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55-531: The village was founded eight years after a disastrous epidemic of smallpox in 1837. The numbers of the dissident Mandan in the region had been reduced to approximately 125; the population of the Hidatsa was also affected, though not as severely. These Mandan and Hidatsa bands were later joined by the Arikara 18 years after the village was constructed. The village, consisting of earthen lodges and log cabins,

110-728: A surgeon in the United States Army , ethnographer , and linguist known for his studies of Native American peoples, especially the Navajo . Matthews was born in Killiney , near Dublin, Ireland in 1843 to Nicolas Blayney Matthews and Anna Burke Matthews. His mother having died a few years after his birth, his father took him and his brother to the United States . He grew up in Wisconsin and Iowa , and his father,

165-429: A common source exposure or an environmental vector may spread a zoonotic diseases agent. Preparations for an epidemic include having a disease surveillance system; the ability to quickly dispatch emergency workers, especially local-based emergency workers; and a legitimate way to guarantee the safety and health of health workers. Effective preparations for a response to a pandemic are multi-layered. The first layer

220-488: A desert land where water is so scarce and so obviously important to life, [coming to regard] water as sacred, it is an easy step for them to regard as sacred everything that belongs to the water…. Hence it becomes a sacrilege to kill the fish or eat its flesh." Matthews work on the Navajo served to dispel then-current erroneous thinking about the complexity of Navajo culture. In an account of Matthews's Presidential Address to

275-449: A disease epidemic. By the early 17th century, the terms endemic and epidemic referred to contrasting conditions of population-level disease, with the endemic condition a " common sicknesse " and the epidemic " hapning in some region, or countrey, at a certaine time, ....... producing in all sorts of people, one and the same kind of sicknesse ". The term "epidemic" is often applied to diseases in non-human animals, although " epizootic "

330-600: A fast-spreading pandemic may easily exceed and overwhelm existing health-care resources. Consequently, early and aggressive mitigation efforts, aimed at the so-called "epidemic curve flattening" need to be taken. Such measures usually consist on non-pharmacological interventions such as social/physical distancing, aggressive contact tracing, "stay-at-home" orders, as well as appropriate personal protective equipment (i.e., masks, gloves, and other physical barriers to spread). Moreover, India has taken significant strides in its efforts to prepare for future respiratory pandemics through

385-509: A fight. Suffering severe losses, the Arikara fled across the river and enlarged Like-a-Fishhook Village with a new, northern district. Like the Mandans, they constructed a ceremonial lodge, but larger. Assisting Surgeon Washington Matthews reports the lodge bordering an open space, which was more or less in form of a square. According to tradition, the "tribal temple" should have been built in

440-516: A medical doctor, began training his son in medicine. He would go on to graduate from the University of Iowa in 1864 with a degree in medicine . The American Civil War was raging at the time, and Matthews immediately volunteered for the Union Army upon graduating. His first post was as surgeon at Rock Island Barracks, Illinois , where he tended to Confederate prisoners. Matthews

495-861: A monumental bequest for future generations of the Navajo people and scholars". In 1895 Matthews served as president of the American Folklore Society . He was a member of a number of other societies such as the American Anthropological Association , the National Geographic Society and the American Association for the Advancement of Science . Matthews was quoted by Charles Darwin in The Expression of

550-445: A period of time; an evolutionary change which increases survival time will result in increased virulence. Another possibility, although rare, is that a pathogen may adapt to take advantage of a new mode of transmission Seasonal diseases arise due to the change in the environmental conditions, especially such as humidity and temperature, during different seasons. Many diseases display seasonality , This may be due to one or more of

605-424: A substantial number of people, it may be termed as a pandemic . The declaration of an epidemic usually requires a good understanding of a baseline rate of incidence ; epidemics for certain diseases, such as influenza , are defined as reaching some defined increase in incidence above this baseline. A few cases of a very rare disease may be classified as an epidemic, while many cases of a common disease (such as

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660-512: A word form attributed to Homer 's Odyssey , which later took its medical meaning from the Epidemics , a treatise by Hippocrates . Before Hippocrates, epidemios , epidemeo , epidamos , and other variants had meanings similar to the current definitions of " indigenous " or " endemic ". Thucydides ' description of the Plague of Athens is considered one of the earliest accounts of

715-603: A young fur trader, noted how the panes of glass in Four Bears' residence broke one night. The Arikara moved out of Mitutanka with the closing of the nearby trading post Fort Clark in 1860. They build a new village, named Star Village by archaeologists, in the spring of 1862. The settlement was located in view of Like-a-Fishhook Village, but on the south side of the Missouri. A trading visit by some Sioux in August erupted into

770-427: Is a disease surveillance system. Tanzania , for example, runs a national lab that runs testing for 200 health sites and tracks the spread of infectious diseases. The next layer is the actual response to an emergency. According to U.S.-based columnist Michael Gerson in 2015, only the U.S. military and NATO have the global capability to respond to such an emergency. Still, despite the most extensive preparatory measures,

825-713: Is abrupt - in this, two or more different strains of a virus , coinfecting a single host, combine to form a new subtype having a mixture of characteristics of the original strains. The best known and best documented example of both processes is influenza . SARS-CoV2 has demonstrated antigenic drift and possibly shift as well. Antibiotic resistance applies specifically to bacteria that become resistant to antibiotics . Resistance in bacteria can arise naturally by genetic mutation , or by one species acquiring resistance from another through horizontal gene transfer . Extended use of antibiotics appears to encourage selection for mutations which can render antibiotics ineffective. This

880-421: Is especially true of tuberculosis , with increasing occurrence of multiple drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) worldwide. Pathogen transmission is a term used to describe the mechanisms by which a disease-causing agent (virus, bacterium, or parasite) spreads from one host to another. Common modes of transmission include: - The first three of these require that pathogen must survive away from its host for

935-400: Is not immune. An example of this was the introduction European diseases such as smallpox into indigenous populations during the 16th century. A zoonosis is an infectious disease of humans caused by a pathogen that can jump from a non-human host to a human. Major diseases such as Ebola virus disease and salmonellosis are zoonoses. HIV was a zoonotic disease transmitted to humans in

990-474: Is now Gallup, New Mexico . It was there that Matthews came to know the people who would become the subject of his best known work, the Navajo. Matthews has been credited with carrying our this research with "unprecedented objectivity". In 1887, Matthews published The Mountain Chant: A Navajo Ceremony which has been described as "probably the first full account of a Native American ceremony ever published". He

1045-417: Is technically preferable. There are several factors that may contribute (individually or in combination) to causing an epidemic. There may be changes in a pathogen , in the population that it can infect, in the environment, or in the interaction between all three. Factors include the following: An antigen is a protein on the virus ' surface that host antibodies can recognize and attack. Changes in

1100-439: Is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of hosts in a given population within a short period of time. For example, in meningococcal infections , an attack rate in excess of 15 cases per 100,000 people for two consecutive weeks is considered an epidemic. Epidemics of infectious disease are generally caused by several factors including a change in the ecology of the host population (e.g., increased stress or increase in

1155-479: Is usually restricted to smaller events. Any sudden increase in disease prevalence may generally be termed an epidemic. This may include contagious disease (i.e. easily spread between persons) such as influenza ; vector-borne diseases such as malaria ; water-borne diseases such as cholera ; and sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS . The term can also be used for non-communicable health issues such as obesity . The term epidemic derives from

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1210-893: The Bannock . While serving at a prison on Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay , Matthews made a study of the Modoc language . From 1884 to 1890, Matthews was posted to the Army Medical Museum in Washington, DC. During this time he conducted research and wrote several papers on physical anthropology , specifically craniometry and anthropometry . John Wesley Powell of the Smithsonian Institution 's Bureau of American Ethnology suggested that Matthews be assigned to Fort Wingate , near what

1265-639: The Fort Berthold in the Dakota Territory , he learned to speak the Hidatsa language fluently, and wrote a series of works describing their culture and language: a description of Hidatsa - Mandan culture, including a grammar and vocabulary of the Hidatsa language and an ethnographic monograph of the Hidatsa . He also described, though less extensively, the related Mandan and Arikara peoples and languages. (Some of Matthews' work on

1320-647: The Owens Valley against smallpox. During his stay in the Owens Valley he pursued other interests, such as collecting native plants. He sent his collection to Asa Gray , who named two of those new to science after him: Loeseliastrum matthewsii and Galium matthewsii . Camp Independence was closed in July, 1877. In 1877 he participated in an expedition against the Nez Perce , and again in 1878 against

1375-463: The antigenic characteristics of the agent make it easier for the changed virus to spread throughout a previously immune population. There are two natural mechanisms for change - antigenic drift and antigenic shift . Antigenic drift arises over a period of time as an accumulation of mutations in the virus genes , possibly through a series of hosts, and eventually gives rise to a new strain of virus which can evade existing immunity. Antigenic shift

1430-435: The common cold ) would not. An epidemic can cause enormous damage through financial and economic losses in addition to impaired health and loss of life. The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention defines epidemic broadly: "Epidemic refers to an increase, often sudden, in the number of cases of a disease above what is normally expected in that population in that area." The term "outbreak" can also apply, but

1485-634: The American Folklore Society in 1895 ("which was titled "The Poetry and Music of the Navahoes"), The Critic magazine wrote: Matthews has been credited for treating "Navajo medicine men as colleagues" and seeing his informants as individuals rather than "just sources of data". However, he has been criticised for the then common practice of not crediting his informants in his published works. However, his research has been credited with creating through "careful and thorough fieldwork ...

1540-727: The Emotions in Man and Animals (1872); Matthews is cited with respect to the expression of emotion and other gestures among various peoples of America: the Dakota , Tetons, Grosventres, Mandans , and Assiniboine . Matthews was retired from the Army in 1895. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery , in Arlington, Virginia . Matthews's papers were initially left to the University of California at Berkeley . In 1951 they were transferred to

1595-563: The Indian children could attend either the Mission School or one supervised by the government. The allotment of land in 1886 caused the collapse of Like-a-Fishhook Village. Many Arikara had already taken up farming on individual plots. Their quarter of the village was desolate and their homes destroyed. A few years later only some of the older Mandan in the village still followed their traditional way of life. Hidatsa chief Poor Wolf led

1650-502: The Mandan was lost in a fire before being published.) There is some evidence that Matthews married a Hidatsa woman during this time. Her name is not known. There is also speculation and circumstantial evidence that Matthews had a son with the woman. In April, 1876, Matthews was sent to Camp Independence to serve as Post Surgeon. In ensuing months he serviced soldiers and local civilians; he vaccinated hundreds of Native Americans of

1705-477: The People" were chosen. Each selected a place for their earth lodge so there would be a powerful protector in each quarter of the village. Bear Looks Out took care of a Corn bundle and selected the southern quarter of the village for his home. Big Cloud protected the east, while the west would be guarded by Bobtail Bull. Bad Horn, also Hidatsa, had a Bear bundle and would have his home to the north. A central plaza in

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1760-552: The center of the plaza with open space all around it. The influx of the Arikara nearly doubled up the population in the village, so more than 2,000 people lived there. (This may be compared to the total of 2,405 citizens in North Dakota in 1870 .) Every winter the people moved to temporary quarters in the river bottomland, which were better sheltered against chilly storms. Some Sioux set fire to ( Fort Berthold II ) and Like-a Fishook Village caught fire as well. After heavy fighting

1815-524: The density of a vector species), a genetic change in the pathogen reservoir or the introduction of an emerging pathogen to a host population (by movement of pathogen or host). Generally, an epidemic occurs when host immunity to either an established pathogen or newly emerging novel pathogen is suddenly reduced below that found in the endemic equilibrium and the transmission threshold is exceeded. An epidemic may be restricted to one location; however, if it spreads to other countries or continents and affects

1870-619: The development of the National Pandemic Preparedness Plan for Respiratory Viruses using a multisectoral approach. Preceding this national effort, a regional workshop on the Preparedness and Resilience for Emerging Threats (PRET) initiative was organized by WHO's South-East Asia Regional Office on October 12-13, 2023. Recognizing that the same capacities and capabilities can be leveraged and applied for groups of pathogens based on their mode of transmission,

1925-408: The early part of the 20th century, though it has now evolved into a separate human-only disease. Some strains of bird flu and swine flu are zoonoses; these viruses occasionally recombine with human strains of the flu and can cause pandemics such as the 1918 Spanish flu or the 2009 swine flu . In a common source outbreak epidemic, the affected individuals had an exposure to a common agent. If

1980-650: The exposure is singular and all of the affected individuals develop the disease over a single exposure and incubation course, it can be termed as a point source outbreak. If the exposure was continuous or variable, it can be termed as a continuous outbreak or intermittent outbreak, respectively. In a propagated outbreak, the disease spreads person-to-person. Affected individuals may become independent reservoirs leading to further exposures. Many epidemics will have characteristics of both common source and propagated outbreaks (sometimes referred to as mixed outbreak ). For example, secondary person-to-person spread may occur after

2035-403: The following underlying factors: - Changes in behaviour can affect the likelihood or severity of epidemics. The classic example is the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak , in which a cholera outbreak was mitigated by removing a supply of contaminated water - an event now regarded as the foundation of the science of epidemiology . Urbanisation and overcrowding (e.g. in refugee camps ) increase

2090-404: The following years, immunity will decline, both within individuals and in the population as a whole as older individuals die and new individuals are born. Eventually, unless there is another vaccination campaign, an outbreak or epidemic will recur. It's also possible for disease which is endemic in one population to become epidemic if it is introduced into a novel setting where the host population

2145-603: The former trading post Fort Berthold II. They remained to 1867. The next year the army constructed Fort Stevenson some 14 miles away. It was the new center of military power in the Department of Dakota's Middle District, although it lacked the capacity to stop the Sioux's raiding. In the mid-1860s, the most typical building in Like-a-Fishhook Village was still the earth lodge. The palisade became firewood in

2200-415: The likelihood of disease outbreaks. A factor which contributed to the initial rapid increase in the 2014 Ebola virus epidemic was ritual bathing of (infective) corpses; one of the control measures was an education campaign to change behaviour around funeral rites. The level of immunity to a disease in a population - herd immunity - is at its peak after a disease outbreak or a vaccination campaign. In

2255-407: The lodge for ceremonies of their own. The new village consisted of roughly 70 earth lodges, with the homes of leading men facing the plaza. Drying frames for produce from the gardens were visible everywhere. Hidden in the ground were caches for storing the harvest of the summer. The caches could be dug inside the lodge as well as outside. " ... they are often left open [when empty] ... and may entrap

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2310-464: The men at the fort got reinforcement from some of the Natives in the winter villages. " ... the Sioux came against our village in the winter time and stole our corn and burned down my father's lodge", remembered Buffalo Bird Woman. A year before the burning of the village, some Yankton Sioux killed chief Four Bears. In 1864, Like-a-Fishhook Village got new neighbors with the arrival of armed forces at

2365-517: The migration of his people to new places on the reservation. "Older Indians, who came from Like-a-Fishhook Village, find their life on allotments rather lonesome. Cabins are often two or three miles apart ..." related Hidatsa Indian Goodbird in 1914. The Mandan, the Hidatsa and the Arikara were no more village Indians. The location of the village is now under the waters of the reservoir behind Garrison Dam. Epidemic An epidemic (from Greek ἐπί epi "upon or above" and δῆμος demos "people")

2420-561: The military post Fort Buford . The unrest in the village was "approaching civil war" before the exit calmed down a conflict between the dissidents and the old leaders of the village. In 1874, a large war party of reservation Sioux had Fort Berthold as its target. George Armstrong Custer delayed his Black Hills Expedition to ride to the Fort. His orders from General Phil Sheridan said "The Rees [Arikara] and Mandans should be protected same as white settlers". Five Arikara and "Foolish-head" (who

2475-564: The river bottomland nearby. The village founders prepared for building round, dome shaped earth lodges with an inner frame of wood during the autumn. They spent the cold season in winter camps. The heavy work of construction began the next year. Four Bears marked the borders of the village. Missouri River walked over the area and sang songs connected to his sacred bundle . "I want to have the village here so that my people will increase and be safe", he told. In addition to ceremonial leader Missouri River and war leader Four Bears, four "Protectors of

2530-432: The spring of 1844, led by Hidatsa chief Four Bears and Missouri River, a Hidatsa medicine man . The people raised a camp on the north banks of the Missouri at a point called Like-a-Fishhook. The name was due to a peculiar bend of the river. The Hidatsa also knew the place as "Dancing Bear". "Soon after they came to Like-a-Fishhook bend, the families ... began to clear fields, for gardens." The vegetable plots were located on

2585-583: The tribes agreed to build a new settlement in common some place up the Missouri . A few Mandan stayed behind with the Arikara at the former Mandan head village Mitutanka . Some miles away existed a small Mandan village and the life went on here as usual until the early 1860s. A number of the Hidatsa ceased farming and joined the River Crow at the Yellowstone River . The migration started in

2640-484: The unwary stroller." The people traded with the recently established Fort Berthold just outside the northern palisade. Occupied by the better part of the Mandan and the Hidatsa, Like-a-Fishhook Village held more people than any of the nearest white towns. Grasshoppers and hailstorms devastated the crops in 1853 and 1856. By the end of the decade, the new times had reached the Upper Missouri. Henry A. Boller,

2695-464: The village was an innovation for the Hidatsa, but a tradition among the Mandan. Their sacred cedar had its place in the center. They made a ceremonial lodge next to the plaza and used both during ceremonies like the Okipa. The medicine lodge was usually detectable by its size and flat façade, but a visitor described the one in Like-a-Fishhook Village as being "round". The Hidatsa would from time to time rent

2750-521: The winter of 1865. Like-a-Fishhook Village was now 20 years old and a burying ground with scaffolds to the dead, called open-air tombs, lay behind it. However, the Arikara buried their dead in the ground (as some Hidatsa families also preferred), and the custom was increasingly adopted by the two other tribes. Like-a-Fishhook Village suffered a division among the residents in the early 1870s. The Hidatsa rebels Bobtail Bull, Crow Flies High and their followers left and built new log cabins and earth lodges near

2805-400: The workshop aimed to facilitate pandemic planning efficiency for countries in the region. The participating countries, in the aftermath of the workshop, outlined their immediate next steps and sought support from WHO and its partners to bolster regional preparedness against respiratory pathogen pandemics. Washington Matthews Washington Matthews (June 17, 1843 – March 2, 1905) was

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2860-543: Was abandoned in the mid-1880s. The site of Like-a-Fishhook Village was lost when the construction of Garrison Dam flooded the area to create Lake Sakakawea in 1954. "Enemies gave our tribes much trouble after the smallpox year, my grandmother said. Bands of Sioux waylaid hunting parties...", said Buffalo Bird Woman (Hidatsa). Another concern for the Hidatsa and the Mandan was the dwindling amount of wood where they lived in Big Hidatsa at Knife River . The majority of

2915-429: Was also said to have been initiated into various secret Navajo rituals. He also used wax cylinders to record ceremonial prayers and songs. Matthews also published a number of other books on his research amongst the Navajo, including Navaho Legends (1897) and Navaho Myths, Prayers and Songs (1907). In his work he reported that the Navajo were ichthyphobic, having a taboo on eating fish. He theorized that "Living in

2970-544: Was either Mandan or Hidatsa) died in the battle. This was the last major battle that affected the village. The villagers counted more and more houses with whites around them. A blacksmith, a doctor and the Indian Agent lived in Fort Berthold Agency a mile and a half away along with other newcomers. Missionary Charles L. Hall taught the words of God in his home close to the village from 1876. The next year

3025-537: Was posted at Fort Union in what is now Montana in 1865. It was there that an enduring interest in Native American peoples and languages took root. He would go on to serve at a series of forts in Dakota Territory until 1872: Fort Berthold , Fort Stevenson , Fort Rice , and Fort Buford . He was a part of General Alfred H. Terry 's expedition in Dakota Territory in 1867. While stationed at

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