish Crown to suppress it. By that time free mestizo labour had become significantly cheaper than ownership of slaves which made Mario Góngora in 1966 conclude that economic factors were behind

4575-406: The total population at 210,567, of which 86.1% was native Spaniards and 10% were Indian, with a remaining 3.7% of Africans, mulattos , and mestizo descent. Other estimates in the late 17th century indicate that the population reached a maximum total of 152,000, consisting of 72% whites and mestizos, 18% Indians, and 10% blacks and mulattos. Indigenous women in the colonial society were noted, from

SECTION 60

#1732798482872

4650-760: The total population of the region. The population of Arica is made up of various long-established groups in the region, and other more recent arrivals settled at differing times. Among the long-established groups, the oldest consists of indigenous Amerindians , such as the Aymara , whose presence in the region is of several millennia. These are followed by the second oldest, the local colonial-era groups, which includes local mestizos (of mixed Spanish-Amerindian origin), local criollos (whites of colonial Spanish origin), and local afrodescendants of colonial-era slaves. The third oldest group consists of early post-colonial Chinese Chileans who first arrived as miners and rail workers in

4725-813: The vicinity of Arica to Tambo Quemado Pass and provides the main access to the park. The park lies within the Central Andean dry puna ecoregion . Several species of animals and plants can be found in the park. Mammals in the area include vicuñas , llamas , alpacas , guanacos , tarucas , cougars and vizcachas . There are over 140 bird species, making it one of the best national parks for birding in Chile. Those include puna ibis , Andean goose , giant coot , puna tinamou , silvery grebe , crested duck , puna teal , Andean condor and Chilean flamingo . Over 400 species of vascular plants grow in Lauca National Park. The park's vegetation

4800-578: The waste at its processing plant at Sitio F in the outskirts of Arica. The end products were mainly raw arsenic and iron-silver-gold oxides. The first shipment arrived in Arica in August 1984 and the processing of 500 kg test batches in October 1984 gave positive results with oversight from an official from the Chilean Health Authority in Santiago . After the sludge processing had begun at large scale and

4875-459: The whole Spanish America haciendas were formed as the economy moved away from mining and into agriculture and husbandry. In the 1650–1800 period, the Chilean lower classes grew considerably in size. To deal with the poor and landless population a policy of founding cities and granting lands in their surroundings was implemented. From 1730 to 1820 a large number of farmers settled in the outskirts of old cities or formed new cities. Settling as

4950-486: Was a "poor and dangerous" place. The Chilean colonial society was based on a caste system . Local of criollos (American-born Spaniards) enjoyed privileges such as the ownership of encomiendas (Indian labour jurisdictions). Moreover, they were allowed to access some public charges like corregidor or alférez . Mestizos initially made up a small group. In time, they made up the bulk of Chilean society, becoming more numerous than indigenous peoples. Mestizos were not

5025-543: Was a response to a long-term population decline among indigenous peoples. Slavery was a legal labour form in Chile from 1536 to 1823 but it was never the dominant way of arranging labour. Slavery of black people bloomed from 1580 to 1660. The end of the boom is associated to the Portuguese Restoration War and Portugal's loss of several slave trading posts in Africa. Formal slavery of indigenous people

5100-549: Was abolished in 1782 in Chiloé , in 1789 in the rest of Chile and in 1791 in the whole Spanish Empire. The Spanish were familiar with the institution of slavery. In the Mediterranean islands and Macaronesia the Spanish and Portuguese had a slave labour system used in sugar cane plantations. In the Iberian Peninsula slavery was declining did still occur in the 16th century. The import of black slaves into Chile

5175-561: Was created by Emperor Charles V in 1534 and placed under the governorship of Diego de Almagro . It ran south from 14° S to 25° S latitude, as far south as present-day Taltal . Capitanía General de Chile , or Gobernación de Chile , remained a colony of the Spanish Empire until 1818 when it declared itself independent. In the mid Eighteenth Century, the Bourbon administrative reforms divided Chile into intendencias (provinces) and further into partidos (counties) which were also known by

5250-481: Was created in 1810. The area of Chiloé may be considered a fourth intendencia, but instead of reporting to the governor/capitain it reported directly to the viceroy, beginning in 1777. The intendencia , partido and distrito system was replaced in 1822 with departamentos , distritos and cabildos . Beyond subsistence, the 16th century economy of Chile was oriented towards large-scale production. Spanish colonizers used large amounts of indigenous labour following

5325-548: Was inhabited by different native groups dating back 10,000 years. These people are the first known culture to mummify their dead, predating the Egyptians by 2,000 years, and their mummies have been discovered as recently as 2004 and buried as shallow as <1 meter beneath the city's surface. Spaniards settled the land under captain Lucas Martinez de Begazo in 1541, and in 1570, the area was grandly retitled as "La Muy Ilustre y Real Ciudad San Marcos de Arica" (the very illustrious and royal city of San Marcos of Arica). By 1545, Arica

5400-488: Was not uncommon although marriage between members of the different groups was rare. During late colonial times, new migration pulses took off leading to large numbers of Basque people settling in Chile mingling with landowning criollos, forming a new upper class. Scholar Luis Thayer Ojeda estimates that during the 17th and 18th centuries fully 45% of all immigrants in Chile were Basques. Compared to other Spanish colonies in

5475-416: Was prohibited by the Spanish Crown. The 1598–1604 Mapuche uprising that ended with the Destruction of the Seven Cities made the Spanish in 1608 declare slavery legal for those Mapuches caught in war. Rebelling Mapuches were considered Christian apostates and could therefore be enslaved according to the church teachings of the day. This legal change formalized Mapuche slavery that was already occurring at

5550-469: Was the chief shipyard of the Spanish Empire in the Pacific. In 1550, Pedro de Valdivia, who aimed to control all of Chile to the Straits of Magellan , traveled southward to conquer Mapuche territory. Between 1550 and 1553 the Spanish founded several cities in Mapuche lands including Concepción , Valdivia , Imperial , Villarrica and Angol . The Spanish did also establish the forts of Arauco , Purén and Tucapel . Following this initial conquest,

5625-525: Was the main export entrepot for Bolivian silver coming down from Potosí , which then possessed the world's largest silver mine . Arica thus held a crucial role as one of the leading ports of the Spanish Empire . These enviable riches made Arica the target for pirates , buccaneers , and privateers , among whom Francis Drake , Thomas Cavendish , Richard Hawkins , Joris van Spilbergen , John Watling , Baltazar de Cordes , Bartholomew Sharp , William Dampier , and John Clipperton all took part in looting

#871128