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113-545: The two varieties of Proto-Luwian or Luwian (in the narrow sense of these names) are known after the scripts in which they were written: Cuneiform Luwian ( CLuwian ) and Hieroglyphic Luwian ( HLuwian ). There is no consensus as to whether these were a single language or two closely related languages. Several other Anatolian languages – particularly Carian , Lycian , and Milyan (also known as Lycian B or Lycian II) – are now usually identified as related to Luwian – and as mutually connected more closely than other constituents of

226-517: A d in word final position can be dropped, and an s may be added between two dental consonants and so *ad-tuwari becomes aztuwari ('you all eat') ( ds and z are phonetically identical). There were two grammatical genders : animate and inanimate/neuter. There are two grammatical numbers : singular and plural. Some animate nouns could also take a collective plural in addition to the regular numerical plural. Luwian had six cases : The vocative case occurs rarely in surviving texts and only in

339-517: A d in word final position can be dropped, and an s may be added between two dental consonants and so *ad-tuwari becomes aztuwari ('you all eat') ( ds and z are phonetically identical). There were two grammatical genders : animate and inanimate/neuter. There are two grammatical numbers : singular and plural. Some animate nouns could also take a collective plural in addition to the regular numerical plural. Luwian had six cases : The vocative case occurs rarely in surviving texts and only in

452-543: A sister language to Proto-Indo-European , rather than as a daughter language . Their Indo-Hittite hypothesis is that the parent language (Indo-Hittite) lacked the features that are absent in Hittite as well, and that Proto-Indo-European later innovated them. Other linguists, however, prefer the Schwund ("loss") Hypothesis in which Hittite (or Anatolian) came from Proto-Indo-European, with its full range of features, but

565-520: A verbal noun , a supine , and a participle . Rose (2006) lists 132 hi verbs and interprets the hi / mi oppositions as vestiges of a system of grammatical voice ("centripetal voice" vs. "centrifugal voice"). The mi -conjugation is similar to the general verbal conjugation paradigm in Sanskrit and can also be compared to the class of mi -verbs in Ancient Greek. The following example uses

678-505: A change of theme. The following example sentence demonstrates several common features of Luwian: a final verb, the particle chain headed by the conjunction a- , the quotative clitic -wa , and the preverb sarra adding directionality to the main verb awiha . a=wa and= QUOT api-n DEM - ABL wattaniy-ati land- ABL . PL pihammi-s glorified- NOM Hieroglyphic Luwian Luwian ( / ˈ l uː w i ə n / ), sometimes known as Luvian or Luish ,

791-570: A change of theme. The following example sentence demonstrates several common features of Luwian: a final verb, the particle chain headed by the conjunction a- , the quotative clitic -wa , and the preverb sarra adding directionality to the main verb awiha . a=wa and= QUOT api-n DEM - ABL wattaniy-ati land- ABL . PL pihammi-s glorified- NOM Old Hittite Hittite (natively: 𒌷𒉌𒅆𒇷 , romanized:  nešili , lit.   'the language of Neša ', or nešumnili lit.   '

904-494: A logogram, a determinative or a syllabogram , or a combination thereof. The signs are numbered according to Laroche's sign list, with a prefix of 'L.' or '*'. Logograms are transcribed in Latin in capital letters. For example, *90, an image of a foot, is transcribed as PES when used logographically, and with its phonemic value ti when used as a syllabogram. In the rare cases where the logogram cannot be transliterated into Latin, it

1017-442: A logogram, a determinative or a syllabogram , or a combination thereof. The signs are numbered according to Laroche's sign list, with a prefix of 'L.' or '*'. Logograms are transcribed in Latin in capital letters. For example, *90, an image of a foot, is transcribed as PES when used logographically, and with its phonemic value ti when used as a syllabogram. In the rare cases where the logogram cannot be transliterated into Latin, it

1130-471: A rudimentary noun-class system that was based on an older animate–inanimate opposition. Hittite inflects for nine cases : nominative , vocative , accusative , genitive , dative - locative , ablative , ergative , allative , and instrumental ; two numbers : singular, and plural; and two animacy classes: animate (common), and inanimate (neuter). Adjectives and pronouns agree with nouns for animacy , number , and case . The distinction in animacy

1243-409: A second he named "Ḫattuša Hittite" (or Hittite proper). The first is attested in clay tablets from Kaniš/Neša ( Kültepe ), and is dated earlier than the findings from Ḫattuša. Hittite was written in an adapted form of Peripheral Akkadian cuneiform orthography from Northern Syria. The predominantly syllabic nature of the script makes it difficult to ascertain the precise phonetic qualities of some of

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1356-441: A set symbolic value) are rare. Instead, most writing is done with the syllabic characters, where a single symbol stands for a vowel, or a consonant-vowel pair (either VC or CV). A striking feature is the consistent use of 'full-writing' to indicate long vowels, even at the beginning of words. In this system a long vowel is indicated by writing it twice. For example, īdi "he goes" is written i-i-ti rather than i-ti , and ānda "in"

1469-441: A set symbolic value) are rare. Instead, most writing is done with the syllabic characters, where a single symbol stands for a vowel, or a consonant-vowel pair (either VC or CV). A striking feature is the consistent use of 'full-writing' to indicate long vowels, even at the beginning of words. In this system a long vowel is indicated by writing it twice. For example, īdi "he goes" is written i-i-ti rather than i-ti , and ānda "in"

1582-445: Is subject-object-verb , but words can be moved to the front of the sentence for stress or to start a clause. Relative clauses are normally before the antecedent , but they sometimes follow the antecedent. Dependent words and adjectives are normally before their head word. Enclitic particles are often attached to the first word or conjunction. Various conjunctions with temporal or conditional meaning are used to link clauses. There

1695-445: Is subject-object-verb , but words can be moved to the front of the sentence for stress or to start a clause. Relative clauses are normally before the antecedent , but they sometimes follow the antecedent. Dependent words and adjectives are normally before their head word. Enclitic particles are often attached to the first word or conjunction. Various conjunctions with temporal or conditional meaning are used to link clauses. There

1808-499: Is "closely related" to Cuneiform Luwian. Similarly, Alice Mouton and Ilya Yakubovich separate Luwian into two distinct varieties: cuneiform and hieroglyphic – the latter of a more prestigious and elite use. Cuneiform Luwian (or Kizzuwatna Luwian) is the corpus of Luwian texts attested in the tablet archives of Hattusa ; it is essentially the same cuneiform writing system used in Hittite . In Laroche's Catalog of Hittite Texts,

1921-440: Is "closely related" to Cuneiform Luwian. Similarly, Alice Mouton and Ilya Yakubovich separate Luwian into two distinct varieties: cuneiform and hieroglyphic – the latter of a more prestigious and elite use. Cuneiform Luwian (or Kizzuwatna Luwian) is the corpus of Luwian texts attested in the tablet archives of Hattusa ; it is essentially the same cuneiform writing system used in Hittite . In Laroche's Catalog of Hittite Texts,

2034-495: Is also evidence for a length distinction. He points out that the word " e-ku-ud-du – [ɛ́kʷːtu]" does not show any voice assimilation. However, if the distinction were one of voice, agreement between the stops should be expected since the velar and the alveolar plosives are known to be adjacent since that word's "u" represents not a vowel but labialization . Hittite preserves some very archaic features lost in other Indo-European languages. For example, Hittite has retained two of

2147-577: Is an ancient language, or group of languages, within the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family . The ethnonym Luwian comes from Luwiya (also spelled Luwia or Luvia ) – the name of the region in which the Luwians lived. Luwiya is attested, for example, in the Hittite laws . The two varieties of Proto-Luwian or Luwian (in the narrow sense of these names) are known after

2260-411: Is no coordinating conjunction, but main clauses can be coordinated with the enclitic -ha , which is attached to the first word of the following clause. In narratives, clauses are linked by using the prosecutive conjunctions: a- before the first word of the following clause means 'and then', and pā , can be an independent conjunction at the start of a clause and the enclitic -pa indicates contrast or

2373-411: Is no coordinating conjunction, but main clauses can be coordinated with the enclitic -ha , which is attached to the first word of the following clause. In narratives, clauses are linked by using the prosecutive conjunctions: a- before the first word of the following clause means 'and then', and pā , can be an independent conjunction at the start of a clause and the enclitic -pa indicates contrast or

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2486-409: Is now obsolete. The dialect of Luwian hieroglyphic inscriptions appears to be either Empire Luwian or its descendant, Iron Age Luwian. The earliest hieroglyphs appear on official and royal seals, dating from the early 2nd millennium BC, but only from the 14th century BC is the unequivocal evidence for a full-fledged writing system. Dutch Hittitologist Willemijn Waal has argued that Luwian Hieroglyphic

2599-409: Is now obsolete. The dialect of Luwian hieroglyphic inscriptions appears to be either Empire Luwian or its descendant, Iron Age Luwian. The earliest hieroglyphs appear on official and royal seals, dating from the early 2nd millennium BC, but only from the 14th century BC is the unequivocal evidence for a full-fledged writing system. Dutch Hittitologist Willemijn Waal has argued that Luwian Hieroglyphic

2712-458: Is rendered through its approximate Hittite equivalent, recorded in Italic capitals, e.g. *216 ARHA . The most up-to-date sign list is that of Marazzi (1998). Hawkins, Morpurgo-Davies and Neumann corrected some previous errors about sign values, in particular emending the reading of symbols *376 and *377 from i, ī to zi, za . Some signs are used as reading aid, marking the beginning of a word,

2825-405: Is rendered through its approximate Hittite equivalent, recorded in Italic capitals, e.g. *216 ARHA . The most up-to-date sign list is that of Marazzi (1998). Hawkins, Morpurgo-Davies and Neumann corrected some previous errors about sign values, in particular emending the reading of symbols *376 and *377 from i, ī to zi, za . Some signs are used as reading aid, marking the beginning of a word,

2938-410: Is rudimentary and generally occurs in the nominative case , and the same noun is sometimes attested in both animacy classes. There is a trend towards distinguishing fewer cases in the plural than in the singular. The ergative case is used when an inanimate noun is the subject of a transitive verb . Early Hittite texts have a vocative case for a few nouns with -u , but it ceased to be productive by

3051-425: Is written a-an-ta rather than an-ta . Hieroglyphic Luwian ( luwili ) is the corpus of Luwian texts written in a native script, known as Anatolian hieroglyphs . It is recorded in official and royal seals and a small number of monumental inscriptions. Once thought to be a variety of the Hittite language , "Hieroglyphic Hittite" was formerly used to refer to the language of the same inscriptions, but this term

3164-420: Is written a-an-ta rather than an-ta . Hieroglyphic Luwian ( luwili ) is the corpus of Luwian texts written in a native script, known as Anatolian hieroglyphs . It is recorded in official and royal seals and a small number of monumental inscriptions. Once thought to be a variety of the Hittite language , "Hieroglyphic Hittite" was formerly used to refer to the language of the same inscriptions, but this term

3277-582: The Aegean Sea , the possessive suffix was sometimes considered evidence of a shared non-Indo-European language or an Aegean Sprachbund preceding the arrivals of Luwians and Greeks . It is, however, possible to account for the Luwian possessive construction as a result of case attraction in the Indo-European noun phrase. Adjectives agree with nouns in number and gender. Forms for the nominative and

3390-407: The Aegean Sea , the possessive suffix was sometimes considered evidence of a shared non-Indo-European language or an Aegean Sprachbund preceding the arrivals of Luwians and Greeks . It is, however, possible to account for the Luwian possessive construction as a result of case attraction in the Indo-European noun phrase. Adjectives agree with nouns in number and gender. Forms for the nominative and

3503-558: The Bronze Age Aegean. These archaisms are often regarded as supporting the view that the Proto-Indo-European language ( PIE ) had three distinct sets of velar consonants : plain velars , palatovelars , and labiovelars . For Melchert, PIE *ḱ → Luwian z (probably [ts] ); *k → k ; and *kʷ → ku (probably [kʷ] ). Luwian has also been enlisted for its verb kalut(t)i(ya)- , which means "make

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3616-420: The Bronze Age Aegean. These archaisms are often regarded as supporting the view that the Proto-Indo-European language ( PIE ) had three distinct sets of velar consonants : plain velars , palatovelars , and labiovelars . For Melchert, PIE *ḱ → Luwian z (probably [ts] ); *k → k ; and *kʷ → ku (probably [kʷ] ). Luwian has also been enlisted for its verb kalut(t)i(ya)- , which means "make

3729-610: The Hittite Code the geographical term Luwiya is replaced with Arzawa a western Anatolian kingdom corresponding roughly with Mira and the Seha River Land. Therefore, several scholars shared the view that Luwian was spoken—to varying degrees—across a large portion of western Anatolia, including Troy ( Wilusa ), the Seha River Land ( Sēḫa ~ Sēḫariya , i.e., the Greek Hermos river and Kaikos valley), and

3842-422: The Hittite Code the geographical term Luwiya is replaced with Arzawa a western Anatolian kingdom corresponding roughly with Mira and the Seha River Land. Therefore, several scholars shared the view that Luwian was spoken—to varying degrees—across a large portion of western Anatolia, including Troy ( Wilusa ), the Seha River Land ( Sēḫa ~ Sēḫariya , i.e., the Greek Hermos river and Kaikos valley), and

3955-466: The Hittite language , Luwian continued to be spoken in the Neo-Hittite states of Syria , such as Milid and Carchemish , as well as in the central Anatolian kingdom of Tabal that flourished in the 8th century BC. A number of scholars in the past attempted to argue for the Luwian homeland in western Anatolia. According to James Mellaart , the earliest Indo-Europeans in northwest Anatolia were

4068-406: The Hittite language , Luwian continued to be spoken in the Neo-Hittite states of Syria , such as Milid and Carchemish , as well as in the central Anatolian kingdom of Tabal that flourished in the 8th century BC. A number of scholars in the past attempted to argue for the Luwian homeland in western Anatolia. According to James Mellaart , the earliest Indo-Europeans in northwest Anatolia were

4181-480: The Hittite sound inventory . The syllabary distinguishes the following consonants (notably, the Akkadian s series is dropped), The Akkadian unvoiced/voiced series (k/g, p/b, t/d) do not express the voiced/unvoiced contrast in writing, but double spellings in intervocalic positions represent voiceless consonants in Indo-European ( Sturtevant's law ). The limitations of the syllabic script in helping to determine

4294-597: The Kurgan hypothesis as applicable to Anatolian). However, kaluti need not imply a wheel and so need not have been derived from a PIE word with that meaning. The IE words for a wheel may well have arisen in those other IE languages after the Anatolian split. Luwian was among the languages spoken during the 2nd and 1st millennia BC by groups in central and western Anatolia and northern Syria . The earliest Luwian texts in cuneiform transmission are attested in connection with

4407-487: The Kurgan hypothesis as applicable to Anatolian). However, kaluti need not imply a wheel and so need not have been derived from a PIE word with that meaning. The IE words for a wheel may well have arisen in those other IE languages after the Anatolian split. Luwian was among the languages spoken during the 2nd and 1st millennia BC by groups in central and western Anatolia and northern Syria . The earliest Luwian texts in cuneiform transmission are attested in connection with

4520-721: The Mira-Kuwaliya kingdom with its core being the Maeander valley. In a number of recent publications, however, the geographic identity between Luwiya and Arzawa was rejected or doubted. In the post-Hittite era, the region of Arzawa came to be known as Lydia (Assyrian Luddu , Greek Λυδία), where the Lydian language was in use. The name Lydia has been derived from the name Luwiya (Lydian * lūda - < * luw(i)da - < luwiya -, with regular Lydian sound change y > d ). The Lydian language , however, cannot be regarded as

4633-549: The Mira-Kuwaliya kingdom with its core being the Maeander valley. In a number of recent publications, however, the geographic identity between Luwiya and Arzawa was rejected or doubted. In the post-Hittite era, the region of Arzawa came to be known as Lydia (Assyrian Luddu , Greek Λυδία), where the Lydian language was in use. The name Lydia has been derived from the name Luwiya (Lydian * lūda - < * luw(i)da - < luwiya -, with regular Lydian sound change y > d ). The Lydian language , however, cannot be regarded as

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4746-485: The present , which is used to express future events as well, and the preterite . The following active voice endings have been attested: The conjugation is very similar to the Hittite ḫḫi conjugation . For the mediopassive , the following endings are attested: A single participle can be formed with the suffix -a(i)mma . It has a passive sense for transitive verbs and a stative sense for intransitive verbs. The infinitive ends in -una . The usual word order

4859-484: The present , which is used to express future events as well, and the preterite . The following active voice endings have been attested: The conjugation is very similar to the Hittite ḫḫi conjugation . For the mediopassive , the following endings are attested: A single participle can be formed with the suffix -a(i)mma . It has a passive sense for transitive verbs and a stative sense for intransitive verbs. The infinitive ends in -una . The usual word order

4972-404: The proto-language . See #Classification above for more details. Hittite is the oldest attested Indo-European language, yet it lacks several grammatical features that are exhibited by other early-attested Indo-European languages such as Vedic , Classical Latin , Ancient Greek , Old Persian and Old Avestan . Notably, Hittite did not have a masculine–feminine gender system. Instead, it had

5085-508: The r / n alternation in some noun stems (the heteroclitics ) and vocalic ablaut , which are both seen in the alternation in the word for water between the nominative singular, wadar , and the genitive singular, wedenas . He also presented a set of regular sound correspondences. After a brief initial delay because of disruption during the First World War , Hrozný's decipherment, tentative grammatical analysis and demonstration of

5198-480: The 13th centuries BC, with isolated Hittite loanwords and numerous personal names appearing in an Old Assyrian context from as early as the 20th century BC, making it the earliest attested use of the Indo-European languages. By the Late Bronze Age , Hittite had started losing ground to its close relative Luwian . It appears that Luwian was the most widely spoken language in the Hittite capital, Hattusa, in

5311-809: The 13th century BC. After the collapse of the Hittite New Kingdom during the more general Late Bronze Age collapse , Luwian emerged in the Early Iron Age as the main language of the so-called Syro-Hittite states , in southwestern Anatolia and northern Syria . Hittite is the modern scholarly name for the language, based on the identification of the Hatti ( Ḫatti ) kingdom with the Biblical Hittites ( Biblical Hebrew : * חתים Ḥittim ), although that name appears to have been applied incorrectly: The term Hattian refers to

5424-405: The 1930s. Corrections to the readings of certain signs as well as other clarifications were given by David Hawkins, Anna Morpurgo Davies and Günther Neumann in 1973, generally referred to as "the new readings". A more elaborate monumental style is distinguished from more abstract linear or cursive forms of the script. In general, relief inscriptions prefer monumental forms, and incised ones prefer

5537-405: The 1930s. Corrections to the readings of certain signs as well as other clarifications were given by David Hawkins, Anna Morpurgo Davies and Günther Neumann in 1973, generally referred to as "the new readings". A more elaborate monumental style is distinguished from more abstract linear or cursive forms of the script. In general, relief inscriptions prefer monumental forms, and incised ones prefer

5650-443: The Anatolian branch. This suggests that these languages formed a sub-branch within Anatolian. Some linguists follow Craig Melchert in referring to this broader group as Luwic, whereas others refer to the "Luwian group" (and, in that sense, "Luwian" may mean several distinct languages). Likewise, Proto-Luwian may mean the common ancestor of the whole group, or just the ancestor of Luwian (normally, under tree-naming conventions , were

5763-441: The Anatolian branch. This suggests that these languages formed a sub-branch within Anatolian. Some linguists follow Craig Melchert in referring to this broader group as Luwic, whereas others refer to the "Luwian group" (and, in that sense, "Luwian" may mean several distinct languages). Likewise, Proto-Luwian may mean the common ancestor of the whole group, or just the ancestor of Luwian (normally, under tree-naming conventions , were

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5876-659: The Hittite kings. The script formerly known as "Hieroglyphic Hittite" is now termed Hieroglyphic Luwian. The Anatolian branch also includes Cuneiform Luwian , Hieroglyphic Luwian , Palaic , Lycian , Milyan , Lydian , Carian , Pisidian , Sidetic and Isaurian . Unlike most other Indo-European languages, Hittite does not distinguish between masculine and feminine grammatical gender, and it lacks subjunctive and optative moods as well as aspect. Various hypotheses have been formulated to explain these differences. Some linguists , most notably Edgar H. Sturtevant and Warren Cowgill , have argued that Hittite should be classified as

5989-504: The Hittite noun declension's most basic form: The verbal morphology is less complicated than for other early-attested Indo-European languages like Ancient Greek and Vedic . Hittite verbs inflect according to two general conjugations ( mi -conjugation and hi -conjugation), two voices ( active and medio-passive ), two moods ( indicative mood and imperative ), two aspects (perfective and imperfective), and two tenses ( present and preterite ). Verbs have two infinitive forms,

6102-466: The Indo-European affiliation of Hittite were rapidly accepted and more broadly substantiated by contemporary scholars such as Edgar H. Sturtevant , who authored the first scientifically acceptable Hittite grammar with a chrestomathy and a glossary. The most up-to-date grammar of the Hittite language is currently Hoffner and Melchert (2008). Hittite is one of the Anatolian languages and is known from cuneiform tablets and inscriptions that were erected by

6215-520: The Kingdom of Kizzuwatna in southeastern Anatolia, as well as a number of locations in central Anatolia. Beginning in the 14th century BC, Luwian-speakers came to constitute the majority in the Hittite capital Hattusa . It appears that by the time of the collapse of the Hittite Empire ca . 1180 BC, the Hittite king and royal family were fully bilingual in Luwian. Long after the extinction of

6328-401: The Kingdom of Kizzuwatna in southeastern Anatolia, as well as a number of locations in central Anatolia. Beginning in the 14th century BC, Luwian-speakers came to constitute the majority in the Hittite capital Hattusa . It appears that by the time of the collapse of the Hittite Empire ca . 1180 BC, the Hittite king and royal family were fully bilingual in Luwian. Long after the extinction of

6441-617: The Luwian hieroglyphic script, by then aged more than 700 years, falls into oblivion. The first report of a monumental inscription dates to 1850, when an inhabitant of Nevşehir reported the relief at Fraktin . In 1870, antiquarian travellers in Aleppo found another inscription built into the south wall of the Al-Qaiqan Mosque . In 1884, Polish scholar Marian Sokołowski  [ pl ] discovered an inscription near Köylütolu , in western Turkey . The largest known inscription

6554-499: The Luwian hieroglyphic script, by then aged more than 700 years, falls into oblivion. The first report of a monumental inscription dates to 1850, when an inhabitant of Nevşehir reported the relief at Fraktin . In 1870, antiquarian travellers in Aleppo found another inscription built into the south wall of the Al-Qaiqan Mosque . In 1884, Polish scholar Marian Sokołowski  [ pl ] discovered an inscription near Köylütolu , in western Turkey . The largest known inscription

6667-484: The Luwian sounds are unlikely to have been pharyngeal. In transcriptions of Luwian cuneiform, š is traditionally distinguished from s , since they were originally distinct signs for two different sounds, but in Luwian, both signs probably represented the same s sound. A noteworthy phonological development in Luwian is rhotacism ; in some cases, d , l , and n become r . For example, * īdi ('he gets') becomes īri and wala- ('die') becomes wara- . Additionally,

6780-484: The Luwian sounds are unlikely to have been pharyngeal. In transcriptions of Luwian cuneiform, š is traditionally distinguished from s , since they were originally distinct signs for two different sounds, but in Luwian, both signs probably represented the same s sound. A noteworthy phonological development in Luwian is rhotacism ; in some cases, d , l , and n become r . For example, * īdi ('he gets') becomes īri and wala- ('die') becomes wara- . Additionally,

6893-548: The [speech] of the people of Kaneš". Although the Hittite New Kingdom had people from many diverse ethnic and linguistic backgrounds, the Hittite language was used in most secular written texts. In spite of various arguments over the appropriateness of the term, Hittite remains the most current term because of convention and the strength of association with the Biblical Hittites . The endonymic term nešili , and its Anglicized variants ( Nesite , Nessite , Neshite ), have never caught on. The first substantive claim as to

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7006-463: The accusative differ only in the animate gender and even then, only in the singular. For the sake of clarity, the table includes only the endings beginning with -a , but endings can also begin with an -i . The forms are largely derived from the forms of the nominal declension, with an -as- before the case ending that would be expected for nouns. In addition to personal pronouns typical of Anatolian languages, Luwian also has demonstrative pronouns ,

7119-463: The accusative differ only in the animate gender and even then, only in the singular. For the sake of clarity, the table includes only the endings beginning with -a , but endings can also begin with an -i . The forms are largely derived from the forms of the nominal declension, with an -as- before the case ending that would be expected for nouns. In addition to personal pronouns typical of Anatolian languages, Luwian also has demonstrative pronouns ,

7232-410: The affiliation of Hittite was made by Jørgen Alexander Knudtzon in 1902, in a book devoted to two letters between the king of Egypt and a Hittite ruler, found at El-Amarna , Egypt . Knudtzon argued that Hittite was Indo-European, largely because of its morphology . Although he had no bilingual texts, he was able to provide a partial interpretation of the two letters because of the formulaic nature of

7345-427: The branch to be called Luwic, its ancestor should be known as Proto-Luwic or Common Luwic; in practice, such names are seldom used). Luwic or Luwian (in the broad sense of the term), is one of three major sub-branches of Anatolian, alongside Hittite and Palaic . As Luwian has numerous archaisms, it is regarded as important to the study of Indo-European languages ( IE ) in general, the other Anatolian languages, and

7458-426: The branch to be called Luwic, its ancestor should be known as Proto-Luwic or Common Luwic; in practice, such names are seldom used). Luwic or Luwian (in the broad sense of the term), is one of three major sub-branches of Anatolian, alongside Hittite and Palaic . As Luwian has numerous archaisms, it is regarded as important to the study of Indo-European languages ( IE ) in general, the other Anatolian languages, and

7571-494: The corpus of Hittite cuneiform texts with Luwian insertions runs from CTH 757–773, mostly comprising rituals. Cuneiform Luwian texts are written in several dialects, of which the most easily identifiable are Kizzuwatna Luwian, Ištanuwa Luwian, and Empire Luwian. The last dialect represents the vernacular of Hattusan scribes of the 14th–13th centuries BC and is mainly attested through Glossenkeil words in Hittite texts. Compared to cuneiform Hittite, logograms (signs with

7684-492: The corpus of Hittite cuneiform texts with Luwian insertions runs from CTH 757–773, mostly comprising rituals. Cuneiform Luwian texts are written in several dialects, of which the most easily identifiable are Kizzuwatna Luwian, Ištanuwa Luwian, and Empire Luwian. The last dialect represents the vernacular of Hattusan scribes of the 14th–13th centuries BC and is mainly attested through Glossenkeil words in Hittite texts. Compared to cuneiform Hittite, logograms (signs with

7797-446: The diplomatic correspondence of the period. Knudtzon was definitively shown to have been correct when many tablets written in the familiar Akkadian cuneiform script but in an unknown language were discovered by Hugo Winckler in what is now the village of Boğazköy , Turkey, which was the former site of Hattusa , the capital of the Hittite state. Based on a study of this extensive material , Bedřich Hrozný succeeded in analyzing

7910-618: The direct descendant of Luwian and probably does not even belong to the Luwic group (see Anatolian languages ). Therefore, none of the arguments in favour of the Luwian linguistic dominance in Western Asia Minor can be regarded as compelling, although the issue continues to be debated. Luwian was split into many dialects, which were written in two different writing systems. One of these was the Cuneiform Luwian which used

8023-431: The direct descendant of Luwian and probably does not even belong to the Luwic group (see Anatolian languages ). Therefore, none of the arguments in favour of the Luwian linguistic dominance in Western Asia Minor can be regarded as compelling, although the issue continues to be debated. Luwian was split into many dialects, which were written in two different writing systems. One of these was the Cuneiform Luwian which used

8136-406: The discovery of laryngeals in Hittite was a remarkable confirmation of Saussure's hypothesis. Both the preservation of the laryngeals and the lack of evidence that Hittite shared certain grammatical features in the other early Indo-European languages have led some philologists to believe that the Anatolian languages split from the rest of Proto-Indo-European much earlier than the other divisions of

8249-473: The end of a word, or identifying a sign as a logogram. These are not mandatory and are used inconsistently. The reconstruction of the Luwian phoneme inventory is based mainly on the written texts and comparisons with the known development of other Indo-European languages. Two series of stops can be identified, one transliterated as geminate in the cuneiform script. These fortis and lenis stops may have been distinguished by either voicing or gemination. The contrast

8362-473: The end of a word, or identifying a sign as a logogram. These are not mandatory and are used inconsistently. The reconstruction of the Luwian phoneme inventory is based mainly on the written texts and comparisons with the known development of other Indo-European languages. Two series of stops can be identified, one transliterated as geminate in the cuneiform script. These fortis and lenis stops may have been distinguished by either voicing or gemination. The contrast

8475-641: The extensive Luwian presence in western Anatolia in the late second millennium BC. In the Old Hittite version of the Hittite Code , some, if not all, of the Luwian-speaking areas were called Luwiya . Widmer (2007) has argued that the Mycenaean term ru-wa-ni-jo , attested in Linear B , refers to the same area. but the stem * Luwan- was recently shown to be non-existent. In a corrupt late copy of

8588-407: The extensive Luwian presence in western Anatolia in the late second millennium BC. In the Old Hittite version of the Hittite Code , some, if not all, of the Luwian-speaking areas were called Luwiya . Widmer (2007) has argued that the Mycenaean term ru-wa-ni-jo , attested in Linear B , refers to the same area. but the stem * Luwan- was recently shown to be non-existent. In a corrupt late copy of

8701-519: The features became simplified in Hittite. According to Craig Melchert , the current tendency (as of 2012) is to suppose that Proto-Indo-European evolved and that the "prehistoric speakers" of Anatolian became isolated "from the rest of the PIE speech community, so as not to share in some common innovations". Hittite and the other Anatolian languages split off from Proto-Indo-European at an early stage. Hittite thus preserved archaisms that would be lost in

8814-556: The form of Old Babylonian cuneiform that had been adapted for the Hittite language . The other was Hieroglyphic Luwian , which was written in a unique native hieroglyphic script. The differences between the dialects are minor, but they affect vocabulary, style, and grammar. The different orthographies of the two writing systems may also hide some differences. According to Hittitologist Alwin Kloekhorst , Hieroglyphic Luwian may also be known as Empire Luwian or Iron Age Luwian, and

8927-496: The form of Old Babylonian cuneiform that had been adapted for the Hittite language . The other was Hieroglyphic Luwian , which was written in a unique native hieroglyphic script. The differences between the dialects are minor, but they affect vocabulary, style, and grammar. The different orthographies of the two writing systems may also hide some differences. According to Hittitologist Alwin Kloekhorst , Hieroglyphic Luwian may also be known as Empire Luwian or Iron Age Luwian, and

9040-748: The forms given in the table, Luwian also had a demonstrative pronoun formed from the stem za-/zi- , but not all cases are known, and also a relative pronoun , which was declined regularly: kwis (nominative singular animate), kwin (accusative singular animate), kwinzi (nominative/accusative plural animate), kwati (ablative/instrumental singular), kwanza (dative/locative plural), kwaya (nominative/accusative plural inanimate). Some indefinite pronouns whose meanings are not entirely clear are also transmitted. Like many other Indo-European languages, Luwian distinguishes two numbers (singular and plural) and three persons . There are two moods : indicative and imperative but no subjunctive . There are two tenses :

9153-748: The forms given in the table, Luwian also had a demonstrative pronoun formed from the stem za-/zi- , but not all cases are known, and also a relative pronoun , which was declined regularly: kwis (nominative singular animate), kwin (accusative singular animate), kwinzi (nominative/accusative plural animate), kwati (ablative/instrumental singular), kwanza (dative/locative plural), kwaya (nominative/accusative plural inanimate). Some indefinite pronouns whose meanings are not entirely clear are also transmitted. Like many other Indo-European languages, Luwian distinguishes two numbers (singular and plural) and three persons . There are two moods : indicative and imperative but no subjunctive . There are two tenses :

9266-436: The geminate series of plosives is the one descending from Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops , and the simple plosives come from both voiced and voiced aspirate stops, which is often referred as Sturtevant's law . Because of the typological implications of Sturtevant's law, the distinction between the two series is commonly regarded as one of voice. However, there is no agreement over the subject among scholars since some view

9379-408: The genitive plural. In hieroglyphic Luwian, as in Hittite, the classical Indo-European suffixes -as for the genitive singular and -an for the plural are used. The special form of possessive adjectives with a plural possessor is restricted to Kizzuwatna Luwian and probably represents a calque from Hurrian . Because of the prevalence of -assa place names and words scattered around all sides of

9492-406: The genitive plural. In hieroglyphic Luwian, as in Hittite, the classical Indo-European suffixes -as for the genitive singular and -an for the plural are used. The special form of possessive adjectives with a plural possessor is restricted to Kizzuwatna Luwian and probably represents a calque from Hurrian . Because of the prevalence of -assa place names and words scattered around all sides of

9605-724: The horse-riders who came to this region from the north and founded Demircihöyük ( Eskişehir Province ) in Phrygia c. 3000 BC. They were allegedly ancestors of the Luwians who inhabited Troy II, and spread widely in the Anatolian peninsula. He cited the distribution of a new type of wheel-made pottery, Red Slip Wares, as some of the best evidence for his theory. According to Mellaart, the proto-Luwian migrations to Anatolia came in several distinct waves over many centuries. The recent detailed review of Mellaart's claims suggests that his ethnolinguistic conclusions cannot be substantiated on archaeological grounds. Other arguments were advanced for

9718-668: The horse-riders who came to this region from the north and founded Demircihöyük ( Eskişehir Province ) in Phrygia c. 3000 BC. They were allegedly ancestors of the Luwians who inhabited Troy II, and spread widely in the Anatolian peninsula. He cited the distribution of a new type of wheel-made pottery, Red Slip Wares, as some of the best evidence for his theory. According to Mellaart, the proto-Luwian migrations to Anatolia came in several distinct waves over many centuries. The recent detailed review of Mellaart's claims suggests that his ethnolinguistic conclusions cannot be substantiated on archaeological grounds. Other arguments were advanced for

9831-526: The indigenous people who preceded the Hittites, speaking a non-Indo-European Hattic language . In multilingual texts found in Hittite locations, passages written in Hittite are preceded by the adverb nesili (or nasili , nisili ), "in the [speech] of Neša (Kaneš)", an important city during the early stages of the Hittite Old Kingdom . In one case, the label is Kanisumnili , "in

9944-479: The language of the people of Neša ' ), also known as Nesite (Nešite/Neshite, Nessite), is an extinct Indo-European language that was spoken by the Hittites , a people of Bronze Age Anatolia who created an empire centred on Hattusa , as well as parts of the northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia . The language, now long extinct, is attested in cuneiform , in records dating from the 17th ( Anitta text ) to

10057-470: The language. He presented his argument that the language is Indo-European in a paper published in 1915 (Hrozný 1915), which was soon followed by a grammar of the language (Hrozný 1917). Hrozný's argument for the Indo-European affiliation of Hittite was thoroughly modern although poorly substantiated. He focused on the striking similarities in idiosyncratic aspects of the morphology that are unlikely to occur independently by chance or to be borrowed. They included

10170-468: The linear form, but the styles are in principle interchangeable. Texts of several lines are usually written in boustrophedon style. Within a line, signs are usually written in vertical columns, but as in Egyptian hieroglyphs , aesthetic considerations take precedence over correct reading order. The script consists of the order of 500 unique signs, some with multiple values; a given sign may function as

10283-412: The linear form, but the styles are in principle interchangeable. Texts of several lines are usually written in boustrophedon style. Within a line, signs are usually written in vertical columns, but as in Egyptian hieroglyphs , aesthetic considerations take precedence over correct reading order. The script consists of the order of 500 unique signs, some with multiple values; a given sign may function as

10396-476: The nature of Hittite phonology have been more or less overcome by means of comparative etymology and an examination of Hittite spelling conventions. Accordingly, scholars have surmised that Hittite possessed the following phonemes: Hittite had two series of consonants, one which was written always geminate in the original script, and another that was always simple. In cuneiform , all consonant sounds except for glides could be geminate. It has long been noticed that

10509-705: The norm for other writings. The Hittite language has traditionally been stratified into Old Hittite (OH), Middle Hittite (MH) and New Hittite or Neo-Hittite (NH, not to be confused with the polysemic use of " Neo-Hittite " label as a designation for the later period, which is actually post-Hittite), corresponding to the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms of the Hittite history ( c.  1750 –1500 BC, 1500–1430 BC and 1430–1180 BC, respectively). The stages are differentiated on both linguistic and paleographic grounds. Hittitologist Alwin Kloekhorst (2019) recognizes two dialectal variants of Hittite: one he calls "Kanišite Hittite", and

10622-541: The other Indo-European languages. Hittite has many loanwords, particularly religious vocabulary from the non-Indo-European Hurrian and Hattic languages. The latter was the language of the Hattians , the local inhabitants of the land of Hatti before they were absorbed or displaced by the Hittites . Sacred and magical texts from Hattusa were often written in Hattic, Hurrian and Luwian even after Hittite had become

10735-414: The rounds of" and is probably derived from *kalutta/i- "circle". It has been argued that this derives from a proto-Anatolian word for " wheel ", which in turn would have derived from the common word for "wheel" found in all other Indo-European families. The wheel was invented in the 5th millennium BC and, if kaluti does derive from it, then the Anatolian branch left PIE after its invention (so validating

10848-412: The rounds of" and is probably derived from *kalutta/i- "circle". It has been argued that this derives from a proto-Anatolian word for " wheel ", which in turn would have derived from the common word for "wheel" found in all other Indo-European families. The wheel was invented in the 5th millennium BC and, if kaluti does derive from it, then the Anatolian branch left PIE after its invention (so validating

10961-448: The scripts in which they were written: Cuneiform Luwian ( CLuwian ) and Hieroglyphic Luwian ( HLuwian ). There is no consensus as to whether these were a single language or two closely related languages. Several other Anatolian languages – particularly Carian , Lycian , and Milyan (also known as Lycian B or Lycian II) – are now usually identified as related to Luwian – and as mutually connected more closely than other constituents of

11074-428: The series as if they were differenced by length , which a literal interpretation of the cuneiform orthography would suggest. Supporters of a length distinction usually point to the fact that Akkadian , the language from which the Hittites borrowed the cuneiform script, had voicing, but Hittite scribes used voiced and voiceless signs interchangeably. Alwin Kloekhorst also argues that the absence of assimilatory voicing

11187-404: The singular. In the animate gender, an -i- is inserted between the stem and the case ending. In hieroglyphic Luwian, the particle -sa/-za is added to the nominative/accusative inanimate case ending. In the genitive case, cuneiform and hieroglyphic Luwian differ sharply from each other. In cuneiform Luwian the possessive suffix -assa is used for the genitive singular and -assanz- is used for

11300-404: The singular. In the animate gender, an -i- is inserted between the stem and the case ending. In hieroglyphic Luwian, the particle -sa/-za is added to the nominative/accusative inanimate case ending. In the genitive case, cuneiform and hieroglyphic Luwian differ sharply from each other. In cuneiform Luwian the possessive suffix -assa is used for the genitive singular and -assanz- is used for

11413-663: The stress and word position. For example, annan occurs alone as an adverb as ānnan ('underneath') but as a preposition , it becomes annān pātanza ('under the feet'). The characters that are transliterated as -h- and -hh- have often been interpreted as pharyngeal fricatives [ħ] and [ʕ] . However, they may have instead been uvular [χ] and [ʁ] or velar fricatives [x] and [ɣ] . In loans to Ugaritic, these sounds are transcribed with <ḫ> and <ġ>, while in Egyptian they are transcribed with 𓐍 ḫ and 𓎼 g. As both of these languages had pharyngeal consonants,

11526-606: The stress and word position. For example, annan occurs alone as an adverb as ānnan ('underneath') but as a preposition , it becomes annān pātanza ('under the feet'). The characters that are transliterated as -h- and -hh- have often been interpreted as pharyngeal fricatives [ħ] and [ʕ] . However, they may have instead been uvular [χ] and [ʁ] or velar fricatives [x] and [ɣ] . In loans to Ugaritic, these sounds are transcribed with <ḫ> and <ġ>, while in Egyptian they are transcribed with 𓐍 ḫ and 𓎼 g. As both of these languages had pharyngeal consonants,

11639-450: The three laryngeals ( * h₂ and * h₃ word-initially). Those sounds, whose existence had been hypothesized in 1879 by Ferdinand de Saussure , on the basis of vowel quality in other Indo-European languages, were not preserved as separate sounds in any attested Indo-European language until the discovery of Hittite. In Hittite, the phoneme is written as ḫ . In that respect, Hittite is unlike any other attested Indo-European language and so

11752-487: The time of the earliest discovered sources and was subsumed by the nominative in most documents. The allative was subsumed in the later stages of the language by the dative - locative . An archaic genitive plural -an is found irregularly in earlier texts, as is an instrumental plural in -it . A few nouns also form a distinct locative , which had no case ending at all. The examples of pišna- ("man") for animate and pēda- ("place") for inanimate are used here to show

11865-443: The verb ēš-/aš- "to be". Hittite is a head-final language: it has subject-object-verb word order , a split ergative alignment , and is a synthetic language ; adpositions follow their complement , adjectives and genitives precede the nouns that they modify, adverbs precede verbs, and subordinate clauses precede main clauses . Hittite syntax shows one noteworthy feature that is typical of Anatolian languages: commonly,

11978-487: The which are formed from apa- and za-/zi- . The case endings are similar those of Hittite, but not all cases are attested for personal pronouns. In the third person, the demonstrative pronoun apa- occurs instead of the personal pronoun. Possessive pronouns and demonstrative pronouns in apa- are declined as adjectives. All known forms of the personal pronouns are given, but it is not clear how their meanings differed or how they changed for different cases. In addition to

12091-487: The which are formed from apa- and za-/zi- . The case endings are similar those of Hittite, but not all cases are attested for personal pronouns. In the third person, the demonstrative pronoun apa- occurs instead of the personal pronoun. Possessive pronouns and demonstrative pronouns in apa- are declined as adjectives. All known forms of the personal pronouns are given, but it is not clear how their meanings differed or how they changed for different cases. In addition to

12204-412: Was already used for writing on wooden writing boards from the early second millennium BC onwards , but the argument has not been widely accepted. The first monumental inscriptions confirmed as Luwian date to the Late Bronze Age , c. 14th to 13th centuries BC. After some two centuries of sparse material, the hieroglyphs resume in the Early Iron Age , c. 10th to 8th centuries BC. In the early 7th century BC,

12317-411: Was already used for writing on wooden writing boards from the early second millennium BC onwards, but the argument has not been widely accepted. The first monumental inscriptions confirmed as Luwian date to the Late Bronze Age , c. 14th to 13th centuries BC. After some two centuries of sparse material, the hieroglyphs resume in the Early Iron Age , c. 10th to 8th centuries BC. In the early 7th century BC,

12430-478: Was excavated in 1970 in Yalburt, northwest of Konya . Luwian hieroglyphic texts contain a limited number of lexical borrowings from Hittite , Akkadian , and Northwest Semitic ; the lexical borrowings from Greek are limited to proper nouns, although common nouns borrowed in the opposite direction do exist. A decipherment was presented by Emmanuel Laroche in 1960, building on partial decipherments proposed since

12543-422: Was excavated in 1970 in Yalburt, northwest of Konya . Luwian hieroglyphic texts contain a limited number of lexical borrowings from Hittite , Akkadian , and Northwest Semitic ; the lexical borrowings from Greek are limited to proper nouns, although common nouns borrowed in the opposite direction do exist. A decipherment was presented by Emmanuel Laroche in 1960, building on partial decipherments proposed since

12656-411: Was lost initially and finally, suggesting that any voicing only appeared intervocalically. The following table provides a minimal consonant inventory, as can be reconstructed from the script. The existence of other consonants, which were not differentiated in writing, is possible. There are only three vowels , a , i , and u , which could be short or long. Vowel length is not stable but changes with

12769-410: Was lost initially and finally, suggesting that any voicing only appeared intervocalically. The following table provides a minimal consonant inventory, as can be reconstructed from the script. The existence of other consonants, which were not differentiated in writing, is possible. There are only three vowels , a , i , and u , which could be short or long. Vowel length is not stable but changes with

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