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146-647: Kitos War : Roman Empire Jewish rebels, primarily in: The term " Diaspora Revolt " (115–117 CE; Hebrew : מרד הגלויות , romanized :  mered ha-galuyot , or מרד התפוצות , mered ha-tfutzot , 'rebellion of the diaspora'; Latin : Tumultus Iudaicus ), also known as the Trajanic Revolt and sometimes as the Second Jewish – Roman War , refers to a series of uprisings that occurred in Jewish diaspora communities across

292-500: A Jew upon baptism ." From the perspective of racial antisemitism, however, "the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism.[...] From the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews[...] Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews,

438-586: A Jewish rebellion in Mesopotamia and events in Cyprus. He mentions that Greek historians provide accounts of the revolt similar to his, though he seems unaware of Cassius Dio's version, which emphasizes atrocities. In contrast, Eusebius adopts a more neutral tone. Nonetheless, his portrayal of the revolt is framed within his broader theological argument that Jewish suffering was a consequence of their rejection of Christ . Appian provides an eyewitness account of

584-522: A Jewish uprising, and prefers to date the revolt's start to 116 CE. Evidence from ostraca found in the Jewish quarter of Edfu , in Upper Egypt , indicates that tax receipts for Jews ceased by the end of May 116, suggesting this date as the earliest possible start for the revolt in that city. The latest possible date for the revolt's start is the beginning of September 116, as indicated by CPJ II 436,

730-461: A Roman province during Trajan's Parthian campaign around 115 CE, has sparked scholarly debate over whether a distinct Jewish revolt occurred in this region—comparable to those in other provinces—or if Jewish resistance was part of a broader anti-Roman uprising within the conquered Parthian territories. Eusebius' Chronicon reports that Trajan suspected the Jews in Mesopotamia "would also attack

876-554: A Semitic language. Though 'antisemitism' could be construed as prejudice against people who speak other Semitic languages, this is not how the term is commonly used. The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen (antisemitism or anti-Semitism). Many scholars and institutions favor the unhyphenated form. Shmuel Almog argued, "If you use the hyphenated form, you consider the words 'Semitism', 'Semite', 'Semitic' as meaningful ... [I]n antisemitic parlance, 'Semites' really stands for Jews, just that." Emil Fackenheim supported

1022-402: A broader rebellious movement in the region during the summer of 116 CE, where Quietus was one of several generals charged by Trajan to suppress the revolts, recovering Nisibis and besieging and sacking Edessa , both located in northern Mesopotamia. Notably, the Jews are not mentioned in this context; while Dio does provide a brief reference to Quietus subduing the Jews, this reference is made in

1168-661: A collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions—social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence—which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews." Elaborating on Fein's definition, Dietz Bering of the University of Cologne writes that, to antisemites, "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as

1314-442: A collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character." For Swiss historian Sonja Weinberg , as distinct from economic and religious anti-Judaism , antisemitism in its specifically modern form shows conceptual innovation,

1460-501: A comprehensive account of the events. The principal sources, Cassius Dio and Eusebius , provide only a brief coverage. Cassius Dio, writing in the 3rd century, offers extensive information on Cyrene, a brief mention of Cyprus, and only a passing reference to Egypt. While he notes the Roman suppression of a revolt in Mesopotamia, he does not explicitly identify the Jewish role there. His account survives only in an abridged version created in

1606-732: A concerned letter, from the wife of the strategos Apollonios in Hermoupolis . Eusebius recounts that unrest in Egypt initially arose when Jewish communities, seized by a spirit of discord ( stasis ), engaged in civil conflict with their Greek neighbors. This unrest was soon followed by the advance of Jewish forces from Cyrene, led by Lukuas, who then achieved an initial victory over the Greeks. The Greeks escaped to Alexandria, massacring its Jewish population. Lukuas's forces, supported by Egyptian Jews who rallied to his side, continued to plunder

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1752-441: A devastating campaign of ethnic cleansing , which effectively led to the near-total expulsion and annihilation of Jews from Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and many parts of Egypt. Historical evidence indicates that Jewish communities were either annihilated or forced into migration, with only a few survivors possibly remaining in isolated areas on the fringes of Roman control. In Egypt, the Jewish community suffered near-total destruction during

1898-521: A letter dated 20 December 117, a woman named Eudaimonis urged her son Apollonios, the strategos of Heptakomia , to remain in his secure residence—a warning that hints at persistent danger. This correspondence, along with a subsequent letter concerning the same family, suggests that instability continued in some areas into the winter of 117–118 CE. The scarcity of literary sources documenting Roman violence against Jews in Mesopotamia , which became

2044-635: A lost work on the Parthians that included references to Trajan's actions against the Jews—is also believed to have been used by Eusebius. Orosius , a Roman Christian historian and theologian writing in the early 5th century, provides information on the revolt but is not an independent source. His account heavily relies on Eusebius's works, accessed through Latin translations by Jerome and Rufinus. While Orosius mirrors Eusebius closely, he introduces rearrangements and employs more vivid, dramatic language to enhance

2190-461: A major demographic disruption in the overall population. In Cyrenaica, there was significant damage to buildings, temples, and roads, especially in Cyrene , where the city's center was extensively destroyed. The physical destruction of the city was significant enough that Hadrian had to rebuild the city at the beginning of his reign, according to archaeological findings. Hadrianic inscriptions document

2336-583: A misnomer by those who incorrectly assert (in an etymological fallacy ) that it refers to racist hatred directed at " Semitic people " in spite of the fact that this grouping is an obsolete historical race concept . Likewise, such usage is erroneous; the compound word antisemitismus was first used in print in Germany in 1879 as a " scientific-sounding term " for Judenhass ( lit.   ' Jew-hatred ' ), and it has since been used to refer to anti-Jewish sentiment alone. The word "Semitic"

2482-564: A misnomer. The word Judeophobia first appeared in his pamphlet " Auto-Emancipation ", published anonymously in German in September 1882, where it was described as an irrational fear or hatred of Jews. According to Pinsker, this irrational fear was an inherited predisposition. Judeophobia is a form of demonopathy, with the distinction that the Jewish ghost has become known to the whole race of mankind, not merely to certain races... Judeophobia

2628-414: A non-religious perspective ) in which he used the word Semitismus interchangeably with the word Judentum to denote both "Jewry" (the Jews as a collective) and "Jewishness" (the quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish spirit). He accused the Jews of a worldwide conspiracy against non-Jews, called for resistance against "this foreign power", and claimed that "there will be absolutely no public office, even

2774-419: A people or by negative sentiment towards Jews with regard to Judaism . In the former case, usually presented as racial antisemitism , a person's hostility is driven by the belief that Jews constitute a distinct race with inherent traits or characteristics that are repulsive or inferior to the preferred traits or characteristics within that person's society. In the latter case, known as religious antisemitism ,

2920-412: A person's hostility is driven by their religion's perception of Jews and Judaism, typically encompassing doctrines of supersession that expect or demand Jews to turn away from Judaism and submit to the religion presenting itself as Judaism's successor faith—this is a common theme within the other Abrahamic religions . The development of racial and religious antisemitism has historically been encouraged by

3066-438: A refuge. Most Zionists do not believe that antisemitism can be combatted with education or other means. The contextual approach treats antisemitism as a type of racism and focuses on the historical context in which hatred of Jews emerges. Some contextualists restrict the use of "antisemitism" to refer exclusively to the era of modern racism, treating anti-Judaism as a separate phenomenon. Historian David Engel has challenged

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3212-481: A resort to "science" to defend itself, new functional forms, and organisational differences. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist. It promoted the myth that Jews conspired to 'judaise' the world ; it served to consolidate social identity; it channeled dissatisfactions among victims of the capitalist system; and it was used as a conservative cultural code to fight emancipation and liberalism. In 2003, Israeli politician Natan Sharansky developed what he called

3358-792: A restored Osroene . For a century, Osroene retained a precarious independence as a buffer state between both empires. The situation in Judea remained tense for the Romans, who were obliged under Hadrian to move the Legio VI Ferrata permanently into Caesarea Maritima in Judea . Further developments occurred in Judaea Province in 130, when Hadrian visited the Eastern Mediterranean and, according to Cassius Dio , made

3504-567: A second permanent legion was added before 120 CE. According to Martin Goodman , this addition reflects Roman concerns about potential future revolts in Judaea, despite the evident hesitation of Jews in the province to join the uprisings in the diaspora—a cautionary stance that may have played a role in the eventual outbreak of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 132 CE. The suppression of the revolt saw

3650-479: A single person known by both names—a common practice at the time. Eusebius refers to Lukuas as "king", a title that has prompted some scholars to speculate on a possible messianic motivation behind the uprising, though evidence supporting this theory remains limited. Eusebius writes that the Jews of Libya collaborated with the Jews of Egypt , forming a symmachia (military alliance). He also mentions that, at one point,

3796-515: A small second-century temple near modern El Dab'a in Marmarica is likely also attributable to the Jewish rebels. The Jewish revolt in Egypt is often believed to have started around October 115 CE, based on papyrus CPJ II 435, which details a conflict between Jews and Greeks. Pucci Ben Zeev, however, contends that this document actually describes Greek attacks on Jews, rather than the beginning of

3942-410: A standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil". Thus, "it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism. There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. In 2005,

4088-539: A state of Israel is a racist endeavor, can be a manifestation of antisemitism—as can applying double standards by requiring of Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation, or holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of the State of Israel. The EUMC working definition was adopted by the European Parliament Working Group on Antisemitism in 2010, by

4234-520: A strategic point of advantage for the enemy, possibly repurposing the stone to fortify their own defenses. This action, along with other attacks on pagan temples in Egypt and Cyrenaica, may explain the term 'impious Jews' used in some papyri. Appian records that the Jews seized control of waterways near Pelusium , located at the eastern edge of the Nile Delta, a region of critical strategic value. Further evidence of military activity in Egypt's waterways

4380-411: Is a Jewish state , expressions of anti-Zionist positions could harbour antisemitic sentiments. Natan Sharansky describes the "3D" test to determine the existence of such antisemitism: demonizing Israel, the double standard of criticizing Israel disproportionately to other countries, and delegitimizing Israel's right to exist . Due to the root word Semite , the term is prone to being invoked as

4526-423: Is a psychic disorder. As a psychic disorder, it is hereditary, and as a disease transmitted for two thousand years it is incurable... Thus have Judaism and Jew-hatred passed through history for centuries as inseparable companions... Having analyzed Judeophobia as a hereditary form of demonopathy, peculiar to the human race, and represented Jew-hatred as based upon an inherited aberration of the human mind, we must draw

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4672-477: Is also questioned, as it received the title of metropolis in 123 CE, suggesting not all damage was as severe as reported. Some Roman actions, such as Trajan's colony in Libya and Hadrian's edict favoring Egyptian peasants, may not be directly linked to the uprisings and could relate to pre-existing conditions. The simultaneous Jewish uprisings across various regions forced Trajan to divert his top military leaders from

4818-669: Is found in CPJ II 441 and a 7th-century chronicle by Coptic bishop John of Nikiû . The latter mentions the Babylon Fortress , situated at the entrance of Amnis Traianus , a canal constructed under Trajan, which facilitated connections between the Nile and the Red Sea . Papyri indicate that the Greeks, led by strategoi , retaliated against the Jews, with assistance from Egyptian peasants and Romans. Prefect Rutilius Lupus

4964-426: Is likely exaggerated for rhetorical effect. The 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia notes that "(Dio's) descriptions of the cruelties perpetrated by the Jews at Cyrene and on the island of Cyprus are probably exaggerated." Pucci Ben Zeev writes that this portrayal should be examined within the broader context of how revolts by " barbarians " against the Romans were typically described in periodical historiography. She notes that

5110-557: Is noted to have personally participated in these engagements. Some efforts were successful, as evidenced by the recorded "victory and success" of Apollonios near Memphis; however, due to many Roman forces being deployed in Mesopotamia, the remaining troops, including the Legio XXII Deiotariana and part of the Legio III Cyrenaica , were insufficient to restore order effectively. Most of what we know about

5256-489: Is possible that works like 4 Maccabees were created by Alexandrian Jews who had resettled in Antioch . After 117 CE, Jewish presence in Egypt and Libya virtually disappears from historical sources. No Jewish inscriptions from Egypt have been securely dated from the period following the revolt until the fourth century, and Egyptian papyri that mention Jews predominantly refer to isolated individuals rather than communities. In

5402-578: The Alliance Anti-semitique Universelle in Bucharest. In the period before World War II , when animosity towards Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, an organization, or a political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic. The early Zionist pioneer Leon Pinsker , a professional physician, preferred the clinical-sounding term Judeophobia to antisemitism, which he regarded as

5548-665: The Davidic kingdom in Israel —as well as a longing for the re-establishment of the Jewish state. Contemporary Jewish texts, such as the Third Sibylline Oracle, 4 Ezra , and 2 Baruch , reflect these themes, emphasizing anticipation of a messianic figure, the ingathering of the exiles , and the eventual rebuilding of the Temple . The messianic aspect of the revolt is perhaps suggested by Eusebius referring to Lukuas ,

5694-515: The Faiyum region, which previously had substantial Jewish communities, mid-2nd century CE tax records show only one Jew among a thousand adult males. Moreover, no Jewish tax receipts have been discovered in Edfu from after 116 CE. It was not until the third century that Jews re-established communities in Egypt, but they never regained their former influence. In Cyrenaica, a gap in the evidence following

5840-494: The First Jewish–Roman War , which began in 66. Initial hostilities were the result of Greek and Jewish religious tensions but later escalated with anti-taxation protests and attacks upon Roman citizens. The Roman military garrison of Judea was quickly overrun by rebels and the pro-Roman king Herod Agrippa II fled Jerusalem , together with Roman officials, to Galilee . Cestius Gallus , the legate of Syria , brought

5986-610: The Fiscus Judaicus tax, messianic expectations, and hopes for a return to Judaea. Major conflicts The uprisings unfolded almost simultaneously across various provinces of the Roman East. In Egypt , Libya and Cyprus , Jewish actions were primarily directed against local populations rather than the Roman authorities, with accounts from historians like Cassius Dio and Eusebius , as well as epigraphical evidence, documenting extreme violence, including mass killings and

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6132-616: The Fundamental Rights Agency ), an agency of the European Union , developed a more detailed working definition , which stated: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities." It also adds that "such manifestations could also target

6278-890: The Spanish Inquisition , and the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492; the Cossack massacres in Ukraine , between 1648 and 1657; various anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire , between 1821 and 1906; the Dreyfus affair , between 1894 and 1906; the Holocaust by Nazi Germany during World War II ; and various Soviet anti-Jewish policies . Historically, most of the world's violent antisemitic events have taken place in Christian Europe . However, since

6424-868: The United States Department of State in 2017, in the Operational Hate Crime Guidance of the UK College of Policing in 2014 and by the UK's Campaign Against Antisemitism . In 2016, the working definition was adopted by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance . IHRA's Working definition of antisemitism is among the most controversial documents related to opposition to antisemitism, and critics argue that it has been used to censor criticism of Israel. In response to

6570-542: The United States Department of State stated that "while there is no universally accepted definition, there is a generally clear understanding of what the term encompasses." For the purposes of its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism, the term was considered to mean "hatred toward Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity." In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC, now

6716-723: The " Semites " as a race ]." Psychologist Avner Falk similarly writes: "The German word antisemitisch was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider (1816–1907) in the phrase antisemitische Vorurteile (antisemitic prejudices). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renan's false ideas about how ' Semitic races ' were inferior to ' Aryan races ' ". Pseudoscientific theories concerning race , civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in Europe in

6862-431: The "Anti-Kanzler-Liga" (Anti-Chancellor League). The league was the first German organization committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to Germany and German culture posed by the Jews and their influence and advocating their forced removal from the country. So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte , and Wilhelm Scherer used

7008-467: The "origins of anti-Semitic prejudices are rooted in different historical periods." König asserts that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such prejudices over different segments of the population create "serious difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of anti-Semitism." These difficulties may contribute to the existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to categorize

7154-450: The "three D" test to distinguish antisemitism from criticism of Israel, giving delegitimization , demonization, and double standards as a litmus test for the former. Bernard Lewis , writing in 2006, defined antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to

7300-463: The 12th century by the Byzantine scholar Xiphilinus , whose anti-Jewish sentiment may have distorted the original text, which assigns the blame to the Jewish population. Eusebius, a Christian bishop active in the late 3rd and early 4th centuries, addresses the revolt in both his Chronicon and Ecclesiastical History . His narrative centers on the uprisings in Egypt, with additional references to

7446-470: The Christian foundation on which the modern antisemitic edifice rests and invoke political antisemitism, cultural antisemitism, racism or racial antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and the like." William Nicholls draws a distinction between religious antisemitism and modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds: "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion [...] a Jew ceased to be

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7592-683: The Egyptian chora (countryside) and destroy various districts throughout Egypt. Papyrological evidence indicates that the revolt indeed affected extensive areas, including the Athribite district, the region around Memphis (noted for its antisemitism ), the Faiyum , Oxyrhynchus , and the Herakleopolite nome. Further south, fighting also impacted the Kynopolite, Hermopolite , Lycopolite, and Apollinopolite districts. It seems that

7738-451: The Greek inhabitants of Salamis were killed". According to Eusebius, Trajan sent Marcius Turbo , one of his leading generals, "with land and sea forces including cavalry. He waged war vigorously against them in many battles for a considerable time and killed many thousands of Jews, not only those of Cyrene but also those of Egypt." Allen Kerkeslager writes that the Jewish uprisings threatened

7884-420: The Greeks or Egyptians, were likely influenced by the heightened anti-Roman sentiment following the Bar Kokhba revolt , which occurred about fifteen years later and had disastrous consequences for the Jews of Judaea. While the stories contain historical kernels, they also incorporate legendary elements that reduce their reliability as strict historical sources. Nonetheless, these sources reflect rabbinic debates of

8030-436: The Holocaust. Hannah Arendt criticized this approach, writing that it provoked "the uncomfortable question: 'Why the Jews of all people?' ... with the question begging reply: Eternal hostility." Zionist thinkers and antisemites draw different conclusions from what they perceive as the eternal hatred of Jews; according to antisemites, it proves the inferiority of Jews, while for Zionists it means that Jews need their own state as

8176-418: The Jewish forces were well-organized and capable of presenting serious military challenges to their adversaries; as they moved through Egyptian villages, they quickly overcame local resistance. Appian , who was in Egypt during the revolt, reports that the Jews destroyed the shrine of Nemesis near Alexandria . He states that this destruction was "for the needs of the war," suggesting a tactical move to remove

8322-419: The Jewish landholding aristocracy exacerbated economic hardships for Jewish tenant farmers, pushing them into cities and worsening their plight. William Horbury writes that the revolt was influenced by a strong national hope and local interpretations of messianic expectations, particularly the return of the diaspora and the rebuilding of the Temple. He adds that Jews in the diaspora may have been influenced by

8468-404: The Jewish population in Egypt, and Arian writes that Trajan asked "to destroy the nation entirely, but if not, at least to crush it and stop its presumptuous wickedness." The Jerusalem Talmud noted the destruction of the celebrated Great Synagogue of Alexandria. Turbo's military actions may have extended to Libya, where a Roman praefectus castrorum was killed. In Cyprus, the suppression of

8614-570: The Jewish population of the time can be traced to several factors. The destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE left a profound impact, compounded by the imposition of the Fiscus Judaicus the same year, a humiliating tax levied on all Jews within the Roman Empire. This period also witnessed widespread messianic expectations—a belief in the coming of a redeemer , a descendant of David , who would bring transformative change and restore

8760-507: The Jewish race." After 1945 victory of the Allies over Nazi Germany , and particularly after the full extent of the Nazi genocide against the Jews became known, the term antisemitism acquired pejorative connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era just decades earlier when "Jew" was used as a pejorative term. Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: "There are no anti-Semites in

8906-788: The Jewish revolt was led by Gaius Valerius Rufus, one of Trajan's generals. The military actions there might also corroborate the Babylonian Talmud 's claim that the blood of Jews killed in Egypt reached as far as Cyprus. Scholarly debate surrounds the precise end date of the Jewish uprising. Miriam Ben Zeev argues that the revolt was likely suppressed before autumn 117, and possibly by summer, prior to Trajan's death. The reassignment of Marcius Turbo to Mauretania following Hadrian 's accession as emperor in August 117 appears to support this timeline. However, Noah Hacham and Tal Ilan point to evidence suggesting more prolonged unrest. In CPJ 664c,

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9052-505: The Jews for an encyclopedia of sins . The Church blamed the Jews for killing Jesus ; Voltaire blamed the Jews for inventing Christianity . In the febrile minds of anti-Semites, Jews were usurers and well-poisoners and spreaders of disease . Jews were the creators of both communism and capitalism ; they were clannish but also cosmopolitan ; cowardly and warmongering; self-righteous moralists and defilers of culture. Ideologues and demagogues of many permutations have understood

9198-517: The Jews expelled joined Berber tribes, particularly those around modern-day Sirte . A substantial Jewish community was not reestablished in Cyrenaica until the fourth century. Cassius Dio reports that, even in his day in third-century Cyprus, "no Jew may set foot on that island, and even if one of them is driven upon the shores by a storm he is put to death." This claim is corroborated by archaeological evidence, which indicates no Jewish presence on

9344-546: The Jews in the First Jewish Revolt of 66–73 CE amplified hostility towards them in Egypt, resulting in legal and violent exclusion from civic positions and higher business fees. The conflict intensified anti-Jewish rhetoric in Egypt and exacerbating mutual hostilities between Jews and Egyptians. In the years leading up to the Diaspora Revolt, incidents of anti-Jewish violence by Greeks occurred in 112 and

9490-474: The Jews of Libya moved into Egypt. Dio's account describes the Jews of Libya as engaging in shockingly violent and cruel behavior. They are said to have engaged in cannibalism , mutilation , and other brutal acts, including using the victims' skins and entrails to make clothing and belts, and staging gladiatorial and wild beast shows. Dio reported that the Jewish rebels in Cyrenaica were responsible for approximately 220,000 Gentile deaths, though this figure

9636-635: The Jews to be a singularly malevolent force standing between the world and its perfection. Jeffrey Goldberg , 2015. Louis Harap , writing in the 1980s, separated "economic antisemitism" and merges "political" and "nationalistic" antisemitism into "ideological antisemitism". Harap also adds a category of "social antisemitism". Religious antisemitism , also known as anti-Judaism, is antipathy towards Jews because of their perceived religious beliefs. In theory, antisemitism and attacks against individual Jews would stop if Jews stopped practicing Judaism or changed their public faith, especially by conversion to

9782-484: The Judean population and a ban upon the Jewish practices, which was lifted only in 138, upon Hadrian's death. Antisemitism Antisemitism or Jew-hatred is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against, Jews . This sentiment is a form of racism , and a person who harbours it is called an antisemite . Primarily, antisemitic tendencies may be motivated by negative sentiment towards Jews as

9928-602: The Judean population occasionally erupted into violent insurrections against the Roman Empire . Several incidents also occurred in other parts of the empire, most notably the Alexandria pogroms , targeting the large Jewish community of Alexandria in the province of Egypt. However, with the exception of Alexandria, the Jewish diaspora fared well throughout the Roman Empire and relied on the Roman state to maintain their rights. The escalation of tensions finally erupted as

10074-496: The Parthian front, impacting his campaign. The resistance in Mesopotamia , though ultimately unsuccessful in its siege of Hatra , led to a compromise with the Parthians and coincided with Trajan's illness and death. The siege of Hatra continued throughout the summer of 117, but the years of constant campaigning and reports of revolts had taken a toll on Trajan, who suffered a stroke resulting in partial paralysis. He decided to begin

10220-543: The Parthians invaded it. That encroachment on the traditional sphere of influence of the Roman Empire (both empires had shared hegemony over Armenia since the time of Nero some 50 years earlier) necessarily led to war. As Trajan's army advanced victoriously through Mesopotamia, Jewish rebels in its rear began attacking the small garrisons left behind. A revolt in far-off Cyrenaica soon spread to Egypt and then Cyprus and incited revolt in Judea . A widespread uprising, centred on Lydda , threatened grain supplies from Egypt to

10366-515: The Roman governor of Judaea , Lusius Quietus , who put down the revolt. The terms "Kitos War", "Diaspora Revolt" and "Second Jewish–Roman War", are often used interchangeably, but the first two terms are better understood as theatres of the latter larger conflict. Tension between the Jewish population of the Roman Empire and the Greek and Roman populations mounted over the course of the 1st century CE, gradually escalating with various violent events, mainly throughout Judea (Iudaea), where parts of

10512-438: The Romans in attacking Jews. The early severe losses suffered by the Roman military had resulted in the conscription of locals into the army, and the presence of seasoned Roman troops, eager for retribution, further exacerbated the violence. Turbo's mission seemingly included not only quelling the revolt but also exterminating Jews in the affected areas. Roman repression was severe, with Appian describing it as an extermination of

10658-571: The Romans, who were obliged under Hadrian to move the Legio VI Ferrata permanently into Caesarea Maritima in Judea. Fifteen years later, the Bar Kokhba revolt erupted, marking the last major Jewish attempt to regain independence in Judaea. The Hebrew name for the conflict, פולמוס קיטוס ‎ Polmus Ḳīṭus , is a corruption (likely through Aramaic ) of the Greek Πόλεμος του Κυήτου Pólemos tū Cyḗtū (meaning Quietus's War ), after

10804-435: The Second Temple and sixteen years before the Bar Kokhba revolt , resulting in restrictive legislation and a ban on teaching Greek. Late Syriac sources mention unrest in Judaea, claiming that Jews from Egypt and Libya were defeated by Roman forces there. An inscription from Sardinia mentions an expeditio Judaeae among Trajan's military campaigns. Additionally, Judaea's status changed from praetorian to consular , and

10950-504: The Syrian army, based on XII Fulminata , reinforced by auxiliary troops, to restore order and quell the revolt. The legion, however, was ambushed and defeated by Jewish rebels at the Battle of Beth Horon , a result that shocked the Roman leadership. The suppression of the revolt was then handed to General Vespasian and his son Titus , who assembled four legions and began advancing through

11096-400: The actions of an individual Jewish person or group; denying the Holocaust or accusing Jews or Israel of exaggerating it; and accusing Jews of dual loyalty or a greater allegiance to Israel than their own country. It also lists ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, and states that denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g. by claiming that the existence of

11242-583: The atrocities attributed to the Jews by Dio are not more egregious than those he ascribes to the Britons during the Boudican revolt in 61 CE or to the Bucoli, a group of Nile Delta herdsmen, during their uprising in Egypt in 171 CE. Epigraphical sources provide evidence of attacks on religious and civic structures, including temples and statues. In Cyrene , for instance, the sanctuary of Apollo witnessed

11388-607: The bipolarity that is at the heart of the problem of antisemitism". The Associated Press and its accompanying AP Stylebook adopted the unhyphenated spelling in 2021. Style guides for other news organizations such as the New York Times and Wall Street Journal later adopted this spelling as well. It has also been adopted by many Holocaust museums , such as the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and Yad Vashem . Though

11534-430: The city was "overthrown" and required rebuilding by Hadrian. The primary loss was the sanctuary of Nemesis , where Pompey 's head was buried, which was destroyed by Jewish forces possibly in retaliation for Pompey's desecration of the Temple in 63 BCE. The Ptolemaic Serapeum and other structures were likely damaged later by Egyptian and Cyrenaican Jews, rather than by Alexandrian Jews. The total destruction of Salamis

11680-462: The concept of anti-Judaism , which is distinct from antisemitism itself. There are various ways in which antisemitism is manifested, ranging in the level of severity of Jewish persecution . On the more subtle end, it consists of expressions of hatred or discrimination against individual Jews and may or may not be accompanied by violence. On the most extreme end, it consists of pogroms or genocide , which may or may not be state-sponsored. Although

11826-631: The concepts of "liberty" and "redemption," which were central to the First Jewish Revolt and likely spread to Jewish communities in Egypt, Cyrene, and possibly Cyprus through refugees and traders from Judaea . This idea is supported by Josephus' account of Sicarii refugees in Cyrene, the discovery of First Jewish revolt coinage in Memphis and near Cyrene, and traces of these themes in diasporic literature. E. Mary Smallwood suggests that

11972-511: The context of the revolts in Egypt, Cyprus, and Cyrenaica, without specifying a geographic location. Miriam Pucci Been Zeev suggests that the sources describing Jewish resistance in Mesopotamia are likely part of a broader resistance in the Parthian territories occupied by the Romans, probably driven by the Jews' relatively favorable position within the Parthian Empire, which contrasted with their harsher treatment under Roman rule. Around

12118-600: The country, starting with Galilee in 67. The revolt ended when legions under Titus besieged and destroyed the center of rebel resistance in Jerusalem in 70 and defeated the remaining Jewish strongholds later on. In 115, Emperor Trajan was in command of the eastern campaign against the Parthian Empire . The Roman invasion had been prompted by the imposition of a pro-Parthian king in the Kingdom of Armenia after

12264-416: The decision to rebuild the ruined city of Jerusalem as the Roman colony of Aelia Capitolina , derived from his own name. That decision, together with Hadrian's other sanctions against the Jews, was allegedly one of the reasons for the eruption of the 132 Bar Kokhba revolt , an extremely violent uprising that stretched Roman military resources to the limit. The rebellion ended with an unprecedented onslaught of

12410-477: The destruction and burning of the baths, porticoes , ball-courts, and other nearby structures during the uprising. The temple of Hecate also suffered destruction and was burned down in the uprising. Significant damage is also recorded at the Caesareum and the temple of Zeus . Bishop Synesius , a native of Cyrene from the early 5th century, also refers to the devastation caused by the Jews, four centuries after

12556-471: The destruction of temples. In contrast, the rebellion in Mesopotamia seems to have been part of a broader resistance against Roman expansion into Parthian -ruled territories. Marcius Turbo , one of Trajan's top generals, was dispatched with both land and naval forces to suppress the uprisings in Egypt and Libya. Literary sources suggest that the Jewish population in these regions faced severe reprisals and devastation. Meanwhile, General Lusius Quietus quelled

12702-417: The devastation or annihilation of Jewish communities in Egypt, Libya, and other regions. There was significant damage to buildings, temples, and roads, especially in Cyrene and other parts of Cyrenaica . A festival celebrating the victory over the Jews continued to be observed eighty years later in the Egyptian city of Oxyrhynchus . Fifteen years after these uprisings, the Bar Kokhba revolt erupted, marking

12848-527: The downfall of Judaism, a phenomenon that negates everything purely human and noble." This use of Semitismus was followed by a coining of " Antisemitismus " which was used to indicate opposition to the Jews as a people and opposition to the Jewish spirit, which Marr interpreted as infiltrating German culture. The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year Marr founded the Antisemiten-Liga (League of Antisemites), apparently named to follow

12994-547: The early 20th century, there has been a sharp rise in antisemitic incidents across the Arab world , largely due to the surge in Arab antisemitic conspiracy theories , which have been cultivated to an extent under the aegis of European antisemitic conspiracy theories . In recent times, the idea that there is a variation of antisemitism known as " new antisemitism " has emerged on several occasions. According to this view, since Israel

13140-429: The eastern provinces of the Roman Empire during the final years of Trajan 's reign. These revolts occurred while the emperor was engaged in his Parthian campaign in Mesopotamia , which provided a favorable opportunity. The ancient sources do not specify the exact motivations, but they were likely influenced by the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans in 70 CE, long-standing tensions between Jews and Greeks,

13286-474: The eastern provinces of the Roman Empire . In Egypt , Libya and Cyprus , Jewish actions were primarily directed against local populations rather than the Roman authorities. In contrast, the rebellion in Mesopotamia appears to have been part of a broader resistance against Roman expansion into areas ruled by the Parthian Empire . There is no evidence that Jewish communities in Asia Minor participated in

13432-520: The events in Cyprus comes from literary sources, as epigraphical evidence is limited, indirect, and difficult to interpret. Dio reports that the Jews, led by Artemion, rebelled in Cyprus. Eusebius' Chronicon states that the Jews attacked the island's pagan inhabitants and destroyed the prominent port city of Salamis . Both pagan and Christian sources describe the revolt as having a profound impact, with Dio claiming that "two hundred and forty thousand perished" in Cyprus, and Orosius asserting that "all

13578-437: The financial canards: Abraham Foxman describes six facets of the financial canards: Gerald Krefetz summarizes the myth as "[Jews] control the banks, the money supply, the economy, and businesses—of the community, of the country, of the world". Krefetz gives, as illustrations, many slurs and proverbs (in several different languages) which suggest that Jews are stingy, or greedy, or miserly, or aggressive bargainers. During

13724-509: The forms of antisemitism. The forms identified are substantially the same; it is primarily the number of forms and their definitions that differ. Bernard Lazare , writing in the 1890s, identified three forms of antisemitism: Christian antisemitism , economic antisemitism, and ethnologic antisemitism. William Brustein names four categories: religious, racial, economic, and political. The Roman Catholic historian Edward Flannery distinguished four varieties of antisemitism: Europe has blamed

13870-417: The front. The Jewish insurrection swiftly spread to the recently conquered provinces. Cities with substantial Jewish populations, Nisibis , Edessa , Seleucia and Arbela (now Erbil , Iraq) joined the rebellion and slaughtered their small Roman garrisons. The Jewish leader Lukuas fled to Judea. Marcius Turbo pursued him and sentenced to death the brothers Julian and Pappus , who had been key leaders in

14016-420: The general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against Jews, and, according to Olaf Blaschke , has become an "umbrella term for negative stereotypes about Jews", a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions. Writing in 1987, Holocaust scholar and City University of New York professor Helen Fein defined it as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as

14162-591: The highest one, which the Jews will not have usurped". This followed his 1862 book Die Judenspiegel ( A Mirror to the Jews ) in which he argued that "Judaism must cease to exist if humanity is to commence", demanding both that Judaism be dissolved as a "religious-denominational sect" but also subject to criticism "as a race, a civil and social entity". In the introductions to the first through fourth editions of Der Judenspiegel, Marr denied that he intended to preach Jew-hatred, but instead to help "the Jews reach their full human potential" which could happen only "through

14308-405: The imperial title. He was murdered in unknown circumstances in the summer of 118, possibly by the orders of Hadrian. Hadrian took the unpopular decisions to end the war, abandon many of Trajan's eastern conquests, and stabilise the eastern borders. Although he abandoned the province of Mesopotamia, he installed Parthamaspates —who had been ejected from Ctesiphon by the returning Osroes —as king of

14454-466: The important conclusion, that we must give up contending against these hostile impulses, just as we give up contending against every other inherited predisposition. In the aftermath of the Kristallnacht pogrom in 1938, German propaganda minister Goebbels announced: "The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of

14600-401: The inhabitants throughout Libya in the most savage fashion, and to such an extent was the country wasted that, its cultivators having been slain, its land would have remained utterly depopulated, had not Emperor Hadrian gathered settlers from other places and sent them thither, for the inhabitants had been wiped out. In Alexandria, the damage was less extensive than Eusebius suggests, who claimed

14746-402: The inhabitants," prompting him to send General Lusius Quietus to suppress them harshly. Eusebius further notes that Quietus "murdered a great number of the Jews there." Later Christian sources also describe a military campaign led by Quietus against the Jews. In contrast, Cassius Dio 's account does not mention a Jewish uprising or a campaign against Jews in Mesopotamia. Instead, Dio refers to

14892-514: The island until the fourth century. In Egypt, the aftermath of the revolts caused agricultural decline, shortages of slave labor and textiles, and an economic crisis with unstable prices and a shortage of essentials like bread. Roman troops in Egypt suffered significant losses, with some units experiencing 30–40 percent casualties. Egypt's agricultural hinterlands were heavily impacted by the war, and many farmlands remained unrecovered and underproductive for decades. Despite this, census data do not show

15038-595: The last major Jewish attempt to regain independence in Judaea. After its failure, the Jewish population in Judaea was significantly reduced, and the community's center shifted to Galilee . In the Diaspora, the largest Jewish communities were concentrated in Parthian Mesopotamia and Roman-ruled Asia Minor and Italy . The available narrative sources on the Diaspora Revolt are fragmented, late, and incomplete, making it difficult for historians to reconstruct

15184-681: The late 19th century. For example, Karl Lueger , the popular mayor of fin de siècle Vienna , skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage. In its 1910 obituary of Lueger, The New York Times notes that Lueger was "Chairman of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria. In 1895, A. C. Cuza organized

15330-617: The leader of the Jewish rebels in Libya, as "king," suggesting that the uprising evolved from an ethnic conflict into a nationalist movement with messianic ambitions for political independence. Local conditions further contributed to the unrest, especially in Egypt , where longstanding social, economic, political, and ideological tensions between Jews and Greeks had escalated since the third century BCE. The situation deteriorated under Roman rule, leading to notable but sporadic violence in various eastern cities, including severe riots in Alexandria in 29 BCE, 38 CE , 41 CE, and 66 CE . The defeat of

15476-569: The long journey back to Rome to recover. As he sailed from Seleucia , his health deteriorated rapidly. He was taken ashore at Selinus in Cilicia , where he died. His successor, Hadrian , assumed the reins of government shortly thereafter. Kitos War The Kitos War occurred amid the broader Diaspora Revolt of 115–117, which saw Jewish uprisings across the Roman East, including Egypt , Libya , Cyprus , and Mesopotamia . Following

15622-498: The main sources for the Diaspora Revolt. Lusius Quietus laid siege to Lydda , where the rebel Jews had gathered under the leadership of Julian and Pappus. Lydda was taken, and many of the rebellious Jews were executed. The "slain of Lydda" are often mentioned in words of reverential praise in the Talmud . The rebel leaders Pappus and Julian were among those whom the Romans executed that year. The situation in Judea remained tense for

15768-418: The messianic era." John M. G. Barclay argues that the significant damage to Cyrenaica's infrastructure during the uprising implies that the Jews involved intended to leave the province, probably planning to ultimately reach Judaea. Similarly, Horbury writes that the Jewish forces likely aimed to return to and defend Judaea. The Jewish uprisings erupted almost simultaneously across various Diaspora regions in

15914-668: The most widely read Catholic writers in France during the Dreyfus Affair, likewise combined religious and racial antisemitism. Drumont founded the Antisemitic League of France . The underlying premise of economic antisemitism is that Jews perform harmful economic activities or that economic activities become harmful when they are performed by Jews. Linking Jews and money underpins the most damaging and lasting antisemitic canards . Antisemites claim that Jews control

16060-480: The movement could be seen as an ancient form of Zionism , with the goal of returning Jewish exiles from North Africa to Palestine. The advance of the Cyrenaican Jews into Egypt, marked by widespread destruction, may have been intended as the initial phase of this large-scale migration. Shim'on Applebaum writes that the movement aimed at "the setting up of a new Jewish commonwealth, whose task was to inaugurate

16206-545: The narrative. Despite its liveliness, his account lacks originality and immediacy and has been described as "vague". The uprisings in Egypt are also documented by papyrological evidence. which offers valuable insights into the events. These documents, part of the Corpus Papyrorum Judaicarum (CPJ) collection—which includes ancient papyri related to Jews and Judaism in Egypt—shed light on key aspects of

16352-626: The new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear." Some Christians such as the Catholic priest Ernest Jouin , who published the first French translation of the Protocols , combined religious and racial antisemitism, as in his statement that "From the triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the Jew has become the enemy of humanity." The virulent antisemitism of Édouard Drumont , one of

16498-601: The official or right religion. However, in some cases, discrimination continues after conversion, as in the case of Marranos (Christianized Jews in Spain and Portugal) in the late 15th century and 16th century, who were suspected of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs. Although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the Judeo-Christian conflict, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times. Frederick Schweitzer asserts that "most scholars ignore

16644-506: The only survivors likely being those who had fled to other regions at the onset of the uprising. The large synagogue of Alexandria, celebrated in the Talmud , was destroyed, and the Jewish court in Alexandria might have been abolished. Horbury suggests that some Jewish refugees fled to Judaea, bringing with them stories about Egypt and Trajan, which were later preserved through rabbinic transmission. Others may have fled to Syria , where it

16790-475: The outset the term "anti-Semitism" bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against Jews . The term has been described as confusing, for in modern usage 'Semitic' designates a language group, not a race. In this sense, the term is a misnomer, since there are many speakers of Semitic languages (e.g., Arabs , Ethiopians , and Arameans ) who are not the objects of antisemitic prejudices, while there are many Jews who do not speak Hebrew ,

16936-695: The perceived lack of clarity in the IHRA definition, two new definitions of antisemitism were published in 2021, the Nexus Document in February 2021 and the Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism in March 2021. In 1879, Wilhelm Marr founded the Antisemiten-Liga (Anti-Semitic League). Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe during

17082-591: The project to define antisemitism, arguing that it essentializes Jewish history as one of persecution and discrimination. Engel argues that the term "antisemitism" is not useful in historical analysis because it implies that there are links between anti-Jewish prejudices expressed in different contexts, without evidence of such a connection. Antisemitism manifests itself in a variety of ways. René König mentions social antisemitism, economic antisemitism, religious antisemitism, and political antisemitism as examples. König points out that these different forms demonstrate that

17228-419: The rebellion. Lusius Quietus, the conqueror of the Jews of Mesopotamia, rose to command of the Roman army in Judea and laid siege to Lydda , where the rebel Jews had gathered under the leadership of Julian and Pappus. The distress became so great that the patriarch Rabban Gamaliel II , who was shut up there and died soon afterwards, permitted fasting even on Ḥanukkah . Other rabbis condemned that measure. Lydda

17374-478: The reconstruction of buildings damaged during the "Jewish uprising," shedding light on the scale of the destruction and subsequent rebuilding efforts. The Jerusalem Talmud , Sukkah 5:1, contains three stories about the Jewish revolt, including references to the destruction of the Great Synagogue of Alexandria and the massacre of Jews by Trajan. These narratives, which focus on Roman actions rather than

17520-461: The region. Some of these veterans were stationed in Cyrene itself, while others were relocated to other sites, including the newly founded city of Hadrianopolis, on the coast. Eusebius' Chronicon and Orosius report extensive destruction in Salamis and Alexandria , with Orosius noting that Libya would have remained depopulated without Hadrian's resettlement efforts: The Jews [...] waged war on

17666-584: The restoration of sites such as the baths by the Sanctuary of Apollo and the Caesareum. A letter from Hadrian to the Cyrenaeans in 134/5 CE urged them to prevent their city from remaining in ruins. The Roman authorities initiated a large-scale recolonization of Cyrenaica after the destruction caused by the revolt, sending 3,000 veterans under the command of the prefect of Legio XV Apollinaris to settle in

17812-471: The revolt in the surviving portions of his Roman History. Among several anecdotes, he recounts his narrow escape from capture, fleeing a Jewish ship via wilderness paths and boat near Pelusium , and describes the destruction of the Pompey monument near Alexandria. His neutral tone is similar to that of Eusebius, who is believed to have used Appian as a source. Also active in the second century, Arrian —who wrote

17958-400: The revolt suggests that the region was virtually depopulated of Jews due to their migration to Egypt and subsequent massacres by non-Jews. After the war ended, laws were placed ordering the exile of Jews from Cyrene, which Renzo De Felice said "reduced the flourishing [Jewish] community of Cyrene to insignificance and set it on the road to an inevitable decline." According to De Felice, many of

18104-561: The revolt, an event Clarysse characterizes as a genocide . Appian reported that Trajan "was utterly destroying the Jewish people in Egypt," a claim corroborated by papyri and inscriptions documenting widespread devastation of Jewish populations across many regions. Jewish lands were confiscated, and Trajan implemented a new registry, the Ioudaikos logos , to catalog properties that had previously belonged to Jews. The Jewish community in Alexandria appears to have been entirely eradicated, with

18250-538: The revolt, and the Jewish community in Rome also did not join the uprising. Eusebius links the revolts in Libya and Egypt, while late Syriac sources mention that Jews from Egypt fled to Judaea . However, there is no definitive evidence of a coordinated effort. In Libya , Jews launched attacks against their Greek and Roman neighbors, led either by Andreas (according to Dio / Xiphilinus ) or Lukuas (according to Eusebius ). These could have been two separate individuals or

18396-424: The revolt, including its chronology, casualties, impact, and aftermath. Papyri, for example, showed that local Egyptians fought against the Jews, instead of supporting them, as was suggested earlier. Additionally, archaeological and epigraphic evidence strengthens the understanding of the revolt in Cyprus and Cyrenaica, with Latin and Greek inscriptions from Cyrenaica serving as key examples. These inscriptions document

18542-501: The revolt. The archaeological evidence, including inscriptions, sheds light on the significant destruction caused by the Jews in Cyrenaica during the revolt. A Hadrianic milestone commemorates the repair of the road connecting Cyrene with its port, Apollonia , "which had been overturned and smashed up in the Jewish revolt," possibly in anticipation of a Roman military advance from the sea. Joyce Reynolds notes significant damage to

18688-435: The revolts in Mesopotamia and was subsequently appointed governor of Judaea . It was during this time that the lesser-known and less-understood Kitos War unfolded, involving Jewish unrest in Judaea. The uprisings were likely suppressed before autumn 117, possibly as early as summer, just prior to Trajan's death; however, some unrest may have persisted into the winter of 117–118. The Diaspora Revolt appears to have resulted in

18834-577: The same year. One papyrus details plans to mobilize large forces, including fleets from Misenum and Ravenna , the Legio III Cyrenaica , and auxiliary units such as the Cohors I Flavia Cilicum equitata. Legio XXII Deiotariana and Legio III Cyrenaica fought against the Jews, with the names of specific Roman legionaries from these units recorded as being killed in combat. Native Egyptians and Greeks, driven by entrenched anti-Jewish sentiments intensified by wartime conditions and imperial support, eagerly joined

18980-459: The sanctuary of Asclepius at Balagrae , west of Cyrene, which was later rebuilt under the Antonine dynasty . The presence of a deeply incised seven-branched menorah —a symbol indicative of Jewish presence—on a road northwest of Balagrae may suggest, according to Reynolds, that Jews deliberately sought to disrupt the route connecting Cyrene with neighboring regions to the west. The destruction of

19126-498: The second half of the 19th century, especially as Prussian nationalistic historian Heinrich von Treitschke did much to promote this form of racism. He coined the phrase "the Jews are our misfortune" which would later be widely used by Nazis . According to Falk, Treitschke uses the term "Semitic" almost synonymously with "Jewish", in contrast to Renan's use of it to refer to a whole range of peoples, based generally on linguistic criteria. According to philologist Jonathan M. Hess ,

19272-403: The stability of the Roman Empire by disrupting grain shipments, prompting Trajan to divert Marcius Turbo from the Parthian front. Turbo arrived in Egypt in late 116 or early 117. He was likely accompanied by the cohors I Ulpia Afrorum equitata and the cohors I Augusta praetoria Lusitanorum equitata, both present in Egypt in 117 CE, with the latter suffering heavy losses during the early summer of

19418-421: The state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity," but that "criticism of Israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic." It provided contemporary examples of ways in which antisemitism may manifest itself, including promoting the harming of Jews in the name of an ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; holding Jews collectively responsible for

19564-415: The summer of 115 CE. These attacks, especially the latter, were likely direct catalysts for the Jewish uprising in the region. In Libya , earlier disturbances in 73 CE, which resulted in the deaths and dispossession of many wealthy Jews, may have weakened the moderating influence of the Jewish elite, thereby enabling more radical elements to gain prominence and push for revolt. Additionally, the destruction of

19710-442: The suppression of the revolt in Mesopotamia, the Roman general Lusius Quietus (also known as Kitos) was appointed consul and governor of Judaea by Emperor Trajan . Late Syriac sources suggest that Jews from Egypt and Libya relocated to Judaea and were defeated by Roman forces. However, the reliability of these sources is debated, and modern scholarship remains cautious with the lack of confirmation from Cassius Dio and Eusebius ,

19856-550: The term Antisemiten in the January issue of Neue Freie Presse . The Jewish Encyclopedia reports, "In February 1881, a correspondent of the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums speaks of 'Anti-Semitism' as a designation which recently came into use ("Allg. Zeit. d. Jud." 1881, p. 138). On 19 July 1882, the editor says, 'This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old. ' " The word "antisemitism"

20002-625: The term "antisemitism" did not come into common usage until the 19th century, it is also applied to previous and later anti-Jewish incidents. Notable instances of antisemitic persecution include the Rhineland massacres in 1096; the Edict of Expulsion in 1290; the European persecution of Jews during the Black Death , between 1348 and 1351; the massacre of Spanish Jews in 1391, the crackdown of

20148-542: The term was originally used by its authors to "stress the radical difference between their own 'antisemitism' and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism." In 1879, German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet ( The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from

20294-455: The time of the Diaspora revolt, a lesser-known and understood conflict called the " Kitos War " occurred in Judaea . After Trajan's military campaigns in Mesopotamia, General Lusius Quietus was appointed governor of Judaea and likely brought additional forces, including possibly the vexillatio of Legio III Cyrenaica. Jewish sources date the "Kitos War" to fifty-two years after the destruction of

20440-484: The time regarding Jewish life in the diaspora following the Bar Kokhba revolt, highlight the hostilities and tensions between Jews and Romans, and reveal the hope for the arrival of the Messiah among the Jews of Judaea. The motivations behind the revolts are complex and not easily discernible due to the lack of direct sources addressing the underlying causes. However, a prevailing sense of unrest and dissatisfaction among

20586-743: The unhyphenated spelling, in order to "[dispel] the notion that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes." Others endorsing an unhyphenated term for the same reason include the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance , historian Deborah Lipstadt , Padraic O'Hare, professor of Religious and Theological Studies and Director of the Center for the Study of Jewish-Christian-Muslim Relations at Merrimack College ; and historians Yehuda Bauer and James Carroll . According to Carroll, who first cites O'Hare and Bauer on "the existence of something called 'Semitism ' ", "the hyphenated word thus reflects

20732-508: The world finances, a theory promoted in the fraudulent The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and later repeated by Henry Ford and his The Dearborn Independent . In the modern era, such myths continue to be spread in books such as The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews published by the Nation of Islam and on the internet. Derek Penslar writes that there are two components to

20878-581: The world ... Nobody says, 'I am anti-Semitic.' You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of fashion." The study of antisemitism has become politically controversial because of differing interpretations of the Holocaust and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. There are two competing views of antisemitism, eternalism, and contextualism. The eternalist view sees antisemitism as separate from other forms of racism and prejudice and an exceptionalist, transhistorical force teleologically culminating in

21024-477: Was borrowed into English from German in 1881. Oxford English Dictionary editor James Murray wrote that it was not included in the first edition because "Anti-Semite and its family were then probably very new in English use, and not thought likely to be more than passing nonce-words... Would that anti-Semitism had had no more than a fleeting interest!" The related term " philosemitism " was used by 1881. From

21170-641: Was coined by German orientalist August Ludwig von Schlözer in 1781 to designate the Semitic group of languages — Aramaic , Arabic , Hebrew and others—allegedly spoken by the descendants of Biblical figure Sem , son of Noah . The origin of "antisemitic" terminologies is found in the responses of orientalist Moritz Steinschneider to the views of orientalist Ernest Renan . Historian Alex Bein writes: "The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, who challenged Renan on account of his 'anti-Semitic prejudices' [i.e., his derogation of

21316-407: Was then taken, and many of the rebellious Jews were executed; the "slain of Lydda" are often mentioned in words of reverential praise in the Talmud . Pappus and Julian were among those executed by the Romans that year, and became martyrs among the Jews. Lusius Quietus, whom Trajan had held in high regard and who had served Rome so well, was quietly stripped of his command once Hadrian had secured

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