126-627: The Murray River (in South Australia: River Murray ) ( Ngarrindjeri : Millewa , Yorta Yorta : Dhungala ( Tongala )) is a river in Southeastern Australia . It is Australia's longest river at 2,508 km (1,558 mi) extent. Its tributaries include five of the next six longest rivers of Australia (the Murrumbidgee , Darling , Lachlan , Warrego and Paroo Rivers ). Together with that of
252-561: A broad, scooped head, and a large mouth lined with pads of very small, needle-like teeth. The jaws of the Murray cod are equal, or the lower jaw protrudes slightly. The spiny dorsal fin of Murray cod is moderate to low in height and is partially separated by a notch from the high, rounded soft dorsal fin. Soft dorsal, anal, and caudal (tail) fins are all large and rounded, and are dusky grey or black with distinct white edges. The large, rounded pectoral fins are usually similar in colour to
378-510: A capacity of 20 people. There was also a cabin. The minister onboard, Rev. William Bussell, doubled as captain. On 16 August 1898, Etona arrived at Renmark , where the Bishop of Adelaide , Rev. Dr. John Harmer , held services the following Sunday with the assistance of Rev H M Wylie. In September of the same year, the service due in Holder on the 18th was suspended due to the vessel grounding on
504-529: A closed season is in place for the spring spawning period, during which anglers are not allowed to target Murray cod, even on a catch and release basis. The Murray River and southern tributaries originally displayed a pattern of high flows in winter, high flows and floods in spring, and low flows in summer and autumn. The breeding of Murray cod and other Murray-Darling native fish was adapted to these natural flow patterns. River regulation for irrigation has reversed these natural flow patterns, with negative effects on
630-411: A depth of 2–3 metres (6.6–9.8 ft), are selected. The female lays the large adhesive eggs as a mat on the spawning surface, which the male fertilises. The female then leaves the spawning site. The male remains to guard the eggs during incubation, which takes six to 10 days (depending on water temperature), and to guard the hatched larvae for a further week or so until they disperse. Larvae disperse from
756-514: A different design, being dragged out of the river during high flow, rather than lifted out. Ngarrindjeri language Ngarrindjeri , also written Narrinyeri , Ngarinyeri and other variants, is the language of the Ngarrindjeri and related peoples of southern South Australia . Five dialects have been distinguished by a 2002 study: Warki , Tanganekald , Ramindjeri , Portaulun and Yaraldi (or Yaralde Tingar ). Ngarrindjerri
882-487: A high degree of parental care for their eggs , which are spawned in the spring and are generally laid in hollow logs or on other hard surfaces. Murray cod are a popular angling target and aquaculture species. Often available through the aquarium trade, they are also a popular aquarium species in Australia. The Murray cod is a large grouper -like fish with a deep, elongated body that is round in cross section. It has
1008-588: A larger role in the survival and recruitment of Murray cod larvae than first thought; competition from extremely large numbers of invasive carp larvae are negatively affecting the survival and recruitment of Murray cod larvae to a much greater degree than first thought; and that decades of overfishing is playing a far larger role in the current state of Murray cod stocks, through depletion of spawning adults, than first thought. These findings do not mean that river regulation and water extraction have not had adverse effects on fish stocks. Rather, river regulation has been
1134-473: A list of birds and mammals . George "Chinese" Morrison , then aged 18, navigated the river by canoe from Wodonga to its mouth, in 65 days, completing the 1,555-mile (2,503 km) journey in January 1881. Shipping cannot enter the Murray from the sea because it does not have an estuary . However, in the 19th century the river supported a substantial commercial trade using shallow-draft paddle steamers ,
1260-422: A major factor in the decline of Murray cod and other native fish. Thermal pollution is also a major problem, evidence indicates strong Murray cod recruitment events (which may be important for sustaining Murray cod populations over the long term) can result from spring flooding, and the health of Australian lowland river ecosystems generally rely on periodic spring flooding. Also, due to the regulation of most of
1386-402: A number of both historic paddle steamers and newer boats offering cruises ranging from half an hour to five days. The Murray River has been a significant barrier to land-based travel and trade. Many of the ports for transport of goods along the Murray have also developed as places to cross the river, either by bridge or ferry. The first bridge to cross the Murray, which was built in 1869, is in
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#17327733959591512-414: A number of causes, including severe overfishing, river regulation, and habitat degradation and are now a listed threatened species. However, they once inhabited almost the entire Murray-Darling basin , Australia's largest river system, in very great numbers. A long-lived fish, adult Murray cod are carnivorous and eat crustaceans (shrimp, yabbies, crays), fish and freshwater mussels. The species exhibits
1638-573: A primarily lowland species and a specialist upland species is present. Murray cod, like a number of other Murray-Darling native fish species, have also managed to cross the Great Dividing Range at least once through natural river capture events, leading to several species and subspecies of coastal cod. The best known are eastern freshwater cod of the Clarence River system in northern New South Wales , and Mary River cod of
1764-460: A recent, very large 33-kg specimen yielded an egg count of 110,000 viable eggs. Egg counts in female Murray cod of all sizes are relatively low compared to many fish species. Murray cod spawn in spring, cued by rising water temperatures and increasing photoperiod (daylight length). Initially, fish biologists working with Murray cod considered spring floods and temperatures of 20–21 °C (68–70 °F) to be necessary and that spring flooding
1890-424: A sandbank. During its year of launch, the boiler of Etona gave way, being replaced at a cost of £87. The Murray was plagued by "snags", fallen trees submerged in the water, and considerable efforts were made to clear the river of these threats to shipping by using barges equipped with steam-driven winches . In recent times, efforts have been made to restore many of these snags by placing dead gum trees back into
2016-559: A series of barrages was built near the Murray Mouth to stop seawater entering the lower part of the river during low flow periods. They are the Goolwa Barrage, with a length of 632 metres (2,073 ft); Mundoo Channel Barragel 800 metres (2,600 ft); Boundary Creek Barragel 243 metres (797 ft); Ewe Island Barrage, 853 metres (2,799 ft); and Tauwitchere Barrage, 3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi). These dams inverted
2142-521: A similar number of barges were working the river in season. River transport began to decline once the railways touched the Murray at numerous points. The unreliable levels made it impossible for boats to compete with the rail and later road transport . However, the river still carries pleasure boats along its entire length. Today, most traffic on the river is recreational. Small private boats are used for water skiing and fishing. Houseboats are common, both commercial for hire and privately owned. There are
2268-518: A spear. However, the shock to the fish was so great it launched him forward in a straight line to a place called Peindjalang, near Tailem Bend . Eager to rectify his failure to catch his prey, the hunter and his two wives (sometimes the escaped sibling wives of Waku and Kanu) hurried on, and took positions high on the cliff on which Tailem Bend now stands. They sprung an ambush on Pondi only to fail again. Ngurunderi set off in pursuit again but lost his prey as Pondi dived into Lake Alexandrina. Ngurunderi and
2394-543: A switch by fishermen to a largely catch and release approach for wild Murray cod would alleviate this problem. Recognising these issues, in late 2014 the New South Wales and Victorian fishery departments amended their regulations so that a slot limit of 55 to 75 cm now applies in these states. (i.e. only Murray cod between 55 and 75 cm may be taken; those above and below this size range or "slot" must be released.) This measure should have positive effects for
2520-430: A variety of challenging conditions, and a significant proportion of Murray cod larvae feeding successfully in unflooded rivers. Latest research has also shown that Murray cod in fact live their entire lifecycle within the main channel of the stream. Earlier ideas that Murray cod spawn on floodplains, or the larvae feed on floodplains, are incorrect. Murray cod breed in the main river channel or, in times of spring flood,
2646-582: A very serious threat to wild Murray cod stocks in lowland river reaches. Blackwater events occur when floodplains and ephemeral channels accumulate large quantities of leaf litter over a number of years and are then finally inundated in a flood event. The leaf litter releases large quantities of dissolved organic carbon, turning the water a characteristic black colour and inducing a temporary explosion in bacterial numbers and activity, which in turn consume dissolved oxygen, reducing them to levels harmful or fatal to fish. (Fish essentially asphyxiate.) Water temperature
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#17327733959592772-431: A young adult Murray cod seemingly killed by severe Lernaea infestation. State government fisheries departments support Murray cod populations by stocking with hatchery-bred fish, especially in man-made lakes. Important issues affecting restoration of cod populations, such as the need for spring floods and excessive angler take, are slowly being acknowledged but are yet to be definitely addressed. Other concerns such as
2898-455: Is Pama–Nyungan . McDonald (2002) distinguishes five dialects: Warki, Tanganekald, Ramindjeri, Portaulun and Yaraldi. Bowern (2011) lists the Yaraldi, Ngarrindjeri, and Ramindjeri varieties as separate languages. Tanganekald, also known as Thangal, is now extinct. Linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann suggests that the original pronunciation of Ngarrindjeri had two distinct rhotic consonants :
3024-528: Is a critical regulator of blackwater events as warmer water temperatures increase bacterial activity and markedly reduce the intrinsic oxygen carrying capacity of water; events that may be tolerable for fish in winter or early spring may be catastrophic in late spring or summer due to the increase in water temperature. Blackwater events are often described as "natural" events—while there are some historical records of relatively severe events in smaller, more ephemeral systems (e.g. lower Lachlan, upper Darling), there
3150-534: Is a marbled appearance sometimes reminiscent of a leopard's markings. Colouration is related to water clarity; colouration is intense in fish from clear water habitats . Small to medium-sized Murray cod from clear-water habitats often have striking and very distinct colouration. Very large fish tend towards a speckled grey-green colouration. Murray cod are large fish, with adult fish regularly reaching 80–100 cm (31–39 in) in length. Murray cod are capable of growing well over 1 m (3.3 ft) in length and
3276-669: Is a single-celled, parasitic protozoa that infects the skin of Murray cod and has caused a number of serious kills of wild Murray cod. Saprolegnia is a fungus-like oomycete or "water mould" that frequently infects Murray cod eggs and the skin of Murray cod that have been roughly handled through poor catch and release technique . (It is essential that Murray cod intended for release only touch cool wet surfaces and are not put down on any hard, dry, rough or hot surfaces, e.g. boat gunwales, boat floors, dry grass, dry rocks, gravel banks, dry towels or mats, etc. Hands should also be wetted before touching them. They must not be hung vertically by
3402-761: Is actually on the Mitta Mitta River upstream of Lake Hume (completed 1979). The Murray also receives water from the complex dam and pipeline system of the Snowy Mountains Scheme . An additional reservoir was proposed in the 1960s at Chowilla Dam , which was to have been built in South Australia and would have flooded land mostly in Victoria and New South Wales. It was cancelled in favour of building Dartmouth Dam due to costs and concerns relating to increased salinity. From 1935 to 1940
3528-625: Is an important part of Australia's vertebrate wildlife— as an apex predator in the Murray-Darling River system—and also significant in Australia's human culture . The Murray cod is the largest exclusively freshwater fish in Australia, and one of the largest in the world. Other common names for Murray cod include cod , greenfish , goodoo , Mary River cod , Murray perch , ponde , pondi and Queensland freshwater cod . The scientific name of Murray cod derives from an early Australian fish researcher Allan Riverstone McCulloch and
3654-507: Is best summarised by a short article in the Register News (a South Australian newspaper) in 1929: In [the last] 29 years 26,214,502 lbs (nearly 11,703 tons) [11,915,683 kg] of Murray cod has been eaten by the people of Melbourne. The Superintendent of Markets (Mr G. B. Minns) included these figures in a statement he made today pointing out that the supply was declining. In 1918, the peak year, 2,229,024 lb [1,011,068 kg]
3780-438: Is characteristic of many freshwater native fish in Australia. Longevity is a survival strategy in variable Australian environment to ensure that most adults participate in at least one exceptional spawning and recruitment event, which are often linked to unusually wet La Niña years and may only occur every one or two decades. Murray cod are the most long-lived freshwater native fish in Australia. The oldest Murray cod aged yet
3906-590: Is critical for successful recruitment (i.e. survival to juvenile stages) of young cod by providing an influx of pelagic zooplankton and early life-stage macroinvertebrates off the flood plain into the main river channel for first feeding, but more recent research has shown Murray cod breed annually, with or without spring floods, and at temperatures as low as 15 °C (59 °F). Additionally, recent research has shown abundant epibenthic/epiphytic (bottom dwelling/edge clinging) prey in unflooded lowland rivers, traits in Murray cod larvae that should allow survival in
Murray River - Misplaced Pages Continue
4032-506: Is exacerbated by removal of riparian (riverbank) vegetation which causes siltation and degrades river ecosystems in many ways. There is serious competition for food between larval/early juvenile introduced carp and larval/early juvenile native fish. Introduced carp dominate the fish faunas of lowland Murray-Darling rivers; the sheer amount of biomass carp now take up, and the large numbers of larvae carp produce, causes serious negative effects on river ecosystems and native fish. Carp are
4158-587: Is known to have sold his share in the Bungaree Station , which he founded with his brothers, and relocated alongside the Murray at a site near Moorundie . In 1852, Francis Cadell , in preparation for the launch of his steamer service, explored the river in a canvas boat, travelling 1,300 miles (2,100 km) downstream from Swan Hill . In 1858, while acting as Minister of Land and Works for New South Wales, Irish nationalist and founder of Young Ireland , Charles Gavan Duffy , founded Carlyle Township on
4284-594: Is no record of severe events in the Murray River and its largest southern tributaries before water extraction and river regulation. In the Murray and large southern tributaries, very severe large-scale blackwater events are a relatively new but recurring phenomenon and appear to be an effect of river regulation curtailing the winter/spring flood events that formerly swept leaf litter away annually, exacerbated by long-term declines in rainfall and recurring prolonged drought events. Flood events in 2010 and 2012 following
4410-412: Is often portrayed as a man) on rafts (or lala ) made from red gums and continually launched spears at his target. But Pondi was a wily prey and carved a weaving path, carving out the river's various tributaries. Ngurunderi was forced to beach his rafts, and often create new ones as he changed from reach to reach of the river. At Kobathatang, Ngurunderi finally got lucky and struck Pondi in the tail with
4536-706: Is only partially correct. While this behaviour is typical during the day, at night, Murray cod are active pelagic predators, venturing into shallow waters and frequently taking prey from the surface. Murray cod reach sexual maturity between four and six years of age, generally five years. Sexual maturity in Murray cod is dependent on age. Therefore, roughly 70% of wild river Murray cod, with their slower growth rate, have reached sexual maturity by 50 cm (20 in) in length. Wild Murray cod in impoundments like Lake Mulwala , with their faster growth rates, do not reach sexual maturity until they are well over 60 cm (2.0 ft) in length. These data strongly indicate
4662-551: Is the border between New South Wales and Victoria – specifically at the top of the bank of the Victorian side of the river. In a 1980 judgement, the High Court of Australia ruled on the question as to which state had jurisdiction in the unlawful death of a man who was fishing by the river's edge on the Victorian side of the river. This boundary definition can be ambiguous, since the river changes its course over time, and some of
4788-426: Is the point at which the Murray River empties into the sea, and the interaction between its shallow, shifting and variable currents and the open sea can be complex and unpredictable. During the peak period of Murray River commerce (roughly 1855 to 1920), it presented a major impediment to the passage of goods and produce between Adelaide and the Murray settlements, and many vessels foundered or were wrecked there. Since
4914-424: The 2016 Australian census . A second edition of the dictionary was published in 2019, with 500 additional words, bringing the total to 4,200. Ngarrindjeri elder Phyllis Williams has been collaborating with linguist Mary-Anne Gale for many years, teaching the language to adults and developing resources to aid language revival . The third, expanded edition of the dictionary, again compiled by Gale and Williams,
5040-676: The Mary River system in south eastern Queensland , both of which are endangered, but survive today. Coastal cod were also found in the Richmond River system in northern New South Wales and the Brisbane River system in southern Queensland, but are now extinct. In Mitchell's original description, he classified the fish as "Family, Percidae; Genus, Acerina; Subgenus, Gristes, Cuv. or Growler; Species, Gristes peelii mihi, or Cod-perch", observing "This fish may be identical with
5166-454: The river banks have been modified. For 11 km (6.8 mi) west of the line of longitude 141°E, the border is between Victoria and South Australia, in the middle of the river. The discrepancy was caused during the 1840s, when the border was originally surveyed, by an east–west miscalculation of 3.72 kilometres (2.31 miles). West of this sector, the Murray is entirely within the state of South Australia. Major settlements along
Murray River - Misplaced Pages Continue
5292-517: The river red gum . The health of the Murray has declined significantly since European settlement, particularly through regulation of its flows. Extreme droughts between 2000 and 2007 put significant stress on river red gum forests, leading to mounting concern over their long-term survival. The Murray has also flooded on occasion. The most significant was the flood of 1956 : lasting for up to six months, it inundated many towns on its lower reaches in South Australia. Between 2.5 and 0.5 million years ago,
5418-511: The 1800s and the early 1900s caused the first strong declines of Murray cod, overfishing by recreational fishermen, aided by inadequate fishing regulations, continues today and remains an extremely serious threat to Murray cod. The current size limit of 60 centimetres in most states is inadequate now that scientific studies have documented average size at sexual maturity in Murray cod. This and catch data and computer modelling exercises on wild Murray cod stocks indicate measures such as raising
5544-410: The 1920s Murray cod had been overfished to the point where large-scale commercial fishing operations were no longer feasible. Recreational fishermen took similarly excessive hauls during this era, using rods and reels, handlines, setlines, drum nets, gill nets, and even explosives, with hauls often either wasted or illegally sold. Perhaps this extreme overfishing and its impacts of wild Murray cod stocks
5670-421: The 1960s, but there have been attempts to revive the language in the 21st century, including the release of a Ngarrindjeri dictionary in 2009. The work of Lutheran missionaries Christian Teichelmann and Clamor Schürmann in the early days of the colonisation of South Australia have contributed enormously to the revival of both Ngarrindjeri and Kaurna . There were 312 speakers of Ngarrindjerri recorded in
5796-613: The 50-cm (20-in) size limit for Murray cod is inadequate and should be increased substantially to allow for a greater chance of reproduction before capture. Large female Murray cod in the 15– to 35-kg (35– to 80-lb) range are the most important breeders because they produce the most eggs and for other reasons; large females in most fish species are also important because they produce larger larvae with larger yolk sacs, and are also more experienced breeders that display optimal breeding behaviours. Such large females may also have valuable, successful genes to pass on. All of these factors mean
5922-467: The Cadell Fault. About 25,000 years ago, displacement occurred along this fault, raising its eastern edge, which runs north–south, 8 to 12 m (26 to 39 ft) above the floodplain. This created a complex series of events. A section of the original Murray River channel immediately behind the fault was rendered abandoned (it exists today as an empty channel known as Green Gully). The Goulburn River
6048-628: The Mary River cod ( M. mariensis ). The Murray cod is named after the Murray River , part of the Murray-Darling basin in eastern Australia, Australia's largest and most important river system, draining around 14% of the continent. The Murray cod's natural range encompasses virtually the whole Murray-Darling basin, particularly the lowland areas, and extending well into upland areas — to about 700 m (2,300 ft) elevation in
6174-473: The Murray River he investigated 1949–1950. A thorough reading of historical newspaper articles and historical government reports reveals that the history of wild Murray cod between the mid–1800s and the mid–1900s was one of citizen agitation, government inaction, and ongoing stock decline. For decades, riverside residents, commercial fishermen, recreational fishermen, local fisheries inspectors, fish retailers, and others agitated in newspapers and other fora about
6300-499: The Murray River, after his close friend, Scottish historian and essayist Thomas Carlyle . Included in the township were "Jane Street", named in honour of Carlyle's wife Jane Carlyle and "Stuart-Mill Street" in honour of political philosopher John Stuart Mill In 1858, the Government Zoologist , William Blandowski , together with Gerard Krefft , explored the lower reaches of the Murray and Darling rivers, compiling
6426-472: The Murray River. Dams, weirs and other instream barriers block the migration of adult and juvenile Murray cod and prevent recolonisation of habitats and maintenance of isolated populations. Additionally, recent study has proven approximately 50% of Murray cod larvae are killed when they pass through undershot weirs. Hundreds of thousands, perhaps more than a million, submerged timber " snags ", mainly River Red Gum , have been removed from lowland reaches of
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#17327733959596552-421: The Murray and its tributaries by destroying aquatic plants and permanently raising turbidity . Carp is the most common species, and can be found in all segments of the river. Four large reservoirs were built along the Murray. In addition to Lake Victoria (completed late 1920s), these are Lake Hume near Albury-Wodonga (completed 1936), Lake Mulwala at Yarrawonga (completed 1939), and Lake Dartmouth , which
6678-661: The Murray cod is listed as a vulnerable species under the EPBC Act ( Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 ). It is listed as a species of Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species , but under state legislation in both South Australia and Victoria , it is an endangered species . A study published in Biological Conservation in March 2023 listed 23 species which
6804-459: The Murray cod population by protecting and increasing the proportion of large breeding Murray cod. Another issue is that Murray cod caught and released in winter, while developing their eggs, or in spring prior to spawning, resorb their eggs and do not spawn. This may be a minor issue compared to some of the other threats facing Murray cod, nevertheless, concerned fishermen try to avoid catching wild Murray cod at these times. At this point in time
6930-458: The Murray persists in numerous forms in various language groups that inhabit the enormous area spanned by the Murray system. The Wotojobaluk people of Victoria tell of Totyerguil from the area now known as Swan Hill , who ran out of spears while chasing Otchtout the cod. Roonka Flat , near Blanchetown , was a site of occupation since at least 7000BC. The first Europeans to encounter the river were Hamilton Hume and William Hovell , who crossed
7056-465: The Murray short-necked turtle, broad-clawed yabbies and the large-clawed Macrobrachium shrimp, in addition to aquatic species more widely distributed through Southeastern Australia such as common long-necked turtles, common yabbies , the small claw-less paratya shrimp, water rats and platypus . The Murray crayfish , an endangered species, was able to increase its numbers thanks to scientists. The Murray also supports fringeing corridors and forests of
7182-477: The Murray terminated in a vast freshwater lake – Lake Bungunnia – formed by earth movements that blocked the river near Swan Reach . At its maximum extent, Lake Bungunnia covered 33,000 km (12,741 sq mi), extending to near the Menindee Lakes in the north and to near Boundary Bend in the south. The draining of Lake Bungunnia occurred approximately 600,000 years ago. Deep clays deposited by
7308-700: The Murray, the catchments of these rivers form the Murray–Darling basin , which covers about one-seventh the area of Australia. It is widely considered Australia's most important irrigated region. The Murray rises in the Australian Alps , draining the western side of Australia's highest mountains, then meanders northwest across Australia's inland plains, forming the border between the states of New South Wales and Victoria as it flows into South Australia . From an east–west direction it turns south at Morgan for its final 315 km (196 mi), reaching
7434-683: The Murray-Darling basin over the past 150 years. The removal of such a vast number of snags has had devastating impacts on Murray cod and river ecosystems. Snags are critical habitats and spawning sites for Murray cod. Snags are also critical for the functioning of lowland river ecosystems — as one of the few hard substrates in lowland river channels composed of fine silts snags are crucial sites for biofilm growth, macroinvertebrate grazing and general in-stream productivity. Vegetation clearing and cattle trampling river banks create severe siltation , which fill in pools, degrade river ecosystems and make rivers and streams uninhabitable for Murray cod. This
7560-561: The Ngarrindjeri language: These are words for animals extinct since European colonisation: Murray cod The Murray cod ( Maccullochella peelii ) is a large Australian predatory freshwater fish of the genus Maccullochella in the family Percichthyidae . Although the species is called a cod in the vernacular , it is not related to the Northern Hemisphere marine cod ( Gadus ) species. The Murray cod
7686-682: The Ngarrindjerri Bible was the first time portions of the Bible were translated into an Aboriginal language . 8 Genesis 2:8 follows in Ngarrindjerri from the 1864 translation and a literal English translation. " Jehovah winmin gardenowe Edenald, kile yuppun ityan korn gardenungai. " "Jehovah God planted a garden in Eden, toward the east, and there he put the man whom he had formed." The last fluent speaker of Ngarrindjerri died in
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#17327733959597812-524: The Red Gum forests, actually travels through the Edward River channel. The Murray has not had enough flow power to naturally enlarge The Barmah Choke and The Narrows to increase the amount of water they can carry. The Cadell Fault is quite noticeable as a continuous, low, earthen embankment as one drives into Barmah from the west, although to the untrained eye it may appear man-made. The Murray Mouth
7938-488: The advent of large-scale river regulation , the waters at the Murray Mouth are almost invariably slow and shallow. As of 2010, the Murray River system received 58 per cent of its natural flow; the figure varies considerably. The border between Victoria and New South Wales (NSW) lies along the top of the southern or left bank of the Murray River. The Murray forms part of the 3,750 km (2,330 mi) long combined Murray–Darling river system that drains most of
8064-433: The area. These conditions are perfect for River Red Gums , which rapidly formed forests in the area. Thus the displacement of the Cadell Fault 25,000 BP led directly to the formation of the famous Barmah River Red Gum Forests. The Barmah Choke and The Narrows restrict the amount of water that can travel down this part of the Murray. In times of flood and high irrigation flows the majority of the water, in addition to flooding
8190-614: The authors considered to no longer meet the criteria as threatened species under the EPBC Act, including the Murray cod. The team, led by John Woinarski of Charles Darwin University looked at all species listed as threatened under the act in 2000 and 2022. The Murray cod was the only fish on the list, and the reason for their assessment was given as "Actual recovery over the period 2000–2022, from long period of decline". While extremely severe commercial and recreational overfishing in
8316-439: The bottom end of the Murray experiencing drought-like flows had increased from 5% under natural conditions to 60% by 1995. Thermal pollution is the artificial reduction in water temperatures, especially in summer and autumn, caused when frigid water is released from the bottom of reservoirs for irrigation demands. Such temperature suppression typically extends several hundred kilometres downstream. Thermal pollution inhibits both
8442-408: The breeding and recruitment of Murray cod. The Murray and most southern tributaries now experience high irrigation flows in summer and autumn and low flows in winter and spring. Small and medium floods including the once annual spring flood-pulse have been completely eliminated. It is estimated that flows at the river mouth by 1995 had declined to only 27% of natural outflows. The probability of
8568-607: The breeding of Murray cod and the survival of Murray cod larvae, and in extreme cases inhibits even the survival of adult Murray cod. The rare floods that do break free of the dams and weirs of the Murray-Darling system have their magnitude and duration deliberately curtailed by river regulators. Increasing research indicates this management practice is very harmful and drastically reduces the general ecosystem benefits and breeding and recruitment opportunities for Murray cod and other Murray-Darling native fish species these now rare floods can provide. Blackwater events are emerging as
8694-433: The community. University of Adelaide linguist Robert Amery and his wife, Mary-Anne Gale, have helped to drive the project. The musical group Deadly Nannas (Nragi Muthar) have been writing and singing songs in Ngarrindjerri and English, and using them to help teach the language in schools and other venues. The Yaralde had the southernmost attested Australian Aboriginal sign language . The following words are from
8820-522: The course of the river, from its source to the Southern Ocean, and their populations from the 2016 Australian census are as follows. The Murray and its tributaries support a variety of river life adapted to its vagaries. This includes native fish such as the famous Murray cod , trout cod , golden perch , Macquarie perch , silver perch , eel-tailed catfish , Australian smelt and western carp gudgeon , as well as other aquatic species such as
8946-409: The creation of the Murray River by a gigantic Murray cod fleeing down a small creek to escape from a renowned hunter. In these myths, the fleeing Murray cod enlarges the river and the beating of its tail create the bends in it. The cod is eventually speared near the terminus of the Murray River, chopped into pieces, and the pieces thrown back into the river. The pieces become all the other fish species of
9072-680: The declining Murray cod stocks, to be met in turn either with government denials, or conversely, with various ineffective inquiries into Murray cod stocks and fisheries, and various ineffective control measures. Debate about excessive fishing pressure, number of fishermen, number of nets, net mesh size, bag limits, minimum size limits and take of small cod, closed seasons and the taking of spawning cod full of eggs during spring, and other sundry issues, continued without resolution. Fishing regulations were either not amended, or amended and largely unenforced and completely ignored. Heavy commercial, recreational and illegal fishing pressure continued. The end result
9198-405: The diet under natural conditions, and freshwater mussels were commonly eaten in the past. Murray cod have also been known to eat ducks , cormorants , freshwater turtles , water dragons , snakes , mice , and frogs . The observations of the recreational fishermen fishing for Murray cod with surface lures at night reveal that the popular description of Murray cod as a demersal ambush predator
9324-581: The driest continents on Earth, the Murray has significant cultural relevance to Aboriginal Australians . According to the people of Lake Alexandrina , the Murray was created by the tracks of the Great Ancestor, Ngurunderi, as he pursued Pondi, the Murray Cod . The chase originated in the interior of New South Wales. Ngurunderi pursued the fish (who, like many totem animals in Aboriginal myths,
9450-546: The early 2000s, dredging machines have operated at the Murray Mouth for 24 hours a day, moving sand from the channel to maintain a minimal flow from the sea and into the Coorong's lagoon system. Without the dredging, the mouth would silt up and close, cutting the supply of fresh sea-water into the Coorong National Park, which would then warm up, stagnate and die. Being one of the major river systems on one of
9576-706: The eastern edge of Lake Alexandrina , which fluctuates in salinity . The water then flows through several channels around Hindmarsh Island and Mundoo Island . There it is joined by lagoon water from The Coorong to the south-east before emptying into the Great Australian Bight (often referenced on Australian maps as the Southern Ocean ) through the Murray Mouth , 10 km (6.2 mi) east of Goolwa South . Despite discharging considerable volumes of water at times, particularly before
9702-413: The expense of losing one of their own original rhotics). Other names include Jarildekald, Jaralde, Yarilde, Yarrildie, Jaraldi, Lakalinyeri, Warawalde, Yalawarre, Yarildewallin (although as mentioned above, Yaraldi is regarded as a dialect ). Berndt , Berndt & Stanton (1993) wrote: "The appropriate traditional categorisation of the whole group was Kukabrak: this term, as we mention again below,
9828-414: The first serious declines in Murray cod were caused by overfishing. In the latter half of the 1800s and the early 1900s, Murray cod were caught in large numbers by both commercial and recreational fishermen. For example, one commercial fishing operation commenced on the Murray River near Echuca in 1855, targeting Murray cod over hundreds of kilometres of river, and yet within eight years, grave concerns over
9954-497: The first trips being made by two boats from South Australia on the spring flood of 1853. The Lady Augusta , captained by Francis Cadell , reached Swan Hill while another, Mary Ann , captained by William Randell , reached Moama (near Echuca ). In 1855 a steamer carrying gold-mining supplies reached Albury but Echuca was the usual turn-around point, though small boats continued to link with up-river ports such as Tocumwal , Wahgunyah and Albury. The arrival of steamboat transport
10080-547: The first was rr (as in Italian) and the second was r (as in English). However, in revitalized Ngarrindjeri, both rhotics "are pronounced unlike English". Zuckermann analyses this phenomenon as over-applied, hypercorrect "emblematicity" due to Othering : the Ngarrindjeri revivalists are trying to define themselves vis-à-vis the "Other", distancing themselves from "the colonizers' mother tongue, Australian English" (even at
10206-784: The fish described by MM. Cuvier and Valenciennes Volume 3 page 45 under the name of Gristes macquariensis: but it differs from their description…". In the 1800s and early 1900s, commercial fishermen, recreational fishermen, riverside residents, and some fisheries scientists (e.g. Anderson, Stead, Langtry) distinctly recognised two species of cod in the southern Murray-Darling basin, Murray cod and trout cod or "blue nose cod". Taxonomically however, confusion abounded. Ignoring glaring differences in size at sexual maturity, and via some rather unscientific reasoning, some prominent fisheries scientists (e.g. Whitley) insisted on recognising only one species of cod—the Murray cod (then named Maccullochella macquariensis , after an early Australian fish researcher with
10332-512: The flanks. The pelvic fins are large, angular, and set forward of the pectoral fins. The leading white-coloured rays on the pelvic fins split into two trailing white filaments, while the pelvic fins themselves are usually a translucent white or cream, tending toward opacity in large fish. Murray cod are white to cream on their ventral (belly) surfaces. Their backs and flanks are usually yellowish-green to green, overlain with heavy darker green, but occasionally brown or black, mottling. The effect
10458-419: The inland of Victoria, New South Wales and the southern part of Queensland. The Murray carries only a small fraction of the water of comparably sized rivers in other parts of the world, and with great annual variability of its flow. It has dried up completely during extreme droughts on three occasions since official record-keeping began. More often, a sandbar formed at the mouth and stopped the flow. The Murray
10584-491: The intervening stretch of the river a series of locks and weirs were built. These were originally proposed to support navigation even in times of low water, but riverborne transport was already declining due to improved highway and railway systems. The disruption of the river's natural flow, run-off from agriculture, and the introduction of pest species such as the European carp has led to serious environmental damage along
10710-500: The inundated upper portion of the main channel and tributary channels, but not on floodplains. Murray cod larvae feed within the main river channel or, in times of spring flood, on the inundated upper portion of the main channel and the channel/floodplain boundary, but not on the floodplain. Spawning is sometimes preceded by upstream or downstream movements. Radio-tracked Murray cod in the Murray River have moved up to 120 km (75 mi) upstream to spawn, before returning to exactly
10836-552: The irrigation has led to dryland salinity that now threatens the agricultural industries. In 2006, the Government of South Australia released a plan to investigate the construction of controversial Wellington Weir . Lock 1 was completed near Blanchetown in 1922. Torrumbarry weir downstream of Echuca began operating in December 1923. Of the several locks that were proposed, only thirteen were completed; Locks 1 to 11 on
10962-662: The lake are evident in cliffs around Chowilla in South Australia. Considerably higher rainfall would have been required to keep such a lake full; the draining of Lake Bungunnia appears to have marked the end of a wet phase in the history of the Murray–Darling Basin and the onset of widespread arid conditions similar to today. A species of Neoceratodus lungfish existed in Lake Bungunnia; today Neoceratodus lungfish are only found in several Queensland rivers. The noted Barmah River red gum forests owe their existence to
11088-409: The largest on record was over 1.8 m (5.9 ft) and about 113 kg (249 lb) in weight. Large breeding fish are rare in most wild populations today due to overfishing. Murray cod continue a pattern present in Murray-Darling native fish genera of speciation into lowland and specialist upland species: Murray cod are the primarily lowland species and the endangered trout cod are
11214-461: The main vector of the introduced Lernaea parasite ( Lernaea cyprinacea ) and serious vectors of the introduced Asian fish tapeworm ( Bothriocephalus acheilognathi ). Murray cod have soft skin and very fine scales that leave them particularly vulnerable to infection from exotic diseases and parasites. The following exotic diseases and parasites all seriously affect wild Murray cod; all have been introduced by imports of exotic fish. Chilodonella
11340-443: The mouth or gill covers.) Wild Murray cod populations across their range suffer extremely severe infestations of Lernaea or "anchor worm", a parasitic copepod vectored by introduced carp and that burrows into the skin of Murray cod. Lernaea puncture wounds are often secondarily infected by bacteria. Severe Lernaea infestations probably causes the death of many more adult Murray cod than commonly recognised. Ebner reports
11466-497: The nest site by drifting in river currents at night, and continue this behaviour around four to seven days. During this dispersal process, larvae simultaneously absorb the remainder of their yolk sac and begin to feed on small, early life-stage macroinvertebrates and epibenthic/epiphytic (bottom dwelling/edge clinging) microinvertebrates. It may be that Murray cod are the first freshwater fish identified as having long-term pair-bonding in its repertoire of mating strategies in
11592-475: The overall picture today, recent population studies have shown that while all year classes are well represented up to the minimum legal angling size (now 60 centimetres in most states), above that size, numbers of fish are dramatically reduced almost to the point of non-existence in many waters. Some emphasis has been made of the results of two small surveys which suggested a majority of Murray cod are released by anglers. However, there are valid questions as to
11718-484: The patterns of the river's natural flow from the original winter-spring flood and summer-autumn dry to the present low level through winter and higher during summer. These changes ensured the availability of water for irrigation and made the Murray Valley Australia's most productive agricultural region, but have seriously disrupted the life cycles of many ecosystems both inside and outside the river, and
11844-442: The prolonged Millennium Drought (1997–2009) induced very severe blackwater events; while formal studies of these events were limited due to the relatively rapid response times required and logistical difficulties, angler photographs and observations of extraordinary numbers of dead Murray cod during these events and plunging catch rates after these events show they induced extremely heavy Murray cod mortalities along extensive tracts of
11970-518: The remaining length of the Murray to finally reach Lake Alexandrina and the river's mouth. The vicinity of the Murray Mouth was explored more thoroughly by Captain Collet Barker in 1831. The first three settlers on the Murray River are known to have been James Collins Hawker (explorer and surveyor) along with Edward John Eyre (explorer and later Governor of Jamaica ) plus E.B. Scott (onetime superintendent of Yatala Labour Prison ). Hawker
12096-527: The representativeness of these surveys: these surveys do not explain the dramatic disappearance of large numbers of young Murray cod at exactly the minimum size limit, and most importantly, any emphasis on these surveys miss the fundamental point — as a large, long-lived species with relatively low fecundity and delayed sexual maturity wild Murray cod populations are extremely vulnerable to overfishing, even with only modest angler-kill. A tightening of fishing regulations for wild Murray cod, as referred to above, and
12222-426: The river channel is unusually narrow), before entering into the proper Murray River channel again. The primary result of the Cadell Fault – that the west-flowing water of the Murray River strikes the north-south fault and diverts both north and south around the fault in the two main channels (Edward and ancestral Goulburn) in addition to a fan of small streams, and regularly floods a large amount of low-lying country in
12348-585: The river from which the explorer Major Mitchell first scientifically described the species, the Peel River . This was for a number of years changed to M. peelii peelii to differentiate Murray cod from Mary River cod , which were designated as a subspecies of Murray cod. However, as of 2010, Mary River cod have been raised to full species status ( M. mariensis ), thus Murray cod have reverted simply to M. peelii . Murray cod populations have declined severely since European colonisation of Australia due to
12474-644: The river promoted an expansion of farming and led ultimately to the development of irrigation areas (including the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area ). In 1915, the three Murray states – New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia – signed the River Murray Agreement which proposed the construction of storage reservoirs in the river's headwaters as well as at Lake Victoria near the South Australian border. Along
12600-696: The river where Albury now stands in 1824: Hume named it the Hume River after his father. In 1830, Captain Charles Sturt reached the river after travelling down its tributary the Murrumbidgee River and named it the Murray River in honour of the then British Secretary of State for War and the Colonies , Sir George Murray , not realising it was the same river that Hume and Hovell had encountered further upstream. Sturt continued down
12726-594: The river's length. There are widespread concerns that the river will be unusably salty in the medium to long term – a serious problem given that the Murray supplies 40 per cent of the water supply for Adelaide . Efforts to alleviate the problems have proceeded but disagreement between various groups has hampered progress. Introduced fish species such as carp , gambusia , weather loach , redfin perch , brown trout , and rainbow trout have also had serious negative effects on native fish. The most pernicious are carp, which have contributed to environmental degradation of
12852-531: The river. The primary purpose of this is to provide habitat for fish species whose breeding grounds and shelter were eradicated by the removal of the snags. Author E.J. Brady chronicled an eventful journey downriver in a small motor boat from Albury to the coast in 1911 in River Rovers. The volume and value of river trade made Echuca Victoria's second port and in the decade from 1874 it underwent considerable expansion. By this time up to thirty steamers and
12978-488: The rivers in the Murray-Darling River system, mainly for irrigation purposes, only exceptional spring floods manage to "break free". The long-term viability of wild Murray cod, other native fish species and river ecosystems, in the face of this fact, are of great concern. Murray cod were originally the most common large native fish in the Murray-Darling basin. Contrary to some fishery department literature,
13104-501: The same snag from where they departed, an unusual homing behaviour in a freshwater fish. Decades of observations by recreational and commercial fishermen suggest such spring spawning movements are common across the Murray cod's geographical range. Spawning is initiated by pairing up and courtship rituals. During the courtship ritual a spawning site is selected and cleaned — hard surfaces such as rocks in upland rivers and impoundments, and logs and occasionally clay banks in lowland rivers, at
13230-544: The size limit to 70 centimetres and reducing the bag and possession limits from 2 and 4 fish respectively to 1 fish are urgently needed to maintain the long-term viability of wild Murray cod populations. As of November 2014, the NSW Department of Fisheries has introduced a maximum size limit of 75 cm for Murray Cod to provide protection for large breeding fish, as well as a new minimum size limit of 55 cm. Although angler effects are sometimes disregarded in
13356-580: The southern Murray-Darling basin, due to a combination of overfishing , siltation , dams and weirs blocking migration, pollution from arsenic -based sheep-dips, mining , and in some cases, introduced trout stockings, which causes competition between juvenile Murray cod and introduced trout species. Murray Cod have also been introduced into other drainage basins , such as the Cooper Basin in Queensland. Murray cod are very long-lived, which
13482-481: The southern half of the basin and to about 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in the northern half of the basin. Consequently, Murray cod inhabit a remarkably wide variety of habitats, from cool, clear, fast-flowing streams with riffle-and-pool structure and rocky substrates in upland areas to large, slow flowing, meandering rivers in the extensive alluvial lowland reaches of the Murray-Darling basin. Murray cod have died out in many of their upland habitats, particularly in
13608-464: The spawnings of large female fish have far higher larval survival rates and make far greater reproductive contributions than the spawnings of small female fish. Not surprisingly, there is no truth to claim made by some recreational fishers that "large Murray cod don't breed". Female Murray cod, upon first reaching sexual maturity, have egg counts of no more than 10,000. Very large female Murray cod can have egg counts as high as 80,000–90,000, although
13734-488: The specialist upland species. The pattern is slightly blurred in the cod species because, being adaptable and successful fish, Murray cod push significant distances into upland habitats, while the now endangered trout cod stray (or did stray, before their decline) well down the upland/lowland transition zone, which can be extensive in Murray-Darling Rivers. Nevertheless, the basic pattern of speciation into
13860-431: The stocking of Murray cod in areas where trout cod ( M. macquariensis ) are recovering encourages hybridisation and needs consideration for future restocking programs. Murray cod play a very important role in the mythology of many Aboriginal tribes in the Murray-Darling basin, and for some tribes, particularly those living along the Murray River, Murray cod were the icon species. The myths of these tribes describe
13986-433: The stretch downstream of Mildura , Lock 15 at Euston and Lock 26 at Torrumbarry . Construction of the remaining weirs purely for navigation purposes was abandoned in 1934. The last lock to be completed was Lock 15, in 1937. Lock 11, just downstream of Mildura, creates a 100-kilometre (62 mi) long lock pool that aided irrigation pumping from Mildura and Red Cliffs . Each lock has a navigable passage next to it through
14112-530: The surname McCulloch and the Macquarie River in New South Wales where the holotype was captured ). Then, as trout cod declined into near extinction over the 1900s, the distinction between the two species was further eroded and finally questioned. In the 1970s, early genetic techniques confirmed that trout cod were a separate species and further showed that the original "Murray cod" specimen
14238-549: The sustainability of this operation, and complaints about the near-absence of Murray cod in their heavily fished grounds, were being raised in the main state newspaper, The Argus . Yet fishing effort continued to increase in the region, so in the late 1880s and early 1890s, between 40,000 and 150,000 kg of mostly Murray cod (between 7,500 and 27,000 fish, at an average weight of 5.5 kg) were caught near Echuca. Similarly, in 1883, more than 147,000 kg of Murray cod were sent to Melbourne from just one river town (Moama). By
14364-523: The town of Murray Bridge, formerly called Edwards Crossing. To distinguish this bridge from the many others that span the Murray River, this bridge is known as Murray River road bridge, Murray Bridge Tolls applied on South Australian ferries until abolished in November 1961. Small-scale pumping plants began drawing water from the Murray in the 1850s and the first high-volume plant was constructed at Mildura in 1887. The introduction of pumping stations along
14490-409: The weir, which is opened during periods of high river flow, when there is too much water for the lock. The weirs can be completely removed, and the locks completely covered by water during flood conditions. Lock 11 is unique in that the lock was built inside a bend of the river, with the weir in the bend itself. A channel was dug to the lock, creating an island between it and the weir. The weir is also of
14616-448: The wild. The relationship between river flows and Murray cod recruitment are more complex than first thought, and in less regulated rivers, Murray cod may be able to recruit under a range of conditions including stable low flows. (Significant recruitment of Murray cod in low-flow conditions in less regulated lowland rivers has now been proven.) This information also suggests that nonriver-regulation-related causes of degradation are playing
14742-400: The women settled on the shore, only to suffer bad luck with fishing, being plagued by a water fiend known as Muldjewangk . They later moved to a more suitable spot at the site of present-day Ashville . The twin summits of Mount Misery are said to be the remnants of his rafts; they are known as Lalangengall or the two watercraft . This story of a hunter pursuing a Murray cod that carved out
14868-759: Was 48 years of age, and the even larger specimens of years past leave little doubt that the species can reach considerably greater ages, of 70 years or more. The Murray cod is the apex aquatic predator in the rivers of the Murray-Darling basin, and will eat almost anything smaller than itself, including finned fishes such as smaller Murray cod, golden perch , silver perch , bony bream , eel-tailed catfish , western carp gudgeon , and Australian smelt and introduced fish such as carp , goldfish , and redfin (English perch) , as well as crustaceans such as yabbies , freshwater shrimp , and Murray crayfish . Fish are eaten when abundant by mature Murray cod in lowland river and impoundment habitats but crustaceans tend to dominate
14994-452: Was a Murray cod population, initially abundant, continually fished down until in the early to mid 20th century a number of other factors such as river regulation (listed below) emerged to drive the species even further into decline. All of these drivers of decline left this iconic Australian fish in a perilous situation. There are now concerns for the long-term survival of wild Murray cod populations. Since 3 July 2003 and as of August 2023 ,
15120-610: Was dammed by the southern end of the fault to create a natural lake. The Murray River flowed to the north around the Cadell Fault, creating the channel of the Edward River which exists today and through which much of the Murray's waters still flow. Then the natural dam on the Goulburn River failed, the lake drained, and the Murray changed its course to the south and started to flow through the smaller Goulburn River channel, creating "The Barmah Choke" and "The Narrows" (where
15246-458: Was in fact a trout cod. Following the rules of scientific classification , the name M. macquariensis remained with the original specimen, now known to be the trout cod, and a new name, M. peelii , for the Peel River where the new holotype was captured, was coined for the Murray cod. Subsequently, two further cod were identified as separate species, the eastern freshwater cod ( M. ikei ) and
15372-427: Was launched as a mission steamer, replacing an earlier steam launch, also named Etona , which had been operating on the Murray since 1891. The vessel was based at Murray Bridge , and operated between Goolwa and the Victorian border, stopping at towns such as Mannum , Morgan and Renmark as well as isolated settlements and workcamps. The forepart of the vessel was used a chapel fitted with an altar and organ, with
15498-466: Was published by AIATSIS in 2020. Hundreds of new words have been added, including words for items which did not exist in the 19th century, such as " solar panel ". In 2021 the first students of the first training course to be specially tailored to the teaching of Aboriginal language , run by Tauondi Aboriginal College in Port Adelaide , graduated, and are now able to pass on their skills to
15624-429: Was received at the market, but since 1921, when 1,101,520 lb [499,640 kg] was sent to Melbourne, supply has decreased. Last year [1928] it was only 551,040 lb [249,950 kg]. Twenty years later, the aquatic ecologist J. O. Langtry criticised the heavy fishing pressure, in the form of both uncontrolled small-scale commercial fishing and rampant illegal fishing , which he found in all reaches of
15750-413: Was used by these people to differentiate themselves from neighbours whom they regarded as being socio-culturally and linguistically dissimilar. However, the term Narrinyeri has been used consistently in the literature and by Aborigines today who recognise a common descent from original inhabitants of this region-- even though their traditional identifying labels have been lost." In 1864, the publication of
15876-460: Was welcomed by pastoralists who had been suffering from a shortage of transport due to the demands of the gold fields. By 1860 a dozen steamers were operating in the high water season along the Murray and its tributaries. Once the railway reached Echuca in 1864, the bulk of the woolclip from the Riverina was transported via river to Echuca and then south to Melbourne. The steam paddleship Etona
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