Legio was a Roman military camp south of Tel Megiddo in the Roman province of Galilee .
108-688: Following the Bar Kokhba revolt (132-136 CE), Legio VI Ferrata was stationed at Legio near Caparcotna. The approximate location of the camp of the Legio VI Ferrata was known from the persistence of its name in the form Lajjun by which a Palestinian village was known. It was close to the ancient town of Rimmon, perhaps the Hadad-rimmon of Zechariah 12:11 , which in the 3rd century was renamed Maximianopolis by Diocletian in honor of his co-emperor Maximian . Both places were within
216-495: A cooking pot. A study by Anastasia Shapiro was done on the Petrographic Examination of Tiles, Bricks and Mortar from Legio . In Area B, ceramic tiles, tegulae roof tiles and square floor tiles, as well as bricks were uncovered. Eight tiles and two bricks were discovered bearing Roman legion stamps. Upon further analysis of these fragments, petrographic examinations indicate that all the sampled items are part of
324-482: A distance its ancestral home [...] Thus when the city came to be bereft of the nation of the Jews, and its ancient inhabitants had completely perished, it was settled by foreigners." Similarly, Jerome writes that Jews were only allowed to visit the city to mourn its ruins, paying for the privilege. Under the argument to ensure the prosperity of the newly founded Roman colony of Aelia Capitolina, Jews were forbidden to enter
432-468: A factor in popularizing the uprising across all of Judea. With the onset of the conflict, initial rebel victories established an independent Jewish enclave covering much of the province for several years. Bar Kokhba was appointed nasi ( נָשִׂיא , lit. ' prince ' ) of the rebels' provisional state, and much of Judea's populace regarded him as the messiah of Judaism who would restore Jewish national independence . This initial setback for
540-622: A familiar device of Jewish literature. An additional legion, the VI Ferrata , arrived in the province to maintain order. Works on Aelia Capitolina commenced in 131. Consul Quintus Tineius Rufus performed the foundation ceremony which involved ploughing over the designated city limits. "Ploughing up the Temple", seen as a religious offence, turned many Jews against the Roman authorities. The Church Fathers and rabbinic literature emphasize
648-524: A homogeneous petrographic group. This matrix consists of calcareous fossiliferous clay containing some tiny, opaque stains of iron oxide and a small amount of silt, which comprises basalt-derived minerals. Some of the micro fossils have ferric or silica filling. Others being completely vitrified. Non-plastic material also makes up for about 2-18% of the volume of tegulae. This includes larger and smaller forms of basalt, quartz, chalk, fossil shells, and terra rosa. In 2023, researchers from USC Dornsife announced
756-516: A key role in the successful legislation in California that recognized pharmacists as healthcare providers in 2014. Consistently the top-ranked private school of pharmacy, the School continues to be an innovative force in pharmacy education to meet the needs of a changing world, launching the nation's first PharmD/MBA dual degree in 1990, the first PhD in pharmaceutical economics and policy in 1994,
864-464: A layer of mud and other dumped pieces of earth. A number of fibulae were discovered in the Jezreel Valley, dating back to the second century AD. 32°34′20″N 35°10′13″E / 32.57222°N 35.17028°E / 32.57222; 35.17028 Bar Kokhba revolt Major conflicts The Bar Kokhba revolt ( Hebrew : מֶרֶד בַּר כּוֹכְבָא Mereḏ Bar Kōḵḇāʾ )
972-470: A magnificent marble sarcophagus showing Dionysus discovered in Turmus Ayya , Latin-inscribed stone discovered at Khirbet Tibnah , a statue of Minerva discovered at Khirbat al-Mafjar , a tomb of a centurion at Beit Nattif and a Roman mansion with western elements discovered at Arak el-Khala, near Beit Guvrin . In Perea , a Roman military presence in the middle of the 2nd century suggests that
1080-596: A mere two and a half years. The revolt had catastrophic consequences for the Jewish population in Judaea, with profound loss of life, extensive forced displacements, and widespread enslavement. The scale of suffering surpassed even the aftermath of the First Jewish–Roman War , leaving central Judea in a state of desolation. Some scholars characterize these consequences as an act of genocide. Several decades after
1188-925: A more general Bachelor of Science in Public Policy, Management, and Planning/ For mid-career professionals, USC Price offers the Executive Master of Health Administration, the Executive Master of Leadership, and the International Public Policy and Management program. The mission of the USC Suzanne Dworak-Peck School of Social Work is to promote social justice and well-being at every social level through advanced education, community engagement, interdisciplinary scientific activity, advocacy, and professional leadership. The school advances its mission through its three academic centers, each of which reflects all of
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#17327650055341296-541: A relatively efficient amount of time. No military headquarters of this type for this particular period had yet been excavated in the entire Eastern Roman Empire , and the 2013 excavations uncovered defensive earthworks , a circumvolution rampart, barracks areas and artifacts including roof tiles stamped with the name of the Sixth Legion, and fragments of scale armor. Coins were found during the excavation process. The coins were found to have countermarks on them showing
1404-414: A result. According to Rabbinic sources some 400,000 men were at the disposal of Bar Kokhba at the peak of the rebellion. Simon bar Kokhba took the title Nasi Israel and ruled over an entity named Israel that was virtually independent for over two and a half years. The Jewish sage Rabbi Akiva, who was the spiritual leader of the revolt, identified Simon Bar Koziba as the Jewish messiah and gave him
1512-537: A series of religious edicts aimed at uprooting the Jewish nationalism in Judea. He prohibited Torah law and the Hebrew calendar and executed Judaic scholars. The sacred scrolls of Judaism were ceremonially burned at the large Temple complex as an offering to Jupiter. At the Temple, he installed two statues, one of Jupiter, another of himself. These proclamations remained in effect until Hadrian’s death in 138, which marked
1620-435: A significant relief to the surviving Jewish communities. Hadrian's post-war policy included a prohibition against Jews living in or even approaching Jerusalem, as described by several ancient sources. Eusebius notes that "Hadrian then commanded that by a legal decree and ordinances the whole nation should be absolutely prevented from entering from thenceforth even the district round Jerusalem, so that it could not even see from
1728-466: A significant settlement gap above these layers. It appears that Jewish settlement in Judea was almost completely eradicated by the end of the revolt. Shimeon Applebaum estimates that about two-thirds of the Jewish population of Judea died during the revolt. In 2003, Cotton described Dio's figures as highly plausible, given accurate Roman census declarations. In 2021, an ethno-archaeological comparison analysis by Dvir Raviv and Chaim Ben David supported
1836-508: A similar account: "in Hadrian's reign, when Jerusalem was completely destroyed and the Jewish nation was massacred in large groups at a time, with the result that they were even expelled from the borders of Judaea." Roman post-war policy also involved removing and enslaving large numbers of prisoners of war, a practice also observed after the revolt of the Salassi (25 BCE), the wars with
1944-527: A single episcopal see, generally called Maximianopolis, but in one list of such sees the name Legionum (genitive plural of the Latin word Legio ) is used, where the Greek original has "Maximianopolis". Legio lies along Palestine's Via Maris , an ancient trade route linking Egypt with the northern empires of Syria , Anatolia and Mesopotamia in the early Bronze Age . In 2002–2003, an archaeological survey
2052-474: A total force of 60,000–120,000 Roman soldiers facing Bar Kokhba's rebels. It is plausible that Legio IX Hispana was among the legions Severus brought with him from Europe, and that its demise occurred during Severus' campaign, as its disappearance during the second century is often attributed to this war. One of the crucial battles of the war took place near Tel Shalem in the Beit She'an valley, near what
2160-501: Is a department of the Marshall School of Business founded in 1979. The Iovine and Young is USC's 20th and newest professional school. The program seeks to empower the next generation of thought leaders, innovators, and entrepreneurs through the intersection of arts and design; technology; venture management; and communication. It was announced in 2012 that the School of Dance would be opened on campus; it opened to students in
2268-479: Is a gap in settlement above these levels. Fragmentary material from Transjordan and the Galilee adds to the discoveries from Judea. Excavations at archaeological sites such as Horvat Ethri and Khirbet Badd ‘Isa have demonstrated that these Jewish villages were destroyed in the revolt, and were only resettled by pagan populations in the 3rd century. Discoveries from towns like Gophna, known to be Jewish before
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#17327650055342376-508: Is at the University of Pennsylvania ). The School of Journalism, which became part of the School for Communication in 1994, features a core curriculum that requires students to devote themselves equally to print, broadcast and online media for the first year of study. USC's Annenberg School for Communication endowment rose from $ 7.5 million to $ 218 million between 1996 and 2007. USC collaborated with Shanghai Jiao Tong University to offer
2484-523: Is now identified as the legionary camp of Legio VI Ferrata . This theory was proposed by Werner Eck in 1999, as part of his general maximalist work which did put the Bar Kokhba revolt as a very prominent event on the course of the Roman Empire's history. Next to the camp, archaeologists unearthed the remnants of a triumphal arch , which featured a dedication to Hadrian, most likely referring to
2592-694: Is often considered suspect, and it may in reality have been intended to constitute a form of mockery of Jewish traditions which seemed absurd to the Romans. Cassius Dio reports that: The Jews [...] did not dare try conclusions with the Romans in the open field, but they occupied the advantageous positions in the country and strengthened them with mines and walls, in order that they might have places of refuge whenever they should be hard pressed, and might meet together unobserved underground; and they pierced these subterranean passages from above at intervals to let in air and light. Dio's account has been corroborated by
2700-431: Is responsible for the general education program for all USC undergraduates and houses a full-time faculty of approximately 700, more than 6,500 undergraduate majors (roughly half the total USC undergraduate population), and 1,200 doctoral students. In addition to 30 academic departments, the college also houses dozens of research centers and institutes. In 2007, Howard Gillman, Professor of Political Science, History, and Law,
2808-531: Is the first school of Social Work established west of the Mississippi. In September 2016, Suzanne Dworak-Peck, BA ’65, MSW ’67, made a historic $ 60 million gift to endow and name the USC Suzanne Dworak-Peck School of Social Work that will allow the school to broaden its vision and mission. This is the largest single gift to a school of Social Work in the United States. The School of Cinematic Arts ,
2916-882: The Aramaic patronymic bar Kokhba , meaning "Son of a Star", a reference to the Star Prophecy in Numbers 24:17 : "A star rises from Jacob ". The name Bar Kokhba does not appear in the Talmud but in ecclesiastical sources. Following a series of setbacks, Hadrian called his general Sextus Julius Severus from Britannia , and troops were brought from as far as the Danube . In 133/4, Severus landed in Judea with three legions from Europe (including Legio X Gemina and possibly also Legio IX Hispana ), cohorts of additional legions and between 30 and 50 auxiliary units. The size of
3024-598: The First Jewish–Roman War (66–73), Roman authorities took measures to suppress the rebellious province of Roman Judea . Instead of a procurator , they installed a praetor as a governor and stationed an entire legion , the Legio X Fretensis , in the area. Tensions continued to build up in the wake of the Kitos War , the second large-scale Jewish insurrection in the Eastern Mediterranean during 115–117,
3132-576: The Hellene ". In 438, when the Empress Eudocia removed the ban on Jews' praying at the Temple site, the heads of the community in Galilee issued a call "to the great and mighty people of the Jews" which began: "Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!" However, the Christian population of the city saw this as a threat to their primacy, and a riot erupted which chased Jews from
3240-747: The Raeti (15 BCE), and the Pannonian War (c. 12 BCE). Sources indicate that Jewish captives were sold into slavery and sent to various parts of the empire, and the slave market was flooded with Jewish slaves. Jerome reports that following the war, "innumerable people of diverse ages and both sexes were sold at the marketplace of Terebinthus. For this reason it is an accursed thing among the Jews to visit this acclaimed marketplace." In another work, he notes that thousands of people were sold at this market. The 7th-century Chronicon Paschale , drawing on earlier sources, mentions that Hadrian sold Jewish captives "for
3348-494: The Senate , did not employ the opening phrase commonly affected by the emperors: 'If you and your children are in health, it is well; I and the army are in health.'" Some argue that the exceptional number of preserved Roman veteran diplomas from the late 150s and 160s indicate an unprecedented conscription across the Roman Empire to replenish heavy losses within military legions and auxiliary units between 133 and 135, corresponding to
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3456-502: The USC School of Pharmacy has played a key leadership role in both the advancement of the field of pharmacy and in the education of new generations of pharmacists and remains one of the nation's foremost schools of pharmacy today. USC developed the nation's first Doctor of Pharmacy degree (PharmD) in 1950 and it was among the first schools of pharmacy to establish a clinical curriculum, beginning in 1968. Those were radical advances at
3564-795: The Western Wall . In 351–352 the Jews of Galilee launched yet another revolt , provoking heavy retribution. The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the Constantinian dynasty . In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor Julian , the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who, unlike his predecessors, defied Christianity. In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sassanian Persia, he ordered
3672-620: The Epstein Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering in 2002; Energy Corporation of America CEO John Mork and his family who named the Mork Family Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science in 2005; Ken Klein, CEO and president of Wind River Systems , who established the Klein Institute for Undergraduate Engineering Life, also in 2005; Ming Hsieh , founder of Cogent Inc., who named
3780-513: The Jewish Temple rebuilt in his effort to foster religions other than Christianity. The failure to rebuild the Temple has mostly been ascribed to the dramatic Galilee earthquake of 363 , and traditionally also to the Jews' ambivalence about the project . Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire, though Christian historians of the time ascribed it to divine intervention. Julian's support of Judaism caused Jews to call him "Julian
3888-547: The Jewish rebels who remained after his death were all killed or enslaved within the next year. Roman rule in Judea was not well-received among the Jewish population, especially after the destruction of the Second Temple during the Roman siege of Jerusalem in 70. The Romans had also continued to maintain a large military presence across the province; pushed unpopular changes in administrative and economic life; constructed
3996-426: The Jews produced defective weapons. In fact, weapons found at sites controlled by the insurgents are identical to those used by the Romans. Bethar was selected as the rebels' headquarters because of its strategic location near Jerusalem, abundant springs, and defensible position. Excavations have revealed fortifications likely built by Bar Kokhba's forces, though determining whether these defenses were constructed at
4104-555: The Jews there were also victims of the revolt. The name of a Roman veteran from the village of Meason in Perea appears on a papyrus that was signed in Caesarea in 151, implying that lands there had been expropriated and given to Roman settlers. A building inscription of the Sixth Legion from the 2nd century was discovered at as-Salt , which is identified as Gadara, one of the principal Jewish settlements in Perea, and provides more proof of
4212-502: The Judaean desert confirm that his original name was Simeon ben Kosiba . The name Bar Kokhba was bestowed by supporters including Rabbi Akiva , who endorsed him as the messiah based on the biblical prophecy "A star ( kokhav ) rises from Jacob." However, this claim was contested by other contemporary sages like Yohanan ben Torta. Seventeen letters discovered in the Judaean desert reveal some details on Bar Kokhba's personality. After
4320-572: The Kitos War. The proximate reasons seem to centre around the construction of a new city, Aelia Capitolina , over the ruins of Jerusalem and the erection of a temple to Jupiter on the Temple Mount . Until recently, some historians had tried to question the Colonia foundation event as one of the causes of the revolt, suggesting to rather time the Colonia establishment to the aftermath of
4428-577: The Messiah and did not support Bar Kokhba, they were barred from Jerusalem along with the Jews. The rebellion contributed to the differentiation between early Christianity and Judaism and their eventual clear separation. Roman casualties were heavy; Legio X Fretensis sustained heavy casualties during the revolt, and Legio XXII Deiotariana was disbanded following the revolt, perhaps because of serious losses. Cassius Dio writes "Many Romans, moreover, perished in this war. Therefore, Hadrian, in writing to
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4536-466: The Messiah was abstracted and spiritualized, and rabbinical political thought became deeply cautious and conservative. The rebellion was also among the events that helped differentiate early Christianity from Judaism . The Bar Kokhba revolt is named for its leader, Simon bar Kokhba . Since it was the last of three major Jewish–Roman wars , it is also known as the Third Jewish–Roman War or
4644-554: The Ming Hsieh Department of Electrical Engineering in 2006 with a $ 35 million gift; and Los Angeles real estate developer Sonny Astani, who named the Sonny Astani Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering with a $ 17 million gift in 2007. The Annenberg School for Communication , founded in 1971 is one of the two communication programs in the country endowed by Walter Annenberg (the other
4752-611: The Ninth in 120 and lived on for several decades to lead distinguished public careers. It was concluded that the legion was disbanded between 120 and 197, either as a result of fighting the Bar Kokhba revolt, or in Cappadocia (161), or at the Danube (162). Relations between the Jews in the region and the Roman Empire continued to be complicated. Constantine I allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation annually on Tisha B'Av at
4860-465: The Queni stream. The water provided by the aqueduct supplied the soldiers and legionnaires at Legio with a lasting supply of water. The structure allowed water from 124 meters above sea level to be sent to camps and cities. Without the aqueduct, the water would not be funneled to its desired locations in such an efficient time and process. Parts of the aqueduct remained exposed while a majority was covered in
4968-667: The Roman army amassed against the rebels was much larger than that commanded by Titus 60 years earlier—nearly one third of the Roman army took part in the campaign against Bar Kokhba. It is estimated that forces from at least 10 legions participated in Severus' campaign in Judea, including Legio X Fretensis , Legio VI Ferrata , Legio III Gallica , Legio III Cyrenaica , Legio II Traiana Fortis , Legio X Gemina , cohorts of Legio V Macedonica , cohorts of Legio XI Claudia , cohorts of Legio XII Fulminata and cohorts of Legio IV Flavia Felix , along with 30–50 auxiliary units, for
5076-527: The Roman authorities resettled the region with a diverse population. This included Roman veterans and immigrants from the western parts of the empire, who settled in Aelia Capitolina and its surroundings, administrative centers, and along main roads. Additionally, immigrants from the coastal plain and neighboring provinces such as Syria, Phoenicia , and Arabia settled in the Judean countryside. In
5184-524: The Roman military presence there. Following the revolt, the Hebrew language disappeared from daily use. Before the revolt, Hebrew was still used as a living language among a very significant part of the Jewish population in this region of the country. In the 3rd century sages no longer knew how to identify the Hebrew names of many plants mentioned in the Mishnah . Only a small number of sages who resided in
5292-490: The Roman-dominated cities on the coastal plain . Most of the villages in Judea's larger region show signs of devastation or abandonment that dates to the Bar Kokhba revolt. Buildings and underground installations carved out beneath or close to towns, such as hiding complexes, burial caves, storage facilities, and field towers, have both been found to have destruction layers and abandonment deposits. Furthermore, there
5400-441: The Romans led Emperor Hadrian to assemble a large army—six full legions with auxiliaries and other elements from up to six additional legions, all under the command of Sextus Julius Severus —and launch an extensive military campaign across Judea in 134, ultimately crushing the revolt. The killing of Bar Kokhba and the subsequent defeat of his rebels yielded disastrous consequences for Judea's Jewish populace, even more so than
5508-495: The Romans scaled back on their crackdown across Judea, but the ban on Jewish entry into Jerusalem remained in place, exempting only those Jews who wished to enter the city for Tisha B'Av. By destroying the association of Jews with Judea and forbidding the practice of the Jewish faith, Hadrian aimed to root out a nation that had inflicted heavy casualties on the Roman Empire. According to Eitan Klein, artistic, epigraphic , and numismatic evidence from post-revolt Judea indicates that
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#17327650055345616-607: The Third Jewish Revolt. Some historians also refer to it as the Second Revolt of Judea, not counting the Diaspora Revolt (115–117), which had only marginally been fought in Judea. While earlier scholars debated whether Bar Kokhba (meaning "son of the star") was the leader's original name and Bar Kosiba (meaning "son of disappointment") a later derogatory term, documents discovered in the 1950s in
5724-729: The USC (Executive) EMBA program in Shanghai . USC also operates two international study centers in Paris and Madrid. Beginning in 2006, the Marshall School of Business will have a San Diego satellite campus. In May 2006, USC's board of trustees and administration traveled to China. to announce the establishment of the USC U.S.-China Institute (USCI) joint research institute on U.S.-China relations and trends in China. USCI has funded research into
5832-538: The USC Dana and David Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences due to a donation of $ 200 million to the school made by Dana and David Dornsife. This gift is the largest in USC history. All Ph.D. degrees awarded at USC and most master's degrees are under the jurisdiction of the Graduate School. Professional degrees are awarded by each of the 17 professional schools. The Leventhal School of Accounting
5940-466: The accuracy of Dio's depopulation claims, describing his account as "reliable" and "based on contemporaneous documentation." Jewish survivors faced harsh punitive measures from the Romans, who often used social engineering to stabilize conflict zones. In the aftermath of the war, Jews were expelled from Jerusalem and its surroundings. Menahem Mor notes that Jews were also expelled from the districts of Gophna , Herodion , and Aqraba . Additionally,
6048-483: The beginning of the revolt or later in the conflict remains unresolved. Jewish leaders carefully planned the second revolt to avoid the numerous mistakes that had plagued the first First Jewish–Roman War 60 years earlier. In 132, the revolt, led by Simon bar Kokhba and Elasar , quickly spread from Modi'in across the country, cutting off the Roman garrison in Jerusalem. After Legio X and Legio VI failed to subdue
6156-585: The belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an alliance with the Sasanian Empire , joining the invasion of Palaestina Prima in 614 to overwhelm the Byzantine garrison, and briefly gained autonomy in Jerusalem. Several archaeological excavations have been performed during the 20th and 21st centuries in ruins of Roman-period Jewish villages across Judea and Samaria, as well in
6264-424: The camp. Aerial photography, satellite images, and high-resolution lidar data hinted that the hill known as el-Manach contained traces of artificial, human produced objects and structures. After this, slight depressions in the earth revealed the borders of the military camp itself. Long, linear indents that met at 90 degree angles were found on the north, south, and west side of the hill. The following evidence led to
6372-442: The campaign. Historians disagree on the duration of the Roman campaign following the fall of Betar. While some claim further resistance was broken quickly, others argue that pockets of Jewish rebels continued to hide with their families into the winter months of late 135 and possibly even spring 136. By early 136 however, it is clear that the revolt was defeated. The Babylonian Talmud ( Sanhedrin 93b) says that Bar Kokhba reigned for
6480-428: The city, except on the day of Tisha B'Av . A further, more lasting punishment was also implemented by the Romans. In an attempt to erase any memory of Judea or Ancient Israel , the name Judaea was dropped from the provincial name, which was renamed Syria Palaestina . Despite such name changes taking place elsewhere, rebellions have never resulted in a nation's name being expunged. After Hadrian's death in 138,
6588-470: The city. During the 5th and 6th centuries, a series of Samaritan revolts broke out across Palaestina Prima . Especially violent were the third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in near annihilation of the Samaritan community. It is likely that the Samaritan revolt of 556 was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered brutal suppression of their religion under Emperor Justinian. In
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#17327650055346696-493: The colony of Aelia Capitolina over the destroyed city of Jerusalem ; and erected a place of worship for Jupiter on Jerusalem's Temple Mount , where the Jews' Second Temple had stood. Rabbinic literature and the Church Fathers emphasize the role of Quintus Tineius Rufus , the erstwhile Roman governor of Judea, in provoking the Bar Kokhba revolt. The charismatic and messianic nature of Bar Kokhba may have also been
6804-491: The components of the school's rich learning environment, with opportunities for value-driven education, student and faculty scholarship, and opportunities for alumni to engage in lifelong learning. Faculty engage in empirical research, innovation and community service, engage our students in scholarly projects, and produce publications, conferences and presentations that focus on the needs of vulnerable individuals and communities facing complex challenges in diverse environments. This
6912-473: The crackdown that had taken place during and after the First Jewish–Roman War. Based on archeological evidence, ancient sources, and contemporary analysis, between 500,000–600,000 Jews are estimated to have been killed in the conflict. Judea was heavily depopulated as a result of the number of Jews killed or expelled by Roman troops, with a significant number of captives sold into slavery. Following
7020-490: The defeat of Bar Kokhba's army. Additional finds at Tel Shalem, including a bust of Hadrian, specifically link the site to the period. The theory for a major decisive battle in Tel Shalem implies a significant extension of the area of the rebellion, with Eck suggesting the war encompassed also northern valleys together with Galilee. After losing many of their strongholds, Bar Kokhba and the remnants of his army withdrew to
7128-606: The discovery of hundreds of hiding complexes , created in large numbers in almost every population center. Hideout systems were employed in the Judean hills, the Judean desert, northern Negev, and to some degree also in Galilee, Samaria and Jordan Valley. Many houses utilized underground hideouts, where Judean rebels hoped to withstand Roman superiority by the narrowness of the passages and even ambushes from underground. The cave systems were often interconnected and used as hideouts and for storage and refuge for their families. As of July 2015, some 350 hideout systems have been mapped within
7236-643: The discovery of Legio's amphitheater following clues left behind by Gottlieb Schumacher . The team described it as "It’s the first Roman military amphitheater ever uncovered in the Southern Levant , which encompasses Israel , Jordan and Palestine ." Among the findings was a rare gold coin of Emperor Diocletian . The aqueduct was found on the southeast side of the hill, and drew its water from springs at Ain Kubbih. The aqueduct would then split in two directions heading towards Daher ed-Dar and flour mills in
7344-424: The early development of the Internet when USC researcher Jonathan Postel was an editor of communications protocol for the fledgling internet, also known as ARPANET . The school's faculty includes Seymour Ginsburg , Irving Reed , Leonard Adleman , Solomon W. Golomb , Barry Boehm , Clifford Newman , Richard Bellman , Lloyd Welch , and Alexander Sawchuk . Previously known as the USC School of Engineering, it
7452-500: The enemy, thereby forfeiting divine protection. The horrendous scene after the city's capture could be best described as a massacre. The Jerusalem Talmud relates that the number of dead in Betar was enormous, that the Romans "went on killing until their horses were submerged in blood to their nostrils." According to a rabbinic midrash , the Romans executed eight leading members of the Sanhedrin (the list of Ten Martyrs includes two earlier rabbis): Rabbi Akiva; Haninah ben Teradion ;
7560-500: The failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt, the center of Jewish society shifted from Judea to Galilee . The province of Judaea was renamed Syria Palaestina as an intended punishment for the Jews and as a result of the desires of the region’s non-Jewish inhabitants. The Jews were also subjected to a series of religious edicts by the Romans, including an edict that barred all Jews from entering Jerusalem. The Bar Kokhba revolt also had philosophical and religious ramifications; Jewish belief in
7668-431: The fall of 2015. The Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry is composed of seven divisions, including the Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy and the Division of Occupational Science and Occupational Therapy. In 2006, The USC School of Fine Arts was renamed in honor of Gayle Roski, the wife of billionaire developer Edward P. Roski , after a $ 23-million donation to the school. Both are USC alums. Founded in 1905,
7776-664: The film school, the largest single donation to USC (and its fifth over $ 100 million). The Department of Architecture was established at USC within the Roski School of Fine Arts in 1916, becoming the first of its kind in Southern California . The department grew rapidly with the help of the Allied Architects of Los Angeles. A separate School of Architecture was organized in September 1925. Since then,
7884-415: The final stages of which saw fighting in Judea. Mismanagement of the province during the early 2nd century might well have led to the proximate causes of the revolt, largely bringing governors with clear anti-Jewish sentiments to run the province. Historians have suggested multiple reasons for the sparking of the Bar Kokhba revolt, long-term and proximate. Several elements are believed to have contributed to
7992-640: The first film school in the country and perhaps USC's most famous school, confers degrees in critical studies, screenwriting, film production, interactive media, animation, and film producing. As the university administration considered cinematic skills too valuable to be kept to film industry professionals, the school opened its classes to the university at large in 1998. In 2001, the film school added an Interactive Media Division studying stereoscopic cinema, panoramic cinema, immersive cinema, interactive cinema, video games, virtual reality, and mobile media. In September 2006, George Lucas donated $ 175 million to expand
8100-509: The first professional doctorate in regulatory science in 2008, and a translational science graduate program that merges science with clinical expertise. USC is the only private school of pharmacy on a major health sciences campus. This affords its students a unique environment of professionalism and opens the doors for clinical opportunities immediately on campus, including those at the Keck Hospital of USC, USC Norris Cancer Hospital, and
8208-581: The fortress of Betar , which subsequently came under siege in the summer of 135. Legio V Macedonica and Legio XI Claudia are said to have taken part in the siege. According to Jewish tradition, the fortress was breached and destroyed on the fast of Tisha B'av , the ninth day of the lunar month Av, a day of mourning for the destruction of the Second Temple. Rabbinical literature ascribes the defeat to Bar Kokhba killing his maternal uncle, Rabbi Elazar Hamudaʻi , after suspecting him of collaborating with
8316-908: The four pharmacies owned and operated by the School. USC School of Pharmacy students also find a rich professional and social atmosphere on the Health Sciences Campus, interacting with colleagues and faculty from various health profession schools. The mission of the USC Sol Price School of Public Policy is to improve the quality of life for people and their communities, in Southern California and abroad. It offers five master's level programs: Public Policy, Public Administration, Urban Planning, Real Estate Development, and Health Policy and Management. Graduate students at USC Price have considerable latitude to pursue their specialized areas of interest. Undergraduates pursue
8424-563: The general liberal arts and sciences of the College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences for undergraduates, the Graduate School for graduates, or the university's 17 professional schools. The USC Dana and David Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, the oldest and largest of the USC schools, grants undergraduate degrees in more than 130 majors and minors in the humanities, social sciences, and natural/physical sciences, and offers doctoral and masters programs in over 20 fields. USC College
8532-723: The hill. USC Dornsife The academics of the University of Southern California center on The College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences, the Graduate School, and its 17 professional schools. USC is a member of the Association of American Universities , joining in 1969. The University of Southern California houses professional schools offering a number of varying disciplines among which include communication, law , dentistry , medicine , business , engineering , journalism , public policy , music , architecture , and cinematic arts . USC's academic departments fall either under
8640-513: The interpreter of the Sanhedrin, Rabbi Huspith; Eleazar ben Shammua ; Hanina ben Hakinai ; Jeshbab the Scribe ; Judah ben Dama ; and Judah ben Bava . The date of Akiva's execution is disputed, some dating it to the beginning of the revolt based on the midrash, while others link it to final phases. The rabbinic account describes agonizing tortures: Akiva was flayed with iron combs, Ishmael had
8748-452: The length of time the coins were in circulation. Decorative fibulae were also discovered in the Jezreel Valley. In 2017, a monumental gate to the camp's headquarters, a stone mark and a dedicatory inscription were discovered that may be a listing of camp commanders or celebrated heroes of the Sixth Legion. In the camp's latrines , more than 200 Roman coins dating to the 2nd and 3rd centuries were found. Cremated human remains were discovered in
8856-436: The messiah becoming abstracted and spiritualized. The Talmud refers to Bar Kokhba as "Ben Koziva" ( בֶּן כּוֹזִיבָא , lit. ' Son of Deception ' ), placing him among the false messiahs . Eusebius of Caesarea wrote that Christians were killed and suffered "all kinds of persecutions" at the hands of rebel Jews when they refused to help Bar Kokhba against the Roman troops. Although Christians regarded Jesus as
8964-399: The numbers to be exaggerations, they nonetheless acknowledge the large scale of the disaster for Judea's Jewish population. Archaeological evidence confirms widespread destruction in Judea, as every village in the region exhibits signs of devastation from the revolt. The majority of Roman-period settlements in Judea that have been excavated exhibit destruction or abandonment layers, indicating
9072-455: The price of a daily portion of food for a horse." William V. Harris puts the overall number of enslaved captives taken during the revolt at higher than 100,000. Those who were not sold were transported to Gaza for auction. Many others were relocated to Egypt and other regions, significantly increasing the Jewish diaspora . While Jewish presence in the region significantly dwindled, there
9180-467: The rebellion; changes in administrative law, the widespread presence of legally-privileged Roman citizens , alterations in agricultural practice with a shift from landowning to sharecropping, the impact of a possible period of economic decline, and an upsurge of nationalism, the latter influenced by similar revolts among the Jewish communities in Egypt, Cyrenaica and Mesopotamia during the reign of Trajan in
9288-473: The rebels, additional reinforcements were dispatched from neighbouring provinces. Gaius Poblicius Marcellus , the legate of Roman Syria , arrived commanding Legio III Gallica , while Titus Haterius Nepos , the governor of Roman Arabia , brought Legio III Cyrenaica . Later on it is proposed by some historians that Legio XXII Deiotariana was sent from Arabia Petraea but was ambushed and massacred on its way to Aelia Capitolina and possibly disbanded as
9396-461: The revolt as a punishment. However, the 2014 archaeological finding of the Legio X Fretensis inscription in Jerusalem dedicated to Hadrian and dated to 129/130, as well as identification of Colonia Aelia Capitolina struck coins have since been largely accepted as confirmation to the sequence of events depicted in Jewish traditional literature. One interpretation involves the visit in 130 of Hadrian to
9504-428: The revolt prompted a widespread migration of Jews from Judea to coastal cities and Galilee . Eusebius writes "[...] all the families of the Jewish nation have suffered pain worthy of wailing and lamentation because God's hand has struck them, delivering their mother-city over to strange nations, laying their Temple low, and driving them from their country, to serve their enemies in a hostile land." Jerome provides
9612-445: The revolt's suppression, Roman historian Cassius Dio ( c. 155 –235) wrote: 50 of their most important outposts and 985 of their most famous villages were razed to the ground. 580,000 men were slain in the various raids and battles, and the number of those that perished by famine, disease and fire was past finding out, Thus nearly the whole of Judaea was made desolate." While several scholars, such as Peter Schäfer , thought
9720-573: The revolt, demonstrate that pagans of Hellenistic and Roman culture lived there during the Late Roman period. Herodium was excavated by archaeologist Ehud Netzer in the 1980s, publishing results in 1985. According to findings, during the later Bar-Kokhba revolt, complex tunnels were dug, connecting the earlier cisterns with one another. These led from the Herodium fortress to hidden openings, which allowed surprise attacks on Roman units besieging
9828-522: The revolt. Some historians argue that Legio IX Hispana 's disbandment in the mid-2nd century could have also been a result of this war. Previously it had generally been accepted that the Ninth disappeared around 108 CE, possibly suffering its demise in Britain, according to German historian Theodor Mommsen ; but archaeological findings in 2015 from Nijmegen dated to 121 contain the known inscriptions of two senior officers who were deputy commanders of
9936-483: The role of in provoking the revolt. The Romans issued a coin inscribed Aelia Capitolina . The Historia Augusta , a text which is problematic when used as a source for historical fact, states tensions rose after Hadrian banned circumcision , referred to as mutilare genitalia , taken to mean brit milah . Were the claim true it has been conjectured that Hadrian, as a Hellenist , would have viewed circumcision as an undesirable form of mutilation . The claim
10044-546: The ruins of Roman villas at Ein Yael, Khirbet er-Ras, Rephaim Valley and Ramat Rachel , and the Tenth Legion's kilns discovered near Giv'at Ram are all indications that the rural area surrounding Aelia Capitolina underwent a romanization process, with Roman citizens and Roman veterans settling in the area during the Late Roman period. Indications for the settlement of Roman veterans in other parts of Judea proper includes
10152-401: The ruins of 140 Jewish villages. Dio also states that the Jews manufactured their own weapons in preparation for the revolt: "The Jews [...] purposely made of poor quality such weapons as they were called upon to furnish, in order that the Romans might reject them and that they themselves might thus have the use of them." However, there is no archaeological evidence to support Dio's claim that
10260-457: The ruins of the Temple . At first sympathetic towards the Jews, Hadrian promised to rebuild the Temple, but the Jews felt betrayed when they found out that he intended to build a temple dedicated to Jupiter. A rabbinic version of this story claims that Hadrian planned on rebuilding the Temple but that a malevolent Samaritan convinced him not to. The reference to a malevolent Samaritan is, however,
10368-414: The school has been home to teachers such as Richard Neutra , Ralph Knowles, A. Quincy Jones , William Pereira , and Pierre Koenig . The School of Architecture can also claim notable alumni Frank Gehry , Thom Mayne , Raphael Soriano , Gregory Ain , and Pierre Koenig . Two of the alumni have become Pritzker Prize winners. In 2006, Qingyun Ma, a distinguished Shanghai-based architect, was named dean of
10476-422: The school. [1] In addition, in its 2009 edition of "America's Best Architecture & Design School", the journal DesignIntelligence ranked USC School of Architecture as the 12th best undergraduate architecture school in the U.S. The Andrew and Erna Viterbi School of Engineering is headed by Dean Yannis Yortsos. Its research centers have played a major role in the development of multiple technologies, including
10584-408: The skin of his head pulled off slowly, and Haninah was burned at a stake , with wet wool held by a Torah scroll wrapped around his body to prolong his death. Following the fall of Betar, the Roman forces went on a rampage of systematic killing, eliminating all remaining Jewish villages in the region and seeking out the refugees. Legio III Cyrenaica was the main force to execute this last phase of
10692-400: The south still spoke Hebrew. The Jerusalem Talmud and the classic legend midrashes (in which the majority of the acts and stories are in Aramaic ) both demonstrate that Hebrew was used mostly as a literary and artificial language. Hebrew is only found on a small percentage of cemeteries and synagogues. Rabbinical political thought became deeply cautious and conservative, with Jewish belief in
10800-523: The southern Hebron Hills . There were also Jewish communities along the coastal plain, in Caesarea , Beit She'an and on the Golan Heights . The maintenance of Jewish settlement in Palestine became a major concern of the rabbis. They endeavored to halt Jewish dispersal and even banned emigration from Palestine, branding those who settled outside its borders as idolaters. Hadrian promulgated
10908-539: The time but are now considered foundational training for all pharmacists throughout the US. The School also helped transform the pharmacist's role from a traditional dispenser of medicines to a direct provider of patient care. USC led a key pilot project in the 1970s to explore prescriptive authority for pharmacists that, in 1981, led to California being the first state to enact legislation allowing pharmacists to prescribe drug therapy in collaboration with physicians. USC then played
11016-408: The use of archaeological techniques to further discover the uncovered items at Legio. Ground-penetrating radar was the primary technique used to uncover the findings at Legio. The technique involves using antenna frequencies and data-acquisition parameters to analyze what lay beneath the surface of a variety of different types of soil. This technique allows the user to analyze a wide range of land in
11124-427: The vicinity of Jerusalem, villages were depopulated, and arable land owned by Jews was confiscated. In the following centuries, the lack of an alternative population to fill the empty villages led Roman and later Byzantine authorities to seek a different approach to benefit the nobles, and ultimately the church, by constructing estate farms and monasteries on the empty village lands. The Roman legionary tomb at Manahat ,
11232-525: Was a continuous small Jewish presence, and Galilee became its religious center. Some of the Judean survivors resettled in Galilee, with some rabbinical families gathering in Sepphoris . The Mishnah and part of the Talmud , central Jewish texts, were composed during the 2nd to 4th centuries in Galilee. Jewish communities continued to live on the edges of Judea, including Eleutheropolis , Ein Gedi and
11340-600: Was a large-scale armed rebellion initiated by the Jews of Judea , led by Simon bar Kokhba , against the Roman Empire in 132 CE. Lasting until 135 or early 136, it was the third and final escalation of the Jewish–Roman wars . Like the First Jewish–Roman War and the Second Jewish–Roman War , the Bar Kokhba revolt resulted in a total Jewish defeat; Bar Kokhba was killed by Roman troops at Betar in 135, and
11448-420: Was appointed the 20th Dean of the college. In the 2008–2009 academic year, 4,400 undergraduate degrees and 5,500 advanced degrees were awarded. All Ph.D. degrees awarded at USC and most master's degrees are under the jurisdiction of the Graduate School. Professional degrees are awarded by each of the respective professional schools. In 2011, the college changed its name from College of Letters, Arts and Sciences to
11556-574: Was conducted in the Legio region by Yotam Tepper as part of his master's thesis. The survey located the legionary camp on the northern slope of El-Manach hill, the village of Ceparcotani on the adjacent hill, and the city of Maximianopolis on the site of the contemporary Kibbutz Megiddo . In 2013 Tepper and the Jezreel Valley Regional Project dug test trenches measuring approximately 295 ft (90 m) by 16.5 ft (5.0 m) feet that revealed clear evidence of
11664-577: Was renamed on March 2, 2004, as the Andrew and Erna Viterbi School of Engineering in honor of Qualcomm founder Andrew Viterbi and his wife Erna, who had recently donated $ 52 million to the school. The Viterbi School received other major gifts including gifts from Silicon Valley venture capitalist Mark Stevens and his wife Mary who created the USC Stevens Institute for Innovation in 2004; real estate developer Daniel J. Epstein who named
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