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67-526: The region in and around Lava Beds National Monument lies at the junction of the Sierra-Klamath, Cascade, and Great Basin physiographic provinces . The monument was established as a national monument on November 21, 1925, and includes more than 46,000 acres (190 km). Lava Beds National Monument has numerous lava tubes , with 27 having marked entrances and developed trails for public access and exploration. The monument also offers trails through

134-624: A combined U.S. Army command of 225 soldiers supported by 104 Oregon and California volunteers were defeated by 51 Modoc warriors at the First Battle of the Stronghold . A total of 35 Whites were killed and many wounded while the Modoc suffered no deaths or serious injuries. The Second Battle of the Stronghold took place on April 15–17. After getting additional reinforcements, the US force captured

201-482: A crevice that had been left unguarded while US troops were moved from one position to another in preparation for the final assault on the stronghold. Over the next few weeks, most of the band were caught. The last group, which was made up of Captain Jack, John Schonchin, Black Jim, and Boston Charley, were finally captured on June 1, 1873. After being convicted of murdering General Edward Canby and Reverend Eleazer Thomas at

268-557: A fault scarp, was created as the region stretched and a block of earth dropped down along this fault (see Basin and Range Province ). The tuff layer on top of Gillem Bluff is 2,000,000 years old, indicating the rock layers beneath are even older. The oldest lava flow from the Medicine Lake Volcano within the monument is the Basalt of Hovey Point, near Captain Jack's Stronghold , which is 450,000 years old. Petroglyph Point

335-587: A federally protected status. He would photograph interiors of each cave as part of an effort to persuade people to protect the area. In a letter written in 1923, Howard urged United States Forest Service officials, state legislators, and community leaders to declare the caves a park; "This is the last of Park sites in the States, and is far Superior to all the others as it embraces enough phenomena to keep one busy for at least Three Month Sight Seeing with Cap Jack’s Stronghold to study on leisure hours." Howard's campaign

402-854: A lack of surface water, amphibian presence in the monument is limited. The most common species found in the monument is the Pacific tree frog ( Pseudacris regilla ). This species is also found in the biologically rich cave entrances in the monument. Reptile species found in the monument include the northern sagebrush lizard ( Sceloporus graciosus graciosus ), Great Basin fence lizard ( Sceloporus occidentalis biseriatus ), western skink ( Eumeces skiltonianus skiltonianus ), Rocky Mountain rubber boa ( Charina bottae utahensis ), gopher snake ( Pituophis melanoleucus ), desert night snake ( Hypsiglena torquata deserticola ), and western rattlesnake ( Crotalus viridis ). Key animal species by habitat : Lava Beds National Monument includes Petroglyph Point , one of

469-772: A language in the Numic language group. To close a 1951 Indian Claims Commission case, the Western Shoshone Claims Distribution Act of 2004 established the United States payment of $ 117 million to the Great Basin tribe for the acquisition of 39,000 square miles (100,000 km ). European exploration of the Great Basin occurred during the 18th century Spanish colonization of the Americas . The first immigrant American to cross

536-426: A wide range of wildlife. The numerous coyotes and foxes, as well as raptors , feed on rodents such as the jackrabbit and kangaroo rat . The kangaroo rat is especially adapted to waterless environments because it does not need to drink. It obtains water as a byproduct of the oxidation of nutrients in the seeds it eats. Many raptors are seen in the wilderness area, with 24 species of hawks identified. The monument

603-525: Is a geographic division of the Basin and Range Province defined by Nevin Fenneman in 1931. The United States Geological Survey adapted Fenneman's scheme in their Physiographic division of the United States . The "section" is somewhat larger than the hydrographic definition. The Great Basin culture area , or indigenous peoples of the Great Basin , is a cultural classification of indigenous peoples of

670-542: Is located on the Pacific Flyway , and the bald eagle winters in the northern portion of the wilderness area. The National Park Service manages the Lava Beds wilderness area and has several restrictions in place. Camping is prohibited near cave entrances or trails. Open campfires may be prohibited during very hot and dry weather. The Lava Beds National Monument has 13 hiking trails, all of which cross or enter

737-551: Is nicknamed "The Loneliest Road in America", and Nevada State Route 375 is designated the "Extraterrestrial Highway". The Great Basin is traversed by several rail lines including the Union Pacific Railroad 's Overland Route (Union Pacific Railroad) through Reno and Ogden , Feather River Route , Central Corridor and Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad . There has been a succession of indigenous peoples of

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804-471: Is part of the Great Basin's central Lahontan subregion. The hydrographic Great Basin contains multiple deserts and ecoregions , each with its own distinctive set of flora and fauna. The ecological boundaries and divisions in the Great Basin are unclear. The Great Basin overlaps four different deserts: portions of the hot Mojave and Colorado (a region within the Sonoran Desert ) Deserts to

871-592: Is slightly misleading; the region comprises many small basins. The Great Salt Lake , Pyramid Lake , and the Humboldt Sink are a few of the "drains" in the Great Basin. The Salton Sink is another closed basin within the Great Basin. The Great Basin Divide separates the Great Basin from the watersheds draining to the Pacific Ocean. The southernmost portion of the Great Basin is the watershed area of

938-499: Is smooth, often ropy and is the most common type of lava in Lava Beds. ʻAʻā is formed when pahoehoe cools and loses some of its gases . ʻAʻā is rough, sharp, and jagged; an excellent example is the Devil's Homestead lava flow, which originated at Fleener Chimneys. Most of the rest of the lava in the monument is andesitic . Pumice , a type of rhyolitic lava, also is found covering the monument; this rained down around 900 years ago during

1005-593: Is the largest area of contiguous endorheic watersheds , those with no outlets to the ocean, in North America . It spans nearly all of Nevada , much of Utah , and portions of California , Idaho , Oregon , Wyoming , and Baja California . It is noted for both its arid climate and the basin and range topography that varies from the North American low point at Badwater Basin in Death Valley to

1072-522: Is the result of extension and thinning of the lithosphere , which is composed of crust and upper mantle . Extensional environments like the Basin and Range are characterized by listric normal faulting , or faults that level out with depth. Opposing normal faults link at depth producing a horst and graben geometry, where horst refers to the upthrown fault block and graben to the down dropped fault block. Sediment build-up over thousands of years filled

1139-519: Is younger than the Mammoth Crater flows. Even younger were eruptions from Fleener Chimneys, such as the Devil's Homestead flow, 10,500 years ago, and Black Crater 3,025 years ago. About 1,110 years ago, plus or minus 60 years, the Callahan flow was produced by an eruption from Cinder Butte. Though Cinder Butte is just outside the boundary of the monument, the Callahan flow is in Lava Beds and is

1206-671: The Bureau of Land Management into National Park Service management. These two parcels adjoin the Petroglyph Point Unit of the monument. The Lava Beds National Wilderness is a 28,460-acre (11,520 ha) wilderness area within the Lava Beds National Monument. It was designated by the US Congress on October 13, 1972, with passage of Public Law 92-493. The wilderness protects more than half of

1273-599: The Cui-ui sucker fish (endangered 1967) and the Lahontan cutthroat trout (threatened 1970). Large invertebrates include tarantulas (genus Aphonopelma ) and Mormon crickets . Exotic species, including chukar , grey partridge , and Himalayan snowcock , have been successfully introduced to the Great Basin, although the latter has only thrived in the Ruby Mountains . Cheatgrass , an invasive species which

1340-702: The Great Basin fence lizard , longnose leopard lizard and horned lizard are common, especially in lower elevations. Rattlesnakes and gopher snakes are also present. The Inyo Mountains salamander is endangered. Shorebirds such as phalaropes and curlews can be found in wet areas. American white pelicans are common at Pyramid Lake . Golden eagles are also very common in the Great Basin. Mourning dove , western meadowlark , black-billed magpie , and common raven are other common bird species. Two endangered species of fish are found in Pyramid Lake:

1407-745: The Gulf of Mexico or the Pacific Ocean . The region is bounded by the Wasatch Mountains to the east, the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges to the west, and the Snake River Basin to the north. The south rim is less distinct. The Great Basin includes most of Nevada , half of Utah , substantial portions of Oregon and California , and small areas of Idaho , Wyoming , and Baja California, Mexico . The term "Great Basin"

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1474-698: The Laguna Salada . The Great Basin's longest and largest river is the Bear River of 350 mi (560 km), and the largest single watershed is the Humboldt River drainage of roughly 17,000 sq mi (44,000 km ). Most Great Basin precipitation is snow, and the precipitation that neither evaporates nor is extracted for human use will sink into groundwater aquifers , while evaporation of collected water occurs from geographic sinks . Lake Tahoe , North America's largest alpine lake ,

1541-468: The Medicine Lake shield volcano have created a rugged landscape punctuated by these many landforms of volcanism . Cinder cones are formed when magma is under great pressure. It is released in a fountain of lava, blown into the air from a central vent. The lava cools as it falls, forming cinders that pile up around the vent. When the pressure has been relieved, the rest of the lava flows from

1608-834: The National Park Service , its boundaries approximate the hydrographic Great Basin but exclude the southern " panhandle ". The Great Basin Province was defined by botanist Armen Takhtajan to extend well beyond the boundaries of the hydrographically defined Great Basin: it includes the Snake River Plain , the Colorado Plateau , the Uinta Basin , and parts of Arizona north of the Mogollon Rim . The Great Basin physiographic section

1675-602: The United States Army which outnumbered them by as much as 10 to 1 for several months. The Modoc retreated to this area because it was part of their traditional territory where they had hunted and lived before the start of the California genocide , when agents of the United States government assisted by private citizens began the systematic killing of thousands of indigenous peoples of California in

1742-661: The Americas and a cultural region located between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. The culture area covers approximately 400,000 sq mi (1,000,000 km ), or just less than twice the area of the hydrographic Great Basin. The hydrographic Great Basin is a 209,162-square-mile (541,730 km ) area that once drained internally. All precipitation in the region evaporated, sank underground or flowed into lakes (mostly saline). As observed by Fremont, creeks, streams, or rivers find no outlet to either

1809-535: The Basin and Range Province contains the Great Basin, but extends into eastern Oregon , southern Idaho , and the Colorado River watershed and the northwest corner of Arizona ). The Basin and Range region is the product of geological forces stretching the Earth's crust, creating many north–south trending mountain ranges. These ranges are separated by flat valleys or basins. These hundreds of ranges make Nevada

1876-758: The Big Crack, extends along the northeastern boundary of the monument. The high elevation, semi-arid desert environment of Lava Beds National Monument receives an average of 14.22 in (36 cm) of annual precipitation, including 43.2 in (110 cm) of snowfall. The climate is characterized by warm, dry summers and cold, moderately snowy winters. The monthly daily average temperature ranges from 31.8 °F (−0.1 °C) in December to 68.92 °F (20.5 °C) in July; there are an average of 23.8 days with 90 °F (32 °C)+ highs annually, and 8.4 days where

1943-564: The Fremont built small villages and grew crops like corn and squash. Seven hundred years ago, the Shoshone inhabited the area after the Fremont. They were hunter-gathers and lived in temporary homes to be able to follow animal herds and collect plants. Now, Shoshone descendants live in nearby areas. Other tribes in the area included the Ute , Mono , and Northern Paiute . All of the tribes speak

2010-466: The Great Basin . Paleo-Indian habitation by the Great Basin tribes began as early as 10,000 B.C. . Archaeological evidence of habitation sites along the shore of Lake Lahontan date from the end of the ice age when its shoreline was approximately 500 feet (150 m) higher along the sides of the surrounding mountains. The Paleo-Indians were mainly hunters and hunted bison, the extinct mammoth, and extinct ground sloth. For housing, since they followed

2077-649: The Great Basin from the Sierra Nevada was Jedediah Strong Smith in 1827. Peter Skene Ogden of the British Hudson's Bay Company explored the Great Salt Lake and Humboldt River regions in the late 1820s, following the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada to the Gulf of California. Benjamin Bonneville explored the northeast portion during an 1832 expedition . The United States had acquired claims to

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2144-745: The Great Basin into three ecoregions roughly according to latitude: the Northern Basin and Range ecoregion , the Central Basin and Range ecoregion , and the Mojave Basin and Range ecoregion . Great Basin wildlife includes pronghorn , mule deer , mountain lion , and lagomorphs such as black-tailed jackrabbit and desert cottontail and the coyotes that prey on them. Packrats , kangaroo rats and other small rodents are also common, and are predominantly nocturnal. Elk and bighorn sheep are present but uncommon. Small lizards such as

2211-730: The Klamath Reservation in Oregon, to which they had been removed , as European Americans wanted their lands. The Modoc took refuge in a natural lava fortress that was later named Captain Jack's Stronghold . From this defensive base, a group of 53 fighting men and their families held off US Army forces, amounting to ten times the Modocs' population, for five months. In April 1873, at a peace commission meeting, Captain Jack killed General Edward Canby while associates killed Reverend Eleazer Smith and wounded two other commissioners. Canby

2278-542: The Monument include the Cooper's hawk ( Accipiter cooperii ), fringed myotis ( Myotis thysanodes ), long-eared myotis ( Myotis evotis ), long-legged myotis ( Myotis volans ), pallid bat ( Antrozous pallidus ), silver-haired bat ( Lasionycteris noctivigans ), Townsends big-eared bat ( Corynorhinus townsendii ), western small-footed myotis ( Myotis ciliolabrum ), and American badger ( Taxidea taxus ). Because of

2345-615: The animals they were hunting, they had no permanent villages. The next group to live in the area was the Great Basin Desert Archaic, from approximately 9,000 to 1,500 years ago. They hunted animals like mule deer and antelope and gathered onions, wild rye, and pinyon pine nuts. Then, from 1,500 to 700 years ago, the Fremont lived in the area. Unlike the Paleo-Indians, who moved around to follow bison herds,

2412-666: The backcountry. The most popular trails are short, but lead to a number of historic sites as to several geological areas within the Lava Beds Wilderness. The long trails are mostly in designated wilderness areas. These trails are primarily associated with park attractions, especially the Lava Beds geological wilderness, and are sometimes out-and-back day hikes, and in many cases are improved boardwalks and supported with interpretive signs and exhibits. Great Basin The Great Basin ( Spanish : Gran Cuenca )

2479-604: The base of the cone. Cinder cones are typically monogenetic . The cinder cones of Hippo Butte, Three Sisters, Juniper Butte, and Crescent Butte are all older than the Mammoth and Modoc Crater flows, more than 30,000–40,000 years old. Eagle Nest Butte and Bearpaw Butte are 114,000 years old. Schonchin Butte cinder cone and the andesitic flow from its base were formed around 62,000 years ago. The flow that formed Valentine Cave erupted 10,850 years ago. An eruption that formed The Castles

2546-488: The basin experiences a semi-arid or arid climate with warm summers and cold winters. However, some of the mountainous areas in the basin are high enough in elevation to experience an alpine climate . Due to the region's altitude and aridity, most areas in the Great Basin experience a substantial diurnal temperature variation . Captain Jack%27s Stronghold Captain Jack's Stronghold

2613-687: The down-faulted basins between ranges and created relatively flat lacustrine plains from Pleistocene lake beds of the Great Basin. For example, after forming about 32,000 years ago , Lake Bonneville overflowed about 14,500 years ago in the Bonneville Flood through Red Rock Pass and lowered to the "Provo Lake" level (the Great Salt Lake , Utah Lake , Sevier Lake , Rush Lake , and Little Salt Lake remain). Lake Lahontan , Lake Manly , and Lake Mojave were similar Pleistocene lakes. The Great Basin physiographic section of

2680-733: The eastern regions of the 1848 California Gold Rush , with its immigrants crossing the Great Basin on the California Trail along Nevada's Humboldt River to Carson Pass in the Sierras. The Oregon Territory was established in 1848 and the Utah Territory in 1850. In 1869 the First transcontinental railroad was completed at Promontory Summit in the Great Basin. Around 1902, the San Pedro, Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad

2747-402: The elevation increases, the temperature decreases and precipitation increases. Because of this, forests can occur at higher elevations. Utah juniper / single-leaf pinyon (southern regions) and mountain mahogany (northern regions) form open pinyon-juniper woodland on the slopes of most ranges. Stands of limber pine and Great Basin bristlecone pine ( Pinus longaeva ) can be found in some of

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2814-540: The eruption of Glass Mountain . The flows from Mammoth and Modoc Craters comprise about two-thirds of the lava in the monument. Over 30 separate lava flows located in the park range in age from 2,000,000 years BP to 1,110 years BP. Some of the major lava flows within Lava Beds National Monument include the Callahan Flow; Schonchin Flow; Mammoth Crater Flow; Modoc Crater Flow; and Devil's Homestead Flow. Gillem Bluff,

2881-654: The high Great Basin xeric shrubland desert landscape and the volcanic field . In 1872 and 1873, the area was the site of the Modoc War , involving a band led by Kintpuash (also known as Captain Jack). The area of Captain Jack's Stronghold was named in his honor. Lava Beds National Monument is geologically significant because of its wide variety of volcanic formations, including lava tubes, fumaroles , cinder cones , spatter cones , pit craters , hornitos , maars , lava flows , and volcanic fields . Volcanic eruptions on

2948-515: The high does not rise above freezing. The average window for freezing temperatures is September 20 thru June 6. The lava tube collapse systems and lava outcrops support a great diversity of plant life, from an impressive variety of lichens and mosses to plants such as desert sweet ( Chamaebatiaria millefolium ), the aromatic purple desert sage ( Salvia dorrii carnosa ) and yellow blazing star ( Mentzelia laevicaulis ). An impressive variety of fern species are present in cave entrances including

3015-447: The higher ranges. In riparian areas with dependable water cottonwoods ( Populus fremontii ) and quaking aspen ( Populus tremuloides ) groves exist. Because the forest ecosystem is distinct from a typical desert, some authorities, such as the World Wildlife Fund , separate the mountains of the Great Basin desert into their own ecoregion: the Great Basin montane forests . Many rare and endemic species occur in this ecoregion, because

3082-526: The highest point of the contiguous United States , less than 100 miles (160 km) away at the summit of Mount Whitney . The region spans several physiographic divisions, biomes , ecoregions , and deserts . The term "Great Basin" is applied to hydrographic , biological , floristic , physiographic, topographic , and ethnographic geographic areas. The name was originally coined by John C. Frémont , who, based on information gleaned from Joseph R. Walker as well as his own travels, recognized

3149-427: The hydrographic nature of the landform as "having no connection to the ocean". The hydrographic definition is the most commonly used, and is the only one with a definitive border. The other definitions yield not only different geographical boundaries of "Great Basin" regions but regional borders that vary from source to source. The Great Basin Desert is defined by plant and animal communities, and, according to

3216-473: The individual mountain ranges are isolated from each other. During the Last Glacial Period , the Great Basin was wetter. As it dried during the Holocene epoch, some species retreated to the higher isolated mountains and have high genetic diversity. Other authorities divide the Great Basin into different ecoregions, depending on their own criteria. Armen Takhtajan defined the "Great Basin floristic province". The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency divides

3283-405: The land was J. D. Howard , a miller residing in Klamath Falls. He explored the area intimately beginning in 1917, naming geographic features and making caves accessible. With the area growing attention, he noticed visitors beginning to damage the cave features. Howard's perceived need to preserve the lava tubes and the area's other geological features was a major reason why he vigorously pushed for

3350-563: The largest concentration of lava tubes in North America. One has electrical lighting; the others are illuminated by ceiling collapse portals or require flashlights, available on loan. Notable examples in the park include Catacombs Cave , Merrill Cave , Mushpot Cave , and Valentine Cave . A series of small earthquakes in late 1988 has been attributed to subsidence in the caldera . North-northeast trending ground cracks, as well as north-northeast trending vent series show relationships between tectonism and volcanism. One notable ground crack,

3417-437: The largest panels of Native American rock art in the United States. The region was historically occupied by the Modoc people . The Lava Beds National Monument Archeological District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in March 1991. During the Modoc War of 1872–1873, warriors of a band led by Kintpuash (Captain Jack) used the lava beds as a defensive stronghold to resist being captured and returned to

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3484-489: The mid-19th century. Many of the brutal acts carried out against native populations were encouraged, tolerated, and perpetuated by state authorities and militias. After the Battle of Lost River in November 1872, Captain Jack's band settled into the area around stronghold for several months. The Modoc used the lava beds as a defensive stronghold because of the rough terrain, rocks that could be used in fortification, and irregular pathways to evade pursuers. On January 17, 1873

3551-415: The most mountainous state in the country. The Great Basin's two most populous metropolitan areas are the Reno-Sparks metropolitan area to the west and the Wasatch Front to the east (with the latter being significantly more populous than the former). The region between these two areas is sparsely populated, but includes the smaller cities of Elko , Ely , Wendover , West Wendover , and Winnemucca . To

3618-441: The national monument in two separate eastern and western units. The larger eastern unit contains the extensive Schonchin lava flow on the east side of the monument. The western unit covers the monument's area within the transition zone of the Cascade Range's montane southern end and the arid Modoc Plateau ecosystems. The different soil types creates plant community diversity in the wilderness area, providing various habitats for

3685-642: The north are; in California Susanville , in Oregon Burns and Hines , in Idaho Malad and in Wyoming Evanston . To the south are Cedar City , Tonopah , and Bishop and the very southern area of the basin has the communities of Pahrump , Palmdale , Victorville , and Palm Springs . Interstate Highways traversing the Great Basin are Interstate 80 (I-80) and I-15 , and I-70 and I-84 have their respective endpoints within its boundaries. Other major roadways are U.S. Route 6 (US 6), US 50 , US 93 , US 95 and US 395 . The section of US 50 between Delta, Utah , and Fallon, Nevada ,

3752-429: The south, and the cold Great Basin and Oregon High Deserts in the north. The deserts can be distinguished by their plants: the Joshua tree and creosote bush occur in the hot deserts, while the cold deserts have neither. The cold deserts are generally higher than the hot and have more even spread of precipitation throughout the year. The climate and flora of the Great Basin are strongly dependent on elevation; as

3819-610: The spreading wood fern ( Dryopteris expansa ) and the western swordfern ( Polystichum munitum ). These species are well outside of their normal range, which is 90–125 mi (145–201 km) west on the northern California coastline. Despite harsh, semi-arid conditions, native wildlife has adapted to the environmental constraints present in the region. There are no terrestrial water resources in Lava Beds National Monument. Some animals obtain water from caves , while others fly about twenty km (12 miles) north to Tule Lake . Federal and state animal species of special concern in

3886-436: The stronghold's spring as well as cutting off access to Tule Lake . The attack resulted in the death of one officer and six enlisted men while thirteen soldiers were wounded. Reportedly the only Modoc casualty was a boy who was killed when a cannonball he tried to open with an axe, exploded and several Modoc women who died from sickness. After being cut off from their only water sources, the Modoc escaped on April 17. They used

3953-488: The territory north of the 42nd parallel via the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty with Spain and 1846 Oregon Treaty with Britain. The US gained claims to most of the rest of the Great Basin via the 1848 Mexican Cession . The first non-indigenous settlement was in 1847 in the Great Salt Lake Valley, leading to the first American religious settlement effort of the Mormon provisional State of Deseret in 1849 in present-day Utah and northern Nevada. Later settlements were connected with

4020-500: The top cooled and crusted over, insulating the rest of the lava and forming lava tubes . Lavacicles on the ceiling of a lava tube were produced as the level of lava in the tube retreated and the viscous lava on the ceiling dripped as it cooled. Dripstone was created when lava splashed on the inside walls of the tubes. The leaching of minerals from pumice gravel, soils , and overlying rock provides for deposition of secondary speleothems in lava tubes. Lava Beds National Monument has

4087-409: The youngest flow in the monument. Spatter cones are built out of thicker lava. The lava is thrown out of the vent and builds, layer by layer, a chimney surrounding the vent. Fleener Chimneys and Black Crater are examples of spatter cones. Roughly ninety percent of the lava in the Lava Beds Monument is basaltic . There are primarily two kinds of basaltic lava flows: pahoehoe and ʻaʻā . Pahoehoe

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4154-401: Was a holdout of the Modoc people that is located between Tulelake and Canby, California . The stronghold, which is now part of Lava Beds National Monument , is named for Native American chief Kintpuash who was also known as Captain Jack. During the Modoc War in 1873, Captain Jack along with 53 Modoc warriors, and numerous women and children in a band of 160, managed to hold out against

4221-402: Was constructed in the lower basin and Mojave Desert for California-Nevada rail service to Las Vegas, Nevada. The climate varies throughout the Great Basin by elevation, latitude, and other factors. Higher elevations tend to be cooler and receive more precipitation. The western areas of the basin tend to be drier than the eastern areas because of the rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada . Most of

4288-431: Was created about 275,000 years ago when cinders erupted through the shallow water of Tule Lake; violent explosions of ash and steam formed layers upon layers of tuff. The caldera is thought to have formed by subsidence, during which basalt and andesite were erupted up on the slopes. Lava flows dated to about 30,000–40,000 years ago formed most of the lava tubes in the monument. As the hot basaltic lava flowed downhill,

4355-428: Was successful, as Lava Beds National Monument was signed into existence by President Calvin Coolidge on November 21, 1925. It was created under the auspices of the 1906 Antiquities Act . The only expansion in the modern era occurred in 2011 when the monument expanded by roughly 132 acres (53 ha). An administrative transfer brought two parcels of land which were previously managed by the Bureau of Reclamation and

4422-417: Was the only casualty of the Indian Wars who had the rank of general at the time of his death. The Modoc mistakenly thought the Americans would leave if their leaders were killed. Instead Army reinforcements were brought in and the Modoc were eventually forced to surrender. Kintpuash and his associates were convicted of war crimes for the murders, and executed by hanging at Fort Klamath . An early steward for

4489-422: Was unintentionally introduced, forms a critical portion of their diets. Feral horses ( mustangs ) and feral burros are highly reproductive, and ecosystem-controversial, alien species. Most of the Great Basin is open range and domestic cattle and sheep are widespread. The Great Basin includes valleys, basins, lakes and mountain ranges of the Basin and Range Province . The basin and range topography

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