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180-422: Human learning starts at birth (it might even start before) and continues until death as a consequence of ongoing interactions between people and their environment. The nature and processes involved in learning are studied in many established fields (including educational psychology , neuropsychology , experimental psychology , cognitive sciences , and pedagogy ), as well as emerging fields of knowledge (e.g. with

360-434: A cognitive phenomenon strongly supported by psychological research, has broad applicability within education . For example, students have been found to perform better on a test of knowledge about a text passage when a second reading of the passage is delayed rather than immediate (see figure). Educational psychology research has confirmed the applicability to the education of other findings from cognitive psychology, such as

540-613: A schema operating at birth that he called "reflexes". Piaget identified four stages in cognitive development. The four stages are sensorimotor stage, pre-operational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage. To understand the characteristics of learners in childhood , adolescence , adulthood , and old age , educational psychology develops and applies theories of human development . Often represented as stages through which people pass as they mature, developmental theories describe changes in mental abilities ( cognition ), social roles, moral reasoning, and beliefs about

720-452: A stimulus . This is based on the notion that a defensive reflex to a stimulus such as withdrawal or escape becomes stronger after the exposure to a different harmful or threatening stimulus. An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that occurs if a person rubs their arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation creates a warm sensation that can eventually turn painful. This pain results from

900-435: A "wholesome person characterized by morality." Pestalozzi has been acknowledged for opening institutions for education, writing books for mother's teaching home education, and elementary books for students, mostly focusing on the kindergarten level. In his later years, he published teaching manuals and methods of teaching. During the time of The Enlightenment , Pestalozzi's ideals introduced "educationalization". This created

1080-550: A bond if the object makes sounds. Play generally describes behavior with no particular end in itself, but that improves performance in similar future situations. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly limited to mammals and birds . Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their own species or other animals, such as orcas playing with seals they have caught. Play involves

1260-518: A central nervous system, the means by which they send and store information is not obvious. There are two hypotheses for memory in Mimosa, neither of which has yet been generally accepted. The first is that when the plant is stimulated, it releases a surge of calcium ions that are sensed by the protein calmodulin . The relationship between the ions and proteins are thought to stimulate voltage-gated ion channels which cause electrical signals, which could be

1440-406: A chess piece (psychomotor). Furthermore, later in the game the person may even learn to love the game itself, value its applications in life, and appreciate its history (affective domain). Transfer of learning is the application of skill, knowledge or understanding to resolve a novel problem or situation that happens when certain conditions are fulfilled. Research indicates that learning transfer

1620-522: A child over time. Studies within metacognition have proven the value in active learning, claiming that the learning is usually at a stronger level as a result. In addition, learners have more incentive to learn when they have control over not only how they learn but also what they learn. Active learning is a key characteristic of student-centered learning . Conversely, passive learning and direct instruction are characteristics of teacher-centered learning (or traditional education ). Associative learning

1800-429: A condition called learned helplessness . There is evidence for human behavioral learning prenatally , in which habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation , indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in development . Play has been approached by several theorists as a form of learning. Children experiment with

1980-425: A criterion for testing the validity of knowledge, thus providing a conceptual framework for later development of experimental methodology in the natural and social sciences. In the 18th century the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau espoused a set of theories which would become highly influential in the field of education, particularly through his philosophical novel Emile, or On Education . Despite stating that

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2160-451: A dog might learn to sit as the trainer scratches his ears, which ultimately is removing his itches (undesirable aspect). Positive reinforcement is defined by adding a desirable aspect of life or thing. For example, a dog might learn to sit if he receives a treat. In this example the treat was added to the dog's life. The typical paradigm for classical conditioning involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evokes

2340-455: A famous example to make his case. Two children in school who originally can solve problems at an eight-year-old developmental level (that is, typical for children who were age 8) might be at different developmental levels. If each child received assistance from an adult, one was able to perform at a nine-year-old level and one was able to perform at a twelve-year-old level. He said “This difference between twelve and eight, or between nine and eight,

2520-683: A form of learning is central to a child's learning and development. Through play, children learn social skills such as sharing and collaboration. Children develop emotional skills such as learning to deal with the emotion of anger, through play activities. As a form of learning, play also facilitates the development of thinking and language skills in children. There are five types of play: These five types of play are often intersecting. All types of play generate thinking and problem-solving skills in children. Children learn to think creatively when they learn through play. Specific activities involved in each type of play change over time as humans progress through

2700-415: A form that plants can use. This trait is common among plants in the family Fabaceae . Nitrogen is a vital element for both plant growth and reproduction. Nitrogen is also essential for plant photosynthesis because it is a component of chlorophyll . Nitrogen fixation contributes nitrogen to the plant and to the soil surrounding the plant's roots. Nitrogen fixation is an adaptive trait that has transformed

2880-406: A greater potential for learning than those grown in high light. Plants that live in low-light environments have less of an opportunity for photosynthesis compared to plants that live in high-light environments where sunshine isn't a problem. When the Mimosa plant folds in its leaves as a defensive mechanism there is an energetic trade off, since folding its leaves reduces the amount of photosynthesis

3060-409: A learner interacts with the e-learning environment, it is called augmented learning . By adapting to the needs of individuals, the context-driven instruction can be dynamically tailored to the learner's natural environment. Augmented digital content may include text, images, video, audio (music and voice). By personalizing instruction, augmented learning has been shown to improve learning performance for

3240-421: A lifetime. See also minimally invasive education . Moore (1989) purported that three core types of interaction are necessary for quality, effective online learning: In his theory of transactional distance, Moore (1993) contented that structure and interaction or dialogue bridge the gap in understanding and communication that is created by geographical distances (known as transactional distance). Rote learning

3420-437: A low rate as well as for the weak and strong stimuli, respectively. Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, as well as the sensitive plant Mimosa pudica and the large protozoan Stentor coeruleus . This concept acts in direct opposition to sensitization. Sensitization is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of

3600-464: A major influence on the development of progressive education in the United States. He believed that the classroom should prepare children to be good citizens and facilitate creative intelligence. He pushed for the creation of practical classes that could be applied outside of a school setting. He also thought that education should be student-oriented, not subject-oriented. For Dewey, education

3780-410: A music-based video game, some people may be motivated to learn how to play a real instrument, or after watching a TV show that references Faust and Lovecraft, some people may be inspired to read the original work. Self-education can be improved with systematization. According to experts in natural learning, self-oriented learning training has proven an effective tool for assisting independent learners with

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3960-422: A naïve understanding of morality based on behavior and outcomes to a more advanced understanding based on intentions. Piaget's views of moral development were elaborated by Lawrence Kohlberg into a stage theory of moral development . There is evidence that the moral reasoning described in stage theories is not sufficient to account for moral behavior. For example, other factors such as modeling (as described by

4140-403: A number of crucial assumptions. First, the psychology of cognitive development defines human cognitive competence at successive phases of development. Education aims to help students acquire knowledge and develop skills that are compatible with their understanding and problem-solving capabilities at different ages. Thus, knowing the students' level on a developmental sequence provides information on

4320-487: A particular domain of knowledge it is not enough for students to learn the concepts of the domain. They should be exposed to the use of the concepts in authentic activities by the practitioners of the domain. A dominant influence on the social constructivist paradigm is Lev Vygotsky 's work on sociocultural learning, describing how interactions with adults, more capable peers, and cognitive tools are internalized to form mental constructs. " Zone of Proximal Development " (ZPD)

4500-496: A person, it can be a machine or book, or other source of visual and/or audio input. Elaborating on Vygotsky's theory, Jerome Bruner and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of instructional scaffolding , in which the social or information environment offers supports for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized. Jean Piaget was interested in how an organism adapts to its environment. Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with

4680-402: A plant. Wilhelm Pfeffer , a German botanist during the 19th century, used Mimosa in one of the first experiments testing plant habituation. Further experimentation was done in 1965 when Holmes and Gruenberg discovered that Mimosa could distinguish between two stimuli, a water drop and a finger touch. Their findings also demonstrated that the habituated behavior was not due to fatigue since

4860-446: A product of social interaction and active involvement in both online and onsite courses. Research implies that some un-assessed aspects of onsite and online learning challenge the equivalency of education between the two modalities. Both onsite and online learning have distinct advantages with traditional on-campus students experiencing higher degrees of incidental learning in three times as many areas as online students. Additional research

5040-399: A profession in the last twenty years. School psychology began with the concept of intelligence testing leading to provisions for special education students, who could not follow the regular classroom curriculum in the early part of the 20th century. Another main focus of school psychology was to help close the gap for children of colour, as the fight against racial inequality and segregation

5220-692: A progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves. This sends a warning that the stimulation is harmful. Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism. Active learning occurs when a person takes control of his/her learning experience. Since understanding information is the key aspect of learning, it is important for learners to recognize what they understand and what they do not. By doing so, they can monitor their own mastery of subjects. Active learning encourages learners to have an internal dialogue in which they verbalize understandings. This and other meta-cognitive strategies can be taught to

5400-487: A protective role for the plant against insect herbivory. The simplest form of learning is the ability of an organism to have a certain level of sensitivity to the environment that allows the organism to respond to potentially harmful stimuli as well as the capability to learn and filter out irrelevant stimuli (habituation) or increase the response due to a learned stimulus (sensitization). Research done by scientist Monica Gagliano has shown habituation in Mimosa pudica. In

5580-438: A real predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a very specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place). The habituation process is faster for stimuli that occur at a high rather than for stimuli that occur at

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5760-455: A reflexive response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does not normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the "conditioned stimulus"). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a conditioned response . The classic example is Ivan Pavlov and his dogs. Pavlov fed his dogs meat powder, which naturally made

5940-523: A result of an event. For example, a fear of dogs that follows being bitten by a dog is episodic learning. Episodic learning is so named because events are recorded into episodic memory , which is one of the three forms of explicit learning and retrieval, along with perceptual memory and semantic memory . Episodic memory remembers events and history that are embedded in experience and this is distinguished from semantic memory, which attempts to extract facts out of their experiential context or – as some describe –

6120-490: A result, they are important in understanding human cognition, learning, and social perception. Some of the ideas and issues pertaining to educational psychology date back to the time of Plato and Aristotle . Philosophers as well as sophists discussed the purpose of education , training of the body and the cultivation of psycho-motor skills, the formation of good character, the possibilities and limits of moral education . Some other educational topics they spoke about were

6300-490: A retrospective view that characterizes development in terms of a child's independent capabilities. The advancement through and attainment of the upper limit of the ZPD is limited by the instructional and scaffolding-related capabilities of the more knowledgeable other (MKO). The MKO is typically assumed to be an older, more experienced teacher or parent, but often can be a learner's peer or someone their junior. The MKO need not even be

6480-523: A setting for his educational ideals; with this, he explains that the different parts of the soul (similar to that of Aristotle's ideas) are each responsible for different operations, which function distinctively. The first book covers the different "souls": "The Vegetative Soul"; this is the soul of nutrition , growth, and reproduction, "The Sensitive Soul", which involves the five external senses; "The Cogitative soul", which includes internal senses and cognitive facilities. The second book involves functions of

6660-579: A shared interest in the topic of learning from safety events such as incidents/accidents , or in collaborative learning health systems). Research in such fields has led to the identification of various sorts of learning. For example, learning may occur as a result of habituation , or classical conditioning , operant conditioning or as a result of more complex activities such as play , seen only in relatively intelligent animals. Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness. Learning that an aversive event cannot be avoided or escaped may result in

6840-472: A significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to predators and the risk of injury and possibly infection . It also consumes energy , so there must be significant benefits associated with play for it to have evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for example improving physical fitness . Play, as it pertains to humans as

7020-409: A single drop or consecutive training sessions where the plants were repeatedly dropped. The plants were then shaken as a novel stimuli to test that the plants were suppressing their leaf folding reflex from habitual learning and not from exhaustion (dishabituation test). The first group was tested to see if short-term memory was enough for plants to modify their behaviour. Regardless of what light group

7200-435: A skill that go beyond the child's actual developmental or maturational level. The lower limit of ZPD is the level of skill reached by the child working independently (also referred to as the child's developmental level). The upper limit is the level of potential skill that the child can reach with the assistance of a more capable instructor. In this sense, the ZPD provides a prospective view of cognitive development, as opposed to

7380-419: A stimulus diminishes when the stimulus is repeated. Thus, habituation must be distinguished from extinction , which is an associative process. In operant extinction, for example, a response declines because it is no longer followed by a reward. An example of habituation can be seen in small song birds—if a stuffed owl (or similar predator ) is put into the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were

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7560-532: A timeless organization of knowledge. For instance, if a person remembers the Grand Canyon from a recent visit, it is an episodic memory. He would use semantic memory to answer someone who would ask him information such as where the Grand Canyon is. A study revealed that humans are very accurate in the recognition of episodic memory even without deliberate intention to memorize it. This is said to indicate

7740-481: A very large storage capacity of the brain for things that people pay attention to. Multimedia learning is where a person uses both auditory and visual stimuli to learn information. This type of learning relies on dual-coding theory . Electronic learning or e-learning is computer-enhanced learning. A specific and always more diffused e-learning is mobile learning (m-learning), which uses different mobile telecommunication equipment, such as cellular phones . When

7920-415: Is memorizing information so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The major technique used for rote learning is learning by repetition , based on the idea that a learner can recall the material exactly (but not its meaning) if the information is repeatedly processed. Rote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion. Meaningful learning

8100-490: Is a kind of learning occurring at a particular life stage that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. In filial imprinting, young animals, particularly birds, form an association with another individual or in some cases, an object, that they respond to as they would to a parent. In 1935, the Austrian Zoologist Konrad Lorenz discovered that certain birds follow and form

8280-481: Is a term Vygotsky used to characterize an individual's mental development. He believed that tasks individuals can do on their own do not give a complete understanding of their mental development. He originally defined the ZPD as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.” He cited

8460-450: Is a type of learning based on dialogue. In incidental teaching learning is not planned by the instructor or the student, it occurs as a byproduct of another activity — an experience, observation, self-reflection, interaction, unique event (e.g. in response to incidents/accidents), or common routine task. This learning happens in addition to or apart from the instructor's plans and the student's expectations. An example of incidental teaching

8640-644: Is always related to semiosis , and is often associated with representational systems/activity. There are various functional categorizations of memory which have developed. Some memory researchers distinguish memory based on the relationship between the stimuli involved (associative vs non-associative) or based to whether the content can be communicated through language (declarative/explicit vs procedural/implicit). Some of these categories can, in turn, be parsed into sub-types. For instance, declarative memory comprises both episodic and semantic memory. Non-associative learning refers to "a relatively permanent change in

8820-415: Is an internal state that activates, guides and sustains behavior. Motivation can have several impacting effects on how students learn and how they behave towards subject matter: Mimosa pudica Mimosa pudica (also called sensitive plant , sleepy plant , action plant , humble plant , touch-me-not, touch-and-die , or shameplant ) is a creeping annual or perennial flowering plant of

9000-408: Is an invention of educational psychology and is coincident with the development of that discipline. Continuing debates about the nature of intelligence revolve on whether it can be characterized by a single factor known as general intelligence , multiple factors (e.g., Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences ), or whether it can be measured at all. In practice, standardized instruments such as

9180-429: Is called "activation." This is when the student's representations of the text are present during working memory . This causes the student to read through the material without absorbing the information and being able to retain it. When working memory is absent from the reader's representations of the working memory, they experience something called "deactivation." When deactivation occurs, the student has an understanding of

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9360-462: Is called for to investigate the implications of these findings both conceptually and pedagogically. Benjamin Bloom has suggested three domains of learning in his taxonomy which are: These domains are not mutually exclusive. For example, in learning to play chess , the person must learn the rules (cognitive domain)—but must also learn how to set up the chess pieces and how to properly hold and move

9540-537: Is considered to have a greater influence internationally than in the United States. Internationally, the taxonomy is used in every aspect of education from the training of the teachers to the development of testing material. Bloom believed in communicating clear learning goals and promoting an active student. He thought that teachers should provide feedback to the students on their strengths and weaknesses. Bloom also did research on college students and their problem-solving processes. He found that they differ in understanding

9720-413: Is development; and 3) learning and development are separate, but interactive processes (e.g., gestaltism ): one process always prepares the other process, and vice versa. Vygotsky rejected these three major theories because he believed that learning should always precede development in the ZPD. According to Vygotsky, through the assistance of a more knowledgeable other, a child can learn skills or aspects of

9900-407: Is divided into categories that are on a continuum from easiest to more complex. The categories are knowledge or recall, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The affective domain deals with emotions and has 5 categories. The categories are receiving phenomenon, responding to that phenomenon, valuing, organization, and internalizing values. The psychomotor domain deals with

10080-405: Is done a little at a time or in increments, learning is an automatic process and its principles apply to all mammals. Thorndike's research with Robert Woodworth on the theory of transfer found that learning one subject will only influence your ability to learn another subject if the subjects are similar. This discovery led to less emphasis on learning the classics because they found that studying

10260-502: Is erect in young plants but becomes creeping or trailing with age. It can hang very low and become floppy. The stem is slender, branching, and sparsely to densely prickly, growing to a length of 1.5 m (5 ft). The erect height of M. pudica usually reaches around ~30 cm (~1 ft). The leaves are bipinnately compound, with one or two pinnae pairs, and 10–26 leaflets per pinna. The petioles are also prickly. Pedunculate (stalked) pale pink or purple flower heads arise from

10440-425: Is infrequent; most common when "... cued, primed, and guided..." and has sought to clarify what it is, and how it might be promoted through instruction. Over the history of its discourse, various hypotheses and definitions have been advanced. First, it is speculated that different types of transfer exist, including: near transfer, the application of skill to solve a novel problem in a similar context; and far transfer,

10620-403: Is most often grown as an indoor annual but is also grown for groundcover. Propagation is generally by seed. Mimosa pudica grows most effectively in nutrient-poor soil that allows for substantial water drainage. However, this plant is also shown to grow in scalped and eroded subsoils. Typically, disrupted soil is necessary in order for M. pudica to become established in an area. Additionally,

10800-522: Is not regarded as invasive in those places. In the United States, it grows in Louisiana , Florida , Hawaii , Tennessee , Virginia , Maryland , Puerto Rico , Texas , Alabama , Mississippi , North Carolina , Georgia , the territory of Guam, and the Virgin Islands . Mimosa pudica has several natural predators, such as the spider mite and mimosa webworm . Both of these insects wrap

10980-553: Is not shade-tolerant and is primarily found on soils with low nutrient concentrations. Mimosa pudica was first formally described by Carl Linnaeus in Species Plantarum in 1753. The species epithet, pudica , is Latin for ' shame ' , ' bashful ' , or ' shrinking ' , alluding to its shrinking reaction to contact. The species is known by numerous common names including sensitive plant, action plant, humble plant, shameplant, and touch-me-not. The stem

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11160-670: Is the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of human learning . The study of learning processes, from both cognitive and behavioral perspectives, allows researchers to understand individual differences in intelligence , cognitive development, affect , motivation , self-regulation, and self-concept, as well as their role in learning . The field of educational psychology relies heavily on quantitative methods, including testing and measurement, to enhance educational activities related to instructional design, classroom management , and assessment, which serve to facilitate learning processes in various educational settings across

11340-401: Is the concept that learned knowledge (e.g., a fact) is fully understood to the extent that it relates to other knowledge. To this end, meaningful learning contrasts with rote learning in which information is acquired without regard to understanding. Meaningful learning, on the other hand, implies there is a comprehensive knowledge of the context of the facts learned. Evidence-based learning is

11520-489: Is the father of psychology in America, but he also made contributions to educational psychology. In his famous series of lectures Talks to Teachers on Psychology , published in 1899, James defines education as "the organization of acquired habits of conduct and tendencies to behavior". He states that teachers should "train the pupil to behavior" so that he fits into the social and physical world. Teachers should also realize

11700-416: Is the process by which a person or animal learns an association between two stimuli or events. In classical conditioning , a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a reflex-eliciting stimulus until eventually the neutral stimulus elicits a response on its own. In operant conditioning, a behavior that is reinforced or punished in the presence of a stimulus becomes more or less likely to occur in

11880-439: Is the small and ideal period of time between the subject performing the desired behavior, and receiving the positive reinforcement as a result of their performance. The reward needs to be given immediately after the completion of the wanted behavior. Operant conditioning is different from classical conditioning in that it shapes behavior not solely on bodily reflexes that occur naturally to a specific stimulus, but rather focuses on

12060-404: Is what we call the zone of proximal development. ” He further said that the ZPD “defines those functions that have not yet matured but are in the process of maturation, functions that will mature tomorrow but are currently in an embryonic state.” The zone is bracketed by the learner's current ability and the ability they can achieve with the aid of an instructor of some capacity. Vygotsky viewed

12240-412: Is when an aversive aspect of life or thing is added to the subject, for this reason it is called positive punishment. For example, the parent spanking their child would be considered a positive punishment, because a spanking was added to the child. Negative punishment is considered the removal of something loved or desirable from the subject. For example, when a parent puts his child in time out, in reality,

12420-490: Is when the instructor places a train set on top of a cabinet. If the child points or walks towards the cabinet, the instructor prompts the student to say "train". Once the student says "train", he gets access to the train set. Here are some steps most commonly used in incidental teaching: Incidental learning is an occurrence that is not generally accounted for using the traditional methods of instructional objectives and outcomes assessment. This type of learning occurs in part as

12600-607: The Civilization games are presented as an example – by using these modules gamers can dig deeper for knowledge about historical events in the gameplay. The importance of rules that regulate learning modules and game experience is discussed by Moreno, C., in a case study about the mobile game Kiwaka . In this game, developed by Landka in collaboration with ESA and ESO , progress is rewarded with educational content, as opposed to traditional education games where learning activities are rewarded with gameplay. Dialogic learning

12780-629: The Mimosa can perform during the closed period by 40%, but provides a rapid defensive mechanism against potentially harmful predators or external stimulation. Since the low-light plants were already in low-energy environments and folding their leaves would be more energetically costly to the plant, researchers predicted the low-light plants would have adapted to have faster habitual learning capabilities so they could filter out unharmful stimuli to increase their energy production. Plants were either grown in high-light or low-light conditions. The plants were stimulated by being dropped from 15 cm for either

12960-532: The Stanford-Binet IQ test and the WISC are widely used in economically developed countries to identify children in need of individualized educational treatment. Children classified as gifted are often provided with accelerated or enriched programs. Children with identified deficits may be provided with enhanced education in specific skills such as phonological awareness . In addition to basic abilities,

13140-742: The learning sciences . In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks. The field of educational psychology involves the study of memory , conceptual processes, and individual differences (via cognitive psychology) in conceptualizing new strategies for learning processes in humans. Educational psychology has been built upon theories of operant conditioning , functionalism , structuralism , constructivism , humanistic psychology , Gestalt psychology , and information processing . Educational psychology has seen rapid growth and development as

13320-668: The petiole , and finally to the large pulvinus at the end of the petiole, where the leaf attaches to the stem. The pulvini cells gain and lose turgor due to water moving in and out of these cells, and multiple ion concentrations play a role in the manipulation of water movement. The mimosa's leaves, similar to Venus flytrap 's trigger hairs, are hypersensitive to touch. In line with the touch-sensing function used for tasks such as for defense or nutrient maintenance, these parts have mechanoreceptors linked to mechanosensitive channels that can conduct calcium ions and indirectly relative anions upon touch stimulation, giving rise to depolarization,

13500-793: The social cognitive theory of morality ) are required to explain bullying . Rudolf Steiner 's model of child development interrelates physical, emotional, cognitive, and moral development in developmental stages similar to those later described by Piaget . Developmental theories are sometimes presented not as shifts between qualitatively different stages, but as gradual increments on separate dimensions. Development of epistemological beliefs (beliefs about knowledge) have been described in terms of gradual changes in people's belief in: certainty and permanence of knowledge, fixedness of ability, and credibility of authorities such as teachers and experts. People develop more sophisticated beliefs about knowledge as they gain in education and maturity. Motivation

13680-492: The 1930s. The progressive movement in the United States took off at this time and led to the idea of progressive education . John Flanagan, an educational psychologist, developed tests for combat trainees and instructions in combat training. In 1954 the work of Kenneth Clark and his wife on the effects of segregation on black and white children was influential in the Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education . From

13860-427: The 1960s to present day, educational psychology has switched from a behaviorist perspective to a more cognitive-based perspective because of the influence and development of cognitive psychology at this time. Jerome Bruner is notable for integrating Piaget 's cognitive approaches into educational psychology . He advocated for discovery learning where teachers create a problem solving environment that allows

14040-754: The Philippines, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Japan, and Sri Lanka. It has been introduced to many other regions and is regarded as an invasive species in Tanzania, South and Southeast Asia, and many Pacific islands. It is regarded as invasive in parts of Australia and is a declared weed in the Northern Territory , and Western Australia although not naturalized there. Control is recommended in Queensland . It has also been introduced to Uganda, Ghana, Nigeria, Seychelles, Mauritius and East Asia but

14220-648: The Stanford Center for Research and Development in Teaching, which contributed research on teaching as well as influencing the education of important educational psychologists. Applied behavior analysis , a research-based science utilizing behavioral principles of operant conditioning , is effective in a range of educational settings. For example, teachers can alter student behavior by systematically rewarding students who follow classroom rules with praise, stars, or tokens exchangeable for sundry items. Despite

14400-561: The Termites, Terman found that gifted children become gifted adults. Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) supported the scientific movement in education. He based teaching practices on empirical evidence and measurement. Thorndike developed the theory of instrumental conditioning or the law of effect. The law of effect states that associations are strengthened when it is followed by something pleasing and associations are weakened when followed by something not pleasing. He also found that learning

14580-505: The ZPD as a better way to explain the relation between children's learning and cognitive development. Prior to the ZPD, the relation between learning and development could be boiled down to the following three major positions: 1) Development always precedes learning (e.g., constructivism ): children first need to meet a particular maturation level before learning can occur; 2) Learning and development cannot be separated, but instead occur simultaneously (e.g., behaviorism ): essentially, learning

14760-429: The act of being dropped, suggesting the plants really had learned to recognize the "feeling" of being dropped. Further experiments showed that the plants continued to not react to dropping for at least 28 days, suggesting that they have the capacity for some form of memory associated with their habituation. In this experiment, researcher Monica Gagliano wanted to study if Mimosa plants in low-light conditions would have

14940-429: The application of skill to solve a novel problem presented in a different context. Furthermore, Perkins and Salomon (1992) suggest that positive transfer in cases when learning supports novel problem solving, and negative transfer occurs when prior learning inhibits performance on highly correlated tasks, such as second or third-language learning. Concepts of positive and negative transfer have a long history; researchers in

15120-452: The assigned schema. The critical step of finding a mapping between the problem and a pre-existing schema is often cited as supporting the centrality of analogical thinking to problem-solving. Each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities, and challenges that result from predisposition, learning, and development. These manifest as individual differences in intelligence , creativity , cognitive style , motivation , and

15300-504: The basis of the problem and the ideas in the problem. He also found that students differ in process of problem-solving in their approach and attitude toward the problem. Nathaniel Gage (1917–2008) is an important figure in educational psychology as his research focused on improving teaching and understanding the processes involved in teaching. He edited the book Handbook of Research on Teaching (1963), which helped develop early research in teaching and educational psychology. Gage founded

15480-405: The benefits of using mnemonics for immediate and delayed retention of information. Problem solving , according to prominent cognitive psychologists, is fundamental to learning . It resides as an important research topic in educational psychology. A student is thought to interpret a problem by assigning it to a schema retrieved from long-term memory . A problem students run into while reading

15660-400: The book should not be used as a practical guide to nurturing children, the pedagogical approach outlined in it was lauded by Enlightenment contemporaries including Immanuel Kant and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe . Rousseau advocated a child-centered approach to education, and that the age of the child should be accounted for in choosing what and how to teach them. In particular he insisted on

15840-409: The bridge between social issues and education by introducing the idea of social issues to be solved through education. Horlacher describes the most prominent example of this during The Enlightenment to be "improving agricultural production methods." Johann Herbart (1776–1841) is considered the father of educational psychology . He believed that learning was influenced by interest in the subject and

16020-489: The capacity to process information, communicate, and relate to others. The most prevalent disabilities found among school age children are attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disability , dyslexia , and speech disorder . Less common disabilities include intellectual disability , hearing impairment , cerebral palsy , epilepsy , and blindness . Although theories of intelligence have been discussed by philosophers since Plato , intelligence testing

16200-449: The child is losing the opportunity to be with friends, or to enjoy the freedom to do as he pleases. In this example, negative punishment is the removal of the child's desired rights to play with his friends etc. Reinforcement on the other hand is used to increase a wanted behavior either through negative reinforcement or positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is defined by removing an undesirable aspect of life, or thing. For example,

16380-481: The children participated in everyday activities, they learned the cultural significance of these interactions. The collaborative and helpful behaviors exhibited by Mexican and Mexican-heritage children is a cultural practice known as being "acomedido". Chillihuani girls in Peru described themselves as weaving constantly, following behavior shown by the other adults. Episodic learning is a change in behavior that occurs as

16560-428: The classics does not contribute to overall general intelligence. Thorndike was one of the first to say that individual differences in cognitive tasks were due to how many stimulus-response patterns a person had rather than general intellectual ability. He contributed word dictionaries that were scientifically based to determine the words and definitions used. The dictionaries were the first to take into consideration

16740-415: The classroom setting. As a field of study, educational psychology is fairly new and was not considered a specific practice until the 20th century. Reflections on everyday teaching and learning allowed some individuals throughout history to elaborate on developmental differences in cognition, the nature of instruction, and the transfer of knowledge and learning. These topics are important to education and, as

16920-698: The cognitive perspective is more widely held than the behavioral perspective, perhaps because it admits causally related mental constructs such as traits , beliefs , memories , motivations , and emotions . Cognitive theories claim that memory structures determine how information is perceived , processed , stored, retrieved and forgotten . Among the memory structures theorized by cognitive psychologists are separate but linked visual and verbal systems described by Allan Paivio 's dual coding theory . Educational psychologists have used dual coding theory and cognitive load theory to explain how people learn from multimedia presentations. The spaced learning effect,

17100-434: The concerns above, sequencing of concepts and skills in teaching must take account of the processing and working memory capacities that characterize successive age levels. Second, the psychology of cognitive development involves understanding how cognitive change takes place and recognizing the factors and processes which enable cognitive competence to develop. Education also capitalizes on cognitive change, because

17280-450: The condition they prepare, contribute, share, and can prove this offered valuable new insight, helped to acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, teaching , etc. To learn a skill, such as solving a Rubik's Cube quickly, several factors come into play at once: Tangential learning is the process by which people self-educate if a topic is exposed to them in a context that they already enjoy. For example, after playing

17460-674: The conditions under which transfer of learning might occur. Early research by Ruger, for example, found that the "level of attention", "attitudes", "method of attack" (or method for tackling a problem), a "search for new points of view", a "careful testing of hypothesis" and "generalization" were all valuable approaches for promoting transfer. To encourage transfer through teaching, Perkins and Salomon recommend aligning ("hugging") instruction with practice and assessment, and "bridging", or encouraging learners to reflect on past experiences or make connections between prior knowledge and current content. Educational psychology Educational psychology

17640-461: The construction of knowledge presupposes effective teaching methods that would move the student from a lower to a higher level of understanding. Mechanisms such as reflection on actual or mental actions vis-à-vis alternative solutions to problems, tagging new concepts or solutions to symbols that help one recall and mentally manipulate them are just a few examples of how mechanisms of cognitive development may be used to facilitate learning. Finally,

17820-511: The context in which the learning occurs as central to the learning itself. It regards learning as a process of enculturation. People learn by exposure to the culture of practitioners. They observe and practice the behavior of practitioners and 'pick up relevant jargon, imitate behavior, and gradually start to act in accordance with the norms of the practice'. So, a student learns to become a mathematician through exposure to mathematician using tools to solve mathematical problems. So in order to master

18000-474: The culture. This is different from acculturation , where a person adopts the values and societal rules of a culture different from their native one. Multiple examples of enculturation can be found cross-culturally. Collaborative practices in the Mazahua people have shown that participation in everyday interaction and later learning activities contributed to enculturation rooted in nonverbal social experience. As

18180-598: The curriculum to the students. Binet also emphasized that practice of material was important. In 1916 Lewis Terman revised the Binet-Simon so that the average score was always 100. The test became known as the Stanford-Binet and was one of the most widely used tests of intelligence. Terman, unlike Binet, was interested in using intelligence test to identify gifted children who had high intelligence. In his longitudinal study of gifted children, who became known as

18360-399: The demonstrated efficacy of awards in changing behavior, their use in education has been criticized by proponents of self-determination theory , who claim that praise and other rewards undermine intrinsic motivation . There is evidence that tangible rewards decrease intrinsic motivation in specific situations, such as when the student already has a high level of intrinsic motivation to perform

18540-421: The development of motor skills, movement, and coordination and has 7 categories that also go from simplest to most complex. The 7 categories of the psychomotor domain are perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation, and origination. The taxonomy provided broad educational objectives that could be used to help expand the curriculum to match the ideas in the taxonomy. The taxonomy

18720-531: The development of pedagogy in Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands. In addition, Jean Piaget's stage-based approach to child development has been observed to have parallels to Rousseau's theories. Philosophers of education such as Juan Vives, Johann Pestalozzi, Friedrich Fröbel, and Johann Herbart had examined, classified and judged the methods of education centuries before the beginnings of psychology in

18900-590: The development of the head start program. He was interested in the influence of culture on education and looked at the impact of poverty on educational development. Benjamin Bloom (1903–1999) spent over 50 years at the University of Chicago , where he worked in the department of education. He believed that all students can learn. He developed the taxonomy of educational objectives . The objectives were divided into three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. The cognitive domain deals with how we think. It

19080-400: The dogs learned that the bell signaled that food was about to come, and began to salivate when they heard the bell. Once this occurred, the bell became the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation to the bell became the conditioned response (CR). Classical conditioning has been demonstrated in many species. For example, it is seen in honeybees, in the proboscis extension reflex paradigm. It

19260-428: The dogs salivate—salivating is a reflexive response to the meat powder. Meat powder is the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation is the unconditioned response (UR). Pavlov rang a bell before presenting the meat powder. The first time Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but once he put the meat powder in their mouths they began to salivate. After numerous pairings of bell and food,

19440-515: The early 20th century described the possibility that "...habits or mental acts developed by a particular kind of training may inhibit rather than facilitate other mental activities". Finally, Schwarz, Bransford and Sears (2005) have proposed that transferring knowledge into a situation may differ from transferring knowledge out to a situation as a means to reconcile findings that transfer may both be frequent and challenging to promote. A significant and long research history has also attempted to explicate

19620-438: The effects of music, poetry, and the other arts on the development of the individual, role of the teacher, and the relations between teacher and student. Plato saw knowledge acquisition as an innate ability, which evolves through experience and understanding of the world. This conception of human cognition has evolved into a continuing argument of nature vs. nurture in understanding conditioning and learning today. Aristotle , on

19800-470: The end of the 19th century. The period of 1890–1920 is considered the golden era of educational psychology when aspirations of the new discipline rested on the application of the scientific methods of observation and experimentation to educational problems. From 1840 to 1920 37 million people immigrated to the United States. This created an expansion of elementary schools and secondary schools. The increase in immigration also provided educational psychologists

19980-415: The experiment, M. pudica plants were repeatedly dropped until they stopped reacting to the stimulus. This seemed to show that the plants were learning that this disturbance did not hurt them, and ceased to react. However, to show that it was not that the plants were simply exhausted, some plants were exposed to a new stimulus (being shaken). These plants reacted fully to this stimulus, despite not reacting to

20160-792: The feasibility of using such plant as a building block for creating plant-based controllable two-color displays, exploiting air jets instead of electrical or touch-based stimulation. In a 2022 study in the journal Nature Communications , researchers used simultaneous recordings of cytosolic Ca and electrical signals to show that rapid changes in Ca coupled with action and variation potentials trigger rapid movements in wounded M. pudica. Moreover, they found that disrupting cytosolic Ca dynamics through pharmacological manipulation or CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing made M. pudica more vulnerable to herbivorous insect attacks. The findings suggest that these rapid movements based on propagating Ca and electrical signals serve

20340-564: The filaments are pink to lavender. Pollens are circular with approximately 8 microns in diameter. The fruit consists of clusters of two to eight pods from 1–2 cm (0.4–0.8 in) long each, these being prickly on the margins. The pods break into two to five segments and contain pale brown seeds about 2.5 mm (0.1 in) long. The flowers are insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated . The seeds have hard seed coats which restrict germination and make osmotic pressure and soil acidity less significant hindrances. High temperatures are

20520-731: The filariform larvae of Strongyloides stercoralis in less than one hour. Aqueous extracts of the roots of the plant have shown significant neutralizing effects in the lethality of the venom of the monocled cobra ( Naja kaouthia ). It appears to inhibit the myotoxicity and enzyme activity of cobra venom. Mimosa pudica demonstrates both antioxidant and antibacterial properties. This plant has also been demonstrated to be non-toxic in brine shrimp lethality tests, which suggests that M. pudica has low levels of toxicity. Chemical analysis has shown that Mimosa pudica contains various compounds, including "alkaloids, flavonoid C-glycosides, sterols, terenoids, tannins, saponin and fatty acids". The roots of

20700-531: The formality of the learning, but rather the way it is directed and organized. In formal learning, the learning or training departments set out the goals and objectives of the learning and oftentimes learners will be awarded with a diploma, or a type of formal recognition. Non-formal learning is organized learning outside the formal learning system. For example, learning by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth organizations, and workshops. From

20880-477: The goal behavior. But the results showing detrimental effects are counterbalanced by evidence that, in other situations, such as when rewards are given for attaining a gradually increasing standard of performance, rewards enhance intrinsic motivation. Many effective therapies have been based on the principles of applied behavior analysis, including pivotal response therapy which is used to treat autism spectrum disorders . Among current educational psychologists,

21060-503: The importance of habit and instinct. They should present information that is clear and interesting and relate this new information and material to things the student already knows about. He also addresses important issues such as attention, memory, and association of ideas. Alfred Binet published Mental Fatigue in 1898, in which he attempted to apply the experimental method to educational psychology. In this experimental method he advocated for two types of experiments, experiments done in

21240-442: The individual's personality traits are also important, with people higher in conscientiousness and hope attaining superior academic achievements, even after controlling for intelligence and past performance. Developmental psychology , and especially the psychology of cognitive development, opens a special perspective for educational psychology. This is so because education and the psychology of cognitive development converge on

21420-596: The initiation of an action potential (AP). They also have voltage-sensitive potassium channels that promote hyperpolarization and turgor formation. Such sensitive plants fire all-or-nothing type APs, similar to those seen in animals. This movement of folding inwards is energetically costly for the plant and also interferes with the process of photosynthesis. Mimosa pudica is native to the tropical Americas. It can also be found in Asian countries such as Singapore, Bangladesh, Thailand, India, Nepal, Indonesia, Taiwan, Malaysia,

21600-418: The kind and level of knowledge they can assimilate, which, in turn, can be used as a frame for organizing the subject matter to be taught at different school grades. This is the reason why Piaget's theory of cognitive development was so influential for education, especially mathematics and science education. In the same direction, the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development suggest that in addition to

21780-547: The lab and experiments done in the classroom. In 1904 he was appointed the Minister of Public Education. This is when he began to look for a way to distinguish children with developmental disabilities. Binet strongly supported special education programs because he believed that "abnormality" could be cured. The Binet-Simon test was the first intelligence test and was the first to distinguish between "normal children" and those with developmental disabilities. Binet believed that it

21960-425: The late 1800s. Juan Vives (1493–1540) proposed induction as the method of study and believed in the direct observation and investigation of the study of nature . His studies focused on humanistic learning , which opposed scholasticism and was influenced by a variety of sources including philosophy , psychology , politics , religion , and history . He was one of the first prominent thinkers to emphasize that

22140-410: The leaf axils in mid-summer with more and more flowers as the plant gets older. A single flower survives for less than a day, and usually dies completely by the next day. Flowers of M. pudica are very brittle and soft. The globose to ovoid heads are 8–10 mm (0.3–0.4 in) in diameter (excluding the stamens ). On close examination, it is seen that the floret petals are red in their upper part and

22320-827: The leaf-folding response returned when another stimulus was presented. Electrical signaling experiments were conducted on Mimosa pudica , where 1.3–1.5 volts and 2–10 μC of charge acted as the threshold to induce closing of the leaves. This topic was further explored in 2017 by neuroscientist Greg Gage who connected Mimosa pudica to Dionaea muscipula , better known as the Venus flytrap . Both plants had electrical wiring connecting them and were linked to an electrocardiogram . The results showed how causing an action potential in one plant led to an electrical response, causing both plants to respond. Experiments were made on how anesthetics for animals could affect Mimosa pudica . These experiments showed that anesthetics cause narcosis of

22500-401: The leaflets in webs that hinder the responsive closing. Webbed leaves are noticeable as they become brown fossilized remnants after an attack. The Mimosa webworm is composed of two generations that arise at different seasons. This makes prevention difficult and requires proper timing of insecticides to avoid aiding other predators. Once the larvae become steel-gray moths, they are harmless to

22680-546: The learner chooses which rate is appropriate to learn and because this type of learning tends to take place within smaller groups or by oneself. The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and nonformal learning methods. The UN and EU recognize these different forms of learning (cf. links below). In some schools, students can get points that count in the formal-learning systems if they get work done in informal-learning circuits. They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and training courses, on

22860-535: The learner ponders his or her situation. This type of learning does not require a professor of any kind, and learning outcomes are unforeseen following the learning experience. Informal learning is self-directed and because it focuses on day-to-day situations, the value of informal learning can be considered high. As a result, information retrieved from informal learning experiences will likely be applicable to daily life. Children with informal learning can at times yield stronger support than subjects with formal learning in

23040-437: The learning of emotion through classical conditioning principles. Observational learning is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. It is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes. In humans, this form of learning seems to not need reinforcement to occur, but instead, requires a social model such as a parent, sibling, friend, or teacher with surroundings. Imprinting

23220-660: The lifespan. Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology , bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology . It is also informed by neuroscience . Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialties within educational studies, including instructional design , educational technology , curriculum development , organizational learning , special education , classroom management , and student motivation. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and

23400-419: The lifespan. Play as a form of learning, can occur solitarily, or involve interacting with others. Enculturation is the process by which people learn values and behaviors that are appropriate or necessary in their surrounding culture . Parents, other adults, and peers shape the individual's understanding of these values. If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values, and rituals of

23580-515: The location of a school is important to learning . He suggested that a school should be located away from disturbing noises; the air quality should be good and there should be plenty of food for the students and teachers. Vives emphasized the importance of understanding individual differences of the students and suggested practice as an important tool for learning. Vives introduced his educational ideas in his writing, "De anima et vita" in 1538. In this publication, Vives explores moral philosophy as

23760-402: The main stimuli that cause the seeds to end dormancy . The roots of Mimosa pudica create carbon disulfide , which prevents certain pathogenic and mycorrhizal fungi from growing within the plant's rhizosphere . This allows the formation of nodules on the roots of the plant that contain endosymbiotic diazotrophs , which fix atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into a form that is usable by

23940-417: The material and is able to retain information. If deactivation occurs during the first reading, the reader does not need to undergo deactivation in the second reading. The reader will only need to reread to get a "gist" of the text to spark their memory . When the problem is assigned to the wrong schema, the student's attention is subsequently directed away from features of the problem that are inconsistent with

24120-519: The motor organs, which was observed by the application of volatile ether, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, formaldehyde, and other substances. In a preclinical study, methanolic extract of Mimosa pudica showed significant antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic activities in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. In 2018, two research groups from the Universities of Palermo (Italy) and Lugano (Switzerland) demonstrated

24300-403: The natural phases of learning. Extra Credits writer and game designer James Portnow was the first to suggest games as a potential venue for "tangential learning". Mozelius et al. points out that intrinsic integration of learning content seems to be a crucial design factor, and that games that include modules for further self-studies tend to present good results. The built-in encyclopedias in

24480-560: The nature of knowledge. For example, educational psychologists have conducted research on the instructional applicability of Jean Piaget's theory of development , according to which children mature through four stages of cognitive capability. Piaget hypothesized that children are not capable of abstract logical thought until they are older than about 11 years, and therefore younger children need to be taught using concrete objects and examples. Researchers have found that transitions, such as from concrete to abstract logical thought, do not occur at

24660-461: The nitrogen found in Mimosa pudica can be attributed to the fixation of N 2 by bacteria. Burkholderia phymatum STM815 and Cupriavidus taiwanensis LMG19424 are beta-rhizobial strains of diazotrophs that are highly effective at fixing nitrogen when coupled with M. pudica . Burkholderia is also shown to be a strong symbiont of Mimosa pudica in nitrogen-poor soils in regions like Cerrado and Caatinga. In cultivation, this plant

24840-558: The opportunity to use intelligence testing to screen immigrants at Ellis Island. Darwinism influenced the beliefs of the prominent educational psychologists. Even in the earliest years of the discipline, educational psychologists recognized the limitations of this new approach. The pioneering American psychologist William James commented that: Psychology is a science, and teaching is an art; and sciences never generate arts directly out of themselves. An intermediate inventive mind must make that application, by using its originality". James

25020-456: The organizer's point of reference, non-formal learning does not always need a main objective or learning outcome. From the learner's point of view, non-formal learning, although not focused on outcomes, often results in an intentional learning opportunity. Informal learning is less structured than "non-formal learning". It may occur through the experience of day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking because of

25200-469: The other hand, ascribed to the idea of knowledge by association or schema . His four laws of association included succession, contiguity, similarity, and contrast. His studies examined recall and facilitated learning processes. John Locke is considered one of the most influential philosophers in post-renaissance Europe, a time period that began around the mid-1600s. Locke is considered the "Father of English Psychology". One of Locke's most important works

25380-408: The parasitic relationship between the bacteria and plants into a mutualistic relationship. The shifting dynamics of this relationship are demonstrated by the corresponding improvement of various symbiotic characteristics in both Mimosa pudica and bacteria. These traits include enhanced "competitive nodulation, nodule development, intracellular infection, and bacteroid persistence". As much as 60% of

25560-465: The pea/legume family Fabaceae . It is often grown for its curiosity value: the sensitive compound leaves quickly fold inward and droop when touched or shaken and re-open a few minutes later. For this reason, this species is commonly cited as an example of rapid plant movement . Like a number of other plant species, it undergoes changes in leaf orientation termed "sleep" or nyctinastic movement. The foliage closes during darkness and reopens in light. This

25740-400: The physico-chemical properties of the soil it invades; total nitrogen and potassium, for example, have been seen to increase in significantly invaded areas. Thirty-six native Thai plant species were tested to see which conducted the most phytoremediation of arsenic-polluted soils caused by tin mines. Mimosa pudica was one of the four species that significantly extracted and bioaccumulated

25920-488: The plant but lay more eggs. The species can be a weed for tropical crops, particularly when fields are hand-cultivated. Crops it tends to affect are corn, coconuts, tomatoes, cotton, coffee, bananas, soybeans, papaya, and sugar cane. Dry thickets may become a fire hazard. In some cases, it has become a forage plant although the variety in Hawaii is reported to be toxic to livestock. In addition, Mimosa pudica can change

26100-508: The plant have been shown to contain up to 10% tannin . A substance similar to adrenaline has been found within the plant's leaves. Mimosa pudica 's seeds produce mucilage made up of D -glucuronic acid and D -xylose . Additionally, extracts of M. pudica have been shown to contain crocetin-dimethylester, tubulin, and green-yellow fatty oils. A new class of phytohormone turgorines, which are derivatives of gallic acid 4- O -(β- D -glucopyranosyl-6'-sulfate), have been discovered within

26280-421: The plant in order to reduce water loss due to evaporation. The main structure mechanistically responsible for the drooping of the leaves is the pulvinus . The stimulus is transmitted as an action potential from a stimulated leaflet to the leaflet's swollen base ( pulvinus ), and from there to the pulvini of the other leaflets, which run along the length of the leaf's rachis . The action potential then passes into

26460-524: The plant is shade intolerant and frost-sensitive, meaning that it does not tolerate low levels of light or cold temperatures. Mimosa pudica does not compete for resources with larger foliage or forest canopy undergrowth. In temperate zones it must be grown under protection, where the temperature falls below 13 °C (55 °F). Mimosa pudica contains the toxic alkaloid mimosine , which has been found to also have antiproliferative and apoptotic effects. The extracts of Mimosa pudica immobilize

26640-415: The plant. Mimosa pudica is a tetraploid (2 n = 52). The leaflets also close when stimulated in other ways, such as, warming, touching, blowing, and shaking, which are all encapsulated within mechanical or electrical stimulation. These types of movements have been termed seismonastic movements. This reflex may have evolved as a defense mechanism to disincentivize predators, or alternatively to shade

26820-821: The plant. The nitrogen-fixing properties of Mimosa pudica contribute to a high nitrogen content within the plant's leaves. The leaves of M. pudica also contain a wide range of carbon to mineral content, as well as a large variation in C values. The correlation between these two numbers suggests that significant ecological adaptation has occurred among the varieties of M. pudica in Brazil. The roots contain sac-like structures that release organic and organosulfur compounds including SO 2 , methylsulfinic acid, pyruvic acid , lactic acid , ethanesulfinic acid , propane sulfinic acid, 2-mercaptoaniline , S-propyl propane 1-thiosulfinate, and thioformaldehyde , an elusive and highly unstable compound never before reported to be emitted by

27000-452: The plants were in, one drop was not enough for the plants to learn to ignore the stimulation. For the groups that were dropped repetitively, the plants stopped folding their leaves and were even fully open after a drop before the end of the trainings. The low-light plants learned faster to ignore the dropping stimulation than the high-light plants. When the plants were shaken, they responded immediately by folding their leaves, which suggests that

27180-577: The plants were not ignoring the dropping stimulation due to exhaustion. This research suggests that the Mimosa has the capability for habitual learning and memory storage and that Mimosa plants grown in low-light conditions have faster learning mechanisms so they can reduce the amount of time their leaves are unnecessarily closed to optimize energy production. Further research suggests that both memory and habituation are present in wild Mimosa, and that they may be able to adjust habituation based leaf age and pollination requirements. Given that plants lack

27360-441: The pollutant into its leaves. Other studies have found that Mimosa pudica extracts heavy metals such as copper, lead, tin, and zinc from polluted soils. This allows for the soil to gradually return to less toxic compositions. If nitrogen-fixing bacteria are present in the environment, Mimosa pudica may form root nodules for them to inhabit. These bacteria are able to convert atmospheric nitrogen, which plants cannot use, into

27540-484: The possible dangers inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). It is learning from life, during a meal at the table with parents, during play , and while exploring etc.. For the learner, informal learning is most often an experience of happenstance, and not a deliberately planned experience. Thus this does not require enrollment into any class. Unlike formal learning, informal learning typically does not lead to accreditation. Informal learning begins to unfold as

27720-404: The presence of that stimulus. Operant conditioning is a way in which behavior can be shaped or modified according to the desires of the trainer or head individual. Operant conditioning uses the thought that living things seek pleasure and avoid pain, and that an animal or human can learn through receiving either reward or punishment at a specific time called trace conditioning. Trace conditioning

27900-463: The primacy of experiential education , in order to develop the child's ability to reason autonomously. Rousseau's philosophy influenced educational reformers including Johann Bernhard Basedow , whose practice in his model school the Philanthropinum drew upon his ideas, as well as Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi . More generally Rousseau's thinking had significant direct and indirect influence on

28080-487: The psychology of cognitive development is concerned with individual differences in the organization of cognitive processes and abilities, in their rate of change, and in their mechanisms of change. The principles underlying intra- and inter-individual differences could be educationally useful, because knowing how students differ in regard to the various dimensions of cognitive development, such as processing and representational capacity, self-understanding and self-regulation, and

28260-435: The rational soul: mind, will, and memory. Lastly, the third book explains the analysis of emotions. Johann Pestalozzi (1746–1827), a Swiss educational reformer, emphasized the child rather than the content of the school. Pestalozzi fostered an educational reform backed by the idea that early education was crucial for children, and could be manageable for mothers. Eventually, this experience with early education would lead to

28440-408: The same time in all domains. A child may be able to think abstractly about mathematics but remain limited to concrete thought when reasoning about human relationships. Perhaps Piaget's most enduring contribution is his insight that people actively construct their understanding through a self-regulatory process. Piaget proposed a developmental theory of moral reasoning in which children progress from

28620-401: The sensorimotor stage from birth to 2 years old, the preoperational state from 2 to 7 years old, the concrete operational stage from 7 to 10 years old, and the formal operational stage from 12 years old and up. He also believed that learning was constrained to the child's cognitive development. Piaget influenced educational psychology because he was the first to believe that cognitive development

28800-582: The shaping of wanted behavior that requires conscious thought, and ultimately requires learning. Punishment and reinforcement are the two principal ways in which operant conditioning occurs. Punishment is used to reduce unwanted behavior, and ultimately (from the learner's perspective) leads to avoidance of the punishment, not necessarily avoidance of the unwanted behavior. Punishment is not an appropriate way to increase wanted behavior for animals or humans. Punishment can be divided into two subcategories, positive punishment and negative punishment. Positive punishment

28980-424: The strength of response to a single stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus." This definition exempts the changes caused by sensory adaptation , fatigue , or injury. Non-associative learning can be divided into habituation and sensitization . Habituation is an example of non-associative learning in which one or more components of an innate response (e.g., response probability, response duration) to

29160-409: The student to question, explore and experiment. In his book The Process of Education Bruner stated that the structure of the material and the cognitive abilities of the person are important in learning . He emphasized the importance of the subject matter. He also believed that how the subject was structured was important for the student's understanding of the subject and that it was the goal of

29340-422: The student's own experience. "The material furnished by way of information should be relevant to a question that is vital in the students own experience" Jean Piaget (1896–1980) was one of the most powerful researchers in of developmental psychology during the 20th century. He developed the theory of cognitive development . The theory stated that intelligence developed in four different stages. The stages are

29520-492: The teacher to structure the subject in a way that was easy for the student to understand. In the early 1960s, Bruner went to Africa to teach math and science to school children, which influenced his view as schooling as a cultural institution. Bruner was also influential in the development of MACOS, Man: a Course of Study , which was an educational program that combined anthropology and science . The program explored human evolution and social behavior . He also helped with

29700-509: The teacher. He thought that teachers should consider the students' existing mental sets—what they already know—when presenting new information or material. Herbart came up with what are now known as the formal steps. The 5 steps that teachers should use are: There were three major figures in educational psychology in this period: William James, G. Stanley Hall, and John Dewey. These three men distinguished themselves in general psychology and educational psychology, which overlapped significantly at

29880-474: The topic of mathematics. Daily life experiences take place in the workforce, family life, and any other situation that may arise during one's lifetime. Informal learning is voluntary from the learner's viewpoint, and may require making mistakes and learning from them. Informal learning allows the individual to discover coping strategies for difficult emotions that may arise while learning. From the learner's perspective, informal learning can become purposeful, because

30060-407: The understanding that knowledge is only built on knowledge and experience. In the late 1600s, John Locke advanced the hypothesis that people learn primarily from external forces. He believed that the mind was like a blank tablet (tabula rasa), and that successions of simple impressions give rise to complex ideas through association and reflection. Locke is credited with establishing " empiricism " as

30240-406: The use of evidence from well designed scientific studies to accelerate learning. Evidence-based learning methods such as spaced repetition can increase the rate at which a student learns. Formal learning is a deliberate way attaining of knowledge, which takes place within a teacher-student environment, such as in a school system or work environment. The term formal learning has nothing to do with

30420-445: The users' maturity level. He also integrated pictures and easier pronunciation guide into each of the definitions. Thorndike contributed arithmetic books based on learning theory . He made all the problems more realistic and relevant to what was being studied, not just to improve the general intelligence . He developed tests that were standardized to measure performance in school-related subjects. His biggest contribution to testing

30600-632: The various domains of understanding, such as mathematical, scientific, or verbal abilities, would enable the teacher to cater for the needs of the different students so that no one is left behind. Constructivism is a category of learning theory in which emphasis is placed on the agency and prior "knowing" and experience of the learner, and often on the social and cultural determinants of the learning process. Educational psychologists distinguish individual (or psychological) constructivism, identified with Piaget's theory of cognitive development , from social constructivism . The social constructivist paradigm views

30780-418: The world, learn the rules, and learn to interact through play. Lev Vygotsky agrees that play is pivotal for children's development, since they make meaning of their environment through playing educational games. For Vygotsky, however, play is the first form of learning language and communication, and the stage where a child begins to understand rules and symbols. This has led to a view that learning in organisms

30960-473: Was a social experience that helped bring together generations of people. He stated that students learn by doing. He believed in an active mind that was able to be educated through observation, problem-solving, and enquiry. In his 1910 book How We Think , he emphasizes that material should be provided in a way that is stimulating and interesting to the student since it encourages original thought and problem-solving. He also stated that material should be relative to

31140-658: Was first studied by French scientist Jean-Jacques d'Ortous . In the UK it has gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit . The species is native to the Caribbean and South and Central America, but is now a pantropical weed, and can now be found in the Southern United States , South Asia, East Asia, Micronesia, Australia , South Africa, and West Africa as well. It

31320-408: Was important and something that should be paid attention to in education. Most of the research on Piagetian theory was carried out by American educational psychologists. The number of people receiving a high school and college education increased dramatically from 1920 to 1960. Because very few jobs were available to teens coming out of eighth grade, there was an increase in high school attendance in

31500-458: Was important to study individual differences between age groups and children of the same age. He also believed that it was important for teachers to take into account individual students' strengths and also the needs of the classroom as a whole when teaching and creating a good learning environment. He also believed that it was important to train teachers in observation so that they would be able to see individual differences among children and adjust

31680-418: Was recently also demonstrated in garden pea plants. Another influential person in the world of classical conditioning is John B. Watson . Watson's work was very influential and paved the way for B.F. Skinner 's radical behaviorism. Watson's behaviorism (and philosophy of science) stood in direct contrast to Freud and other accounts based largely on introspection. Watson's view was that the introspective method

31860-480: Was still very prominent, during the early to mid-1900s. However, "school psychology" itself has built a fairly new profession based upon the practices and theories of several psychologists among many different fields. Educational psychologists are working side by side with psychiatrists, social workers, teachers, speech and language therapists, and counselors in an attempt to understand the questions being raised when combining behavioral, cognitive, and social psychology in

32040-546: Was the CAVD intelligence test which used a multidimensional approach to intelligence and was the first to use a ratio scale. His later work was on programmed instruction, mastery learning, and computer-based learning: If, by a miracle of mechanical ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to him who had done what was directed on page one would page two become visible, and so on, much that now requires personal instruction could be managed by print. John Dewey (1859–1952) had

32220-470: Was too subjective and that we should limit the study of human development to directly observable behaviors. In 1913, Watson published the article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views", in which he argued that laboratory studies should serve psychology best as a science. Watson's most famous, and controversial, experiment was " Little Albert ", where he demonstrated how psychologists can account for

32400-446: Was written in 1690, named An Essay Concerning Human Understanding . In this essay, he introduced the term "tabula rasa" meaning "blank slate." Locke explained that learning was attained through experience only and that we are all born without knowledge. He followed by contrasting Plato's theory of innate learning processes. Locke believed the mind was formed by experiences, not innate ideas. Locke introduced this idea as "empiricism", or

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