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62-563: Frontinus mentions Lusitanian leader Viriathus as the leader of the Celtiberians , in their war against the Romans. The Greco-Roman historian Diodorus Siculus likened them to another Celtic tribe: "Those who are called Lusitanians are the bravest of all similar to the Cimbri ". The Lusitanians were also called Belitanians, according to the diviner Artemidorus . Strabo differentiated

124-659: A coherent archaeological culture in its later phase. The origin of the "Bell Beaker" artefacts has been traced to the early 3rd millennium, with early examples of the "maritime" Bell Beaker design having been found at the Tagus estuary in Portugal, radiocarbon dated to c.  28th century BC. The inspiration for the Maritime Bell Beaker is argued to have been the small and earlier Copoz beakers that have impressed decoration and which are found widely around

186-533: A debt to repay." He was also a member of the College of Augurs . He died in 103 or 104, a date based on Pliny the Younger writing to his friends that he was elected to the college of augurs to fill the vacancy Frontinus' death had created. Frontinus's chief work is De aquaeductu , in two books, an official report to the emperor on the state of the aqueducts of Rome . It presents a history and description of

248-687: A few years later, Frontinus was appointed suffect consul . While governor of Britain, he subjugated the Silures of South Wales and is thought to have likewise campaigned against the Brigantes . He was succeeded by Gnaeus Julius Agricola , the father-in-law of the famous historian Tacitus , in 77. Birley believes it "is fair to speculate" that Frontinus was with Domitian during the German campaign of 83. An inscription at Hieropolis in Phrygia , as well as

310-1509: A fictionalised character in the Marcus Didius Falco novels The Silver Pigs , Shadows in Bronze , Three Hands in the Fountain , and The Jupiter Myth . He also appears as a character in The Centurions novels Barbarian Princess and The Emperor's Games . Beaker culture Vučedol culture , Nagyrév culture , Ottomány culture , Wietenberg culture , Vatya culture Bell Beaker culture , Únětice culture , Nordic Bronze Age , Tumulus culture , Urnfield culture Bronze Age Britain , Bronze Age France , Armorican Tumulus culture , Bronze Age Iberia , Argaric culture , Hilversum culture , Atlantic Bronze Age Nuragic civilization , Polada culture , Terramare culture , Proto-Villanovan culture , Apennine culture , Canegrate culture , Golasecca culture Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The Bell Beaker culture , also known as

372-491: A goddess of rivers and streams. According to Strabo the Lusitanians were given to offering sacrifices; they practiced divination on the sacrificial offering by inspecting its vitals and veins. They also sacrificed human victims, prisoners of war, by striking them under coarse blankets and observing which way they fell. They cut off the right hands of their captives, which they offered to the gods. The Lusitanian language

434-492: A kind of Bell Beaker civilization of continental scale". The Bell Beaker artefacts (at least in their early phase) are not distributed across a contiguous area, as is usual for archaeological cultures, but are found in insular concentrations scattered across Europe. Their presence is not associated with a characteristic type of architecture or of burial customs. However, the Bell Beaker culture does appear to coalesce into

496-513: A number of coins of Smyrna , attests that he was proconsul of Asia in AD 86. In 97, he was appointed curator aquarum (supervisor of the aqueducts ) by the emperor Nerva , an office only conferred upon persons of very high standing. In this capacity, he followed another distinguished Roman statesman, Agrippa , the friend, ally and son-in-law of Augustus, who organised in 34 BC a campaign of public repairs and improvements, including renovation of

558-410: A particular style of dancing, which required great agility and nimbleness of the legs and thighs. In times of war, they marched in time, until they were ready to charge the enemy. Appian claims that when Praetor Brutus sacked Lusitania after Viriathus's death, the women fought valiantly next to their men as women warriors . While the Lusitanians did not speak a Romance language, nowadays Lusitanian

620-646: A period of cultural contact in Atlantic and Western Europe following a prolonged period of relative isolation during the Neolithic . In its mature phase, the Bell Beaker culture is understood as not only a collection of characteristic artefact types, but a complex cultural phenomenon involving metalwork in copper , arsenical bronze and gold , long-distance exchange networks, archery , specific types of ornamentation, and (presumably) shared ideological, cultural and religious ideas, as well as social stratification and

682-670: A prestige cult related to the production and consumption of beer, or trading links such as those demonstrated by finds made along the seaways of Atlantic Europe. Palynological studies including analysis of pollen, associated with the spread of beakers, certainly suggests increased growing of barley, which may be associated with beer brewing. Noting the distribution of Beakers was highest in areas of transport routes, including fording sites, river valleys and mountain passes, Beaker 'folk' were suggested to be originally bronze traders, who subsequently settled within local Neolithic or early Chalcolithic cultures, creating local styles. Close analysis of

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744-541: A result of the action 70 of the former and 320 of the latter died. When the victorious Lusitani retired and dispersed confidently, one of them on foot became separated, and was surrounded by a detachment of pursuing cavalry. The lone warrior pierced the horse of one of the riders with his spear, and with a blow of his sword cut off the Roman’s head, producing such terror among the others that they prudently retired under his arrogant and contemptuous gaze." In times of peace, they had

806-521: A study from 2018 found that it was associated with genetically diverse populations. The Bell Beaker culture was partly preceded by and contemporaneous with the Corded Ware culture , and in north-central Europe preceded by the Funnelbeaker culture . The name Glockenbecher was coined for its distinctive style of beakers by Paul Reinecke in 1900. The term's English translation Bell Beaker

868-579: Is compared with Welsh and Breton names, giving him the meaning of "Very Good God", the same epithet of the Irish god Dagda . Even the Romans worshiped him for his ability to protect. His cult eventually spread across the Iberian peninsula and beyond, to the rest of the Roman Empire and his cult was maintained until the fifth century; he was the god of public health and safety. The goddess Ataegina

930-492: Is likely Frontinus had a sister, who was the other's mother. Frontinus had at least one daughter, the wife of Quintus Sosius Senecio (cos. 99, II 107) and mother of Sosia Polla. In AD 70, Frontinus participated in the suppression of the Rhineland revolt, and later recorded that he received the surrender of 70,000 Lingones . Between that date and being appointed governor of Britain to succeed Quintus Petillius Cerialis

992-506: Is often used as a metonym for the Portuguese people , and similarly Lusophone is used to refer to a Portuguese speaker within or outside Portugal , Brazil , Macau , Timor-Leste , Angola , Mozambique , Cape Verde , São Tomé and Príncipe , Guinea Bissau and others territories and countries. Frontinus Sextus Julius Frontinus (c. 40 – 103 AD) was a prominent Roman civil engineer, author, soldier and senator of

1054-508: Is rather derivative of Corded Ware traditions. British and American archaeology since the 1960s have been sceptical about prehistoric migration in general, so the idea of "Bell Beaker Folk" lost ground. A theory of cultural contact de-emphasizing population movement was presented by Colin Burgess and Stephen Shennan in the mid-1970s. Under the "pots, not people" theory, the Beaker culture

1116-528: The Stratagems (Latin: Strategemata ), is a collection of examples of military stratagems from Greek and Roman history, for the use of generals. He draws on his own experience as a general in Germania under Domitian , but similarities between the anecdotes he records and versions of other Roman authors like Valerius Maximus and Livy suggest that he drew mainly on literary sources. The authenticity of

1178-658: The Artabrians in their geographical writings. The original Roman province of Lusitania briefly included the territories of Asturia and Gallaecia , but these were soon ceded to the jurisdiction of the Provincia Tarraconensis in the north, while the south remained the Provincia Lusitania et Vettones . Later, Gallaecia would become its own province (taking much of modern Galicia and Northern Portugal). After this, Lusitania's northern border

1240-505: The Beaker culture . The Lusitanians worshiped various gods in a very diverse polytheism , using animal sacrifice . They represented their gods and warriors in rudimentary sculpture. Endovelicus was the most important god for the Lusitanians. He is considered a possible Basque language loan god by some, yet according to scholars like José Leite de Vasconcelos , the word Endovellicus was originally Celtic , Andevellicos . Endovelicus

1302-608: The Bell Beaker complex or Bell Beaker phenomenon , is an archaeological culture named after the inverted-bell beaker drinking vessel used at the very beginning of the European Bronze Age , arising from around 2800 BC. Bell Beaker culture lasted in Britain from c.  2450 BC, with the appearance of single burial graves, until as late as 1800 BC, but in continental Europe only until 2300 BC, when it

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1364-562: The Extremadura region (Spain). They were a tribal confederation, not a single political entity; each tribe had its own territory and was independent, and was formed by smaller clans . However, they had a cultural sense of unity and a common name for the tribes. Each tribe was ruled by its own tribal aristocracy and chief. Many members of the Lusitanian tribal aristocracy were warriors as happened in many other pre-Roman peoples of

1426-513: The Iron Age . Only when an external threat occurred did the different tribes politically unite, as happened at the time of the Roman conquest of their territory when Viriathus became the single leader of the Lusitanian tribes. Punicus , Caucenus and Caesarus were other important Lusitanian chiefs before the Roman conquest. They ruled the Lusitanians (before Viriathus ) for some time, leading

1488-634: The Tagus estuary were maritime. A southern move led to the Mediterranean where 'enclaves' were established in south-western Spain and southern France around the Golfe du Lion and into the Po Valley in Italy , probably via ancient western Alpine trade routes used to distribute jadeite axes. A northern move incorporated the southern coast of Armorica . The enclave established in southern Brittany

1550-411: The aqueducts of Rome . Due to a lack of either a titulus honorarius or sepulcralis , there is no outline of Frontinus' life, the names of his parents, or of his wife. Some details can be inferred from chance mentions: He is thought to be of Narbonese origins, and originally of the equestrian class . From the nomenclature of the name of Publius Calvisius Ruso Julius Frontinus (consul c. 84), it

1612-405: The migrationism vs. diffusionism debate in 20th-century archaeology , variously described as due to migration, possibly of small groups of warriors, craftsmen or traders, or due to the diffusion of ideas and object exchange. Given the unusual form and fabric of Beaker pottery, and its abrupt appearance in the archaeological record , along with a characteristic group of other artefacts, known as

1674-439: The Beaker culture, may have been ancestral to not only Celtic and Italic, but also to Germanic and Balto-Slavic. Ellis Evans believes that Gallaecian - Lusitanian were one language (not separate languages) of the "P" Celtic variant. The Lusitanians were a people formed by several tribes that lived between the rivers Douro and Tagus , in most of today's Beira and Estremadura regions of central Portugal, and some areas of

1736-412: The Bell Beaker "package", the explanation for the Beaker culture until the last decades of the 20th century was to interpret it as the migration of one group of people across Europe. Gordon Childe interpreted the presence of its characteristic artefact as the intrusion of "missionaries" expanding from Iberia along the Atlantic coast, spreading knowledge of copper metallurgy. Stephen Shennan interpreted

1798-534: The Bell Beaker culture was intrusive to southern Germany, and existed contemporarily with the local Corded Ware culture . The burial ritual which typified Bell Beaker sites appears to be intrusive to Western Europe, from Central Europe. Individual inhumations, often under tumuli with the inclusion of weapons contrast markedly to the preceding Neolithic traditions of often collective, weaponless burials in Atlantic/Western Europe. Such an arrangement

1860-724: The Bell Beaker zone. This overturns a previous conviction that single burial was unknown in the early or southern Bell Beaker zone, and so must have been adopted from Corded Ware in the contact zone of the Lower Rhine, and transmitted westwards along the exchange networks from the Rhine to the Loire, and northwards across the English Channel to Britain. The earliest copper production in Ireland, identified at Ross Island in

1922-634: The Carpathian Basin, the Bell Beaker culture came in contact with communities such as the Vučedol culture ( c.  3000 –2200 BC), which had evolved partly from the Yamnaya culture (c. 3300–2600 BC). In contrast to the early Bell Beaker preference for the dagger and bow, the favourite weapon in the Carpathian Basin during the first half of the third millennium was the shaft-hole axe. Here, Bell Beaker people assimilated local pottery forms such as

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1984-554: The Lusitanians from the Iberian tribes and thought of them as being Celtiberians who had been known as Oestriminis in ancient times. However, based on archeological findings, Lusitanians and Vettones seem to have been largely pre-Celtic Indo-European populations that adopted Celtic cultural elements by proximity. On the other hand, Pliny the Elder and Pomponius Mela distinguished the Lusitanians from neighboring Celtic groups like

2046-410: The Mediterranean, using sea routes that had long been in operation, was directly associated with the quest for copper and other rare raw materials. While Bell Beaker ( Glockenbecher ) was introduced as a term for the artefact type at the beginning of the 20th century, recognition of an archaeological Bell Beaker culture has long been controversial. Its spread has been one of the central questions of

2108-668: The Tagus estuary in Portugal. Turek sees late Neolithic precursors in northern Africa, arguing the Maritime style emerged as a result of seaborne contacts between Iberia and Morocco in the first half of the third millennium BC. More recent analyses of the "Beaker phenomenon", published since the 2000s, have persisted in describing the origin of the "Beaker phenomenon" as arising from a synthesis of elements, representing "an idea and style uniting different regions with different cultural traditions and background." The initial moves from

2170-455: The aqueduct Aqua Marcia and an extension of its pipes to cover more of the city. The following year Frontinus held a second consulship as suffect in February, with Trajan as his colleague, and two years later he was made consul ordinarius with Trajan. Birley notes, "This exceptional honour underlines the high regard in which he [Frontinus] was held, and suggests, further, that Trajan had

2232-424: The artefacts as belonging to a mobile cultural elite imposing itself over the indigenous substrate populations. Similarly, Sangmeister (1972) interpreted the "Beaker folk" ( Glockenbecherleute ) as small groups of highly mobile traders and artisans. Christian Strahm (1995) used the term "Bell Beaker phenomenon" ( Glockenbecher-Phänomen ) as a compromise in order to avoid the term "culture". Heyd (1998) concluded that

2294-409: The emergence of regional elites. A wide range of regional diversity persists within the widespread late Beaker culture, particularly in local burial styles (including incidences of cremation rather than burial), housing styles, economic profile, and local ceramic wares ( Begleitkeramik ). Nonetheless, according to Lemercier (2018) the mature phase of the Beaker culture represents "the appearance of

2356-505: The fourth book has been challenged. One example he gives of control of river water during a siege reads: Lucius Metellus, when fighting in Hither Spain , diverted the course of a river and directed it from a higher level against the camp of the enemy, which was located on low ground. Then, when the enemy were in a panic from the sudden flood, he had them slain by men whom he had stationed in ambush for this very purpose. He appears as

2418-537: The late 1st century AD. He was a successful general under Domitian , commanding forces in Roman Britain , and on the Rhine and Danube frontiers. A novus homo , he was consul three times. Frontinus ably discharged several important administrative duties for Nerva and Trajan . However, he is best known to the post-Classical world as an author of technical treatises, especially De aquaeductu , dealing with

2480-556: The leader of the Lusitanians, and severely damaged the Roman rule in Lusitania and beyond. In 139 BC, Viriathus was betrayed and killed in his sleep by three of his companions (who had been sent as emissaries to the Romans), Audax, Ditalcus and Minurus , bribed by Marcus Popillius Laenas (although they were Viriathus warrior companions they were not Lusitanians themselves, they seem to have been Turdetanians , or from other people that

2542-428: The many baths and fountains. However, Frontinus criticized the practice of mixing supplies from different sources, and one of his first decisions was to separate the waters from each system. He was very concerned by leaks in the system, especially those in the underground conduits, which were difficult to locate and mend, a problem still faced by water engineers today. The aqueducts above ground needed care to ensure that

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2604-435: The masonry was kept in good condition, especially those running on arched superstructures. It was, he said, essential to keep trees at a distance so that their roots would not damage the structures. He reviewed the existing law governing the state aqueducts, as well as the need for enforcement of those statutes . Frontinus also wrote a theoretical treatise on military science, which is lost. His extant work on military matters,

2666-555: The names of Lusitanian deities with other grammatical elements of the area. The Lusitanian language may in fact have been basal Italo-Celtic , a branch independent from Celtic and Italic , and splitting off early from Proto-Celtic and Proto-Italic populations who spread from Central Europe into western Europe after new Yamnaya migrations into the Danube Valley. Alternatively, a European branch of Indo-European dialects, termed "North-west Indo-European" and associated with

2728-460: The period 2400–2200 BC, was associated with early Beaker pottery. Here, the local sulpharsenide ores were smelted to produce the first copper axes used in Britain and Ireland. The same technologies were used in the Tagus region and in the west and south of France. The evidence is sufficient to support the suggestion that the initial spread of Maritime Bell Beakers along the Atlantic and into

2790-654: The polypod cup. These "common ware" types of pottery then spread in association with the classic bell beaker. The Rhine was on the western edge of the vast Corded Ware zone ( c.  3100  – c.  2350 BC ), forming a contact zone with the Bell Beaker culture. From there, the Bell Beaker culture spread further into Eastern Europe, replacing the Corded Ware culture up to the Vistula (Poland). A review in 2014 revealed that single burial, communal burial, and reuse of Neolithic burial sites are found throughout

2852-402: The populace in mountainous sites. They used hooked javelins or saunions made of iron, and wielded swords and helmets like those of the Celtiberians . They threw their darts from some distance, yet often hit their marks and wounded their targets deeply. Being active and nimble warriors, they would pursue their enemies and decapitate them. "In a narrow pass 300 Lusitani faced 1000 Romans; as

2914-415: The previous century; Frontinus refers to the possible influence of Vitruvius on the plumbers. Distribution of the water depended in a complex way on its height entering the city, the quality of the water, and its rate of discharge. Thus, poor-quality water would be sent for irrigation, gardens, or flushing, while only the best would be reserved for drinking water. Intermediate-quality water would be used for

2976-419: The quality of water delivered by each, mainly depending on their source, be it river, lake, or spring. One of the first jobs he undertook when he was appointed water commissioner was to prepare maps of the system so that he could assess their condition before undertaking their maintenance. He says that many had been neglected and were not working at their full capacity. He was especially concerned by diversion of

3038-496: The rest of the Romanised Iberian peninsula , eventually gained the status of "Citizens of Rome". Categorising Lusitanian culture generally, including the language, is proving difficult and contentious. Some believe it was essentially a pre-Celtic Iberian culture with substantial Celtic influences, while others argue that it was an essentially Celtic culture with strong indigenous pre-Celtic influences associated with

3100-660: The similarly named chieftain). According to Livy , Lusitanian and Celtiberian cavalry performed raids in the north of Italy whenever the terrain was too rough for Hannibal's famed Numidian cavalry . Since 193 BC, the Lusitanians had been fighting the Romans in Hispania. In 150 BC, they were defeated by Praetor Servius Galba: springing a treacherous trap, he killed 9,000 Lusitanians and later sold 20,000 more as slaves in Gaul (modern France ). This massacre would not be forgotten by Viriathus , who three years later (147 BC) would become

3162-692: The south. The name Turduli Veteres (older or ancient Turduli), a tribe that dwelt in today's Aveiro District , seems to indicate they came from the north and not from the south (contrary to what is assumed on the map). Several Turduli peoples were possibly Callaeci tribes that initially came from the north, towards the south along the coast and then migrated inland along the Tagus and the Anas ( Guadiana River ) valleys. If there were more Lusitanian tribes, their names are unknown. The Lusitanians were considered by historians to be particularly adept at guerrilla warfare . The strongest amongst them were selected to defend

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3224-507: The supply by unscrupulous farmers and tradesmen, among many others. They would insert pipes into the channel of the aqueducts to tap the supply. He, therefore, made a meticulous survey of the intake and the supply of each line, and then investigated the discrepancies. Lead pipe stamps bearing the name of the owner were also used to prevent such water theft . He was well aware of the seminal work De architectura by Vitruvius , which mentions aqueduct construction and maintenance published in

3286-528: The tribes in the resistance against Roman attempts of conquest, and were successful. The known Lusitanian tribes were: It remains to be known if the Turduli Veteres , Turduli Oppidani , Turduli Bardili , and Turduli were Lusitanian tribes (coastal tribes), were related Celtic peoples, or were instead related to the Turdetani ( Celtic , pre-Celtic Indo-European , or Iberians ) and came from

3348-464: The water-supply of Rome, including the laws relating to its use and maintenance. He provides the history, sizes and discharge rates of all of the nine aqueducts of Rome at the time at which he was writing at the turn of the 1st century AD: the Aqua Marcia , Aqua Appia , Aqua Alsietina , Aqua Tepula , Anio Vetus , Anio Novus , Aqua Virgo , Aqua Claudia and Aqua Augusta . Frontinus describes

3410-528: Was a Paleohispanic language that clearly belongs to the Indo-European family. The precise affiliation of the Lusitanian language inside the Indo-European family is still in debate: there are those who endorse that it is a para-Celtic language with an obvious Celticity to most of the lexicon, over many anthroponyms and toponyms. A second theory relates Lusitanian with the Italic languages ; based on

3472-643: Was along the Douro River, while its eastern border passed through Salmantica and Caesarobriga to the Anas ( Guadiana ) river. Lusitanian mercenaries fought for Carthage between the years 218 and 201 BC, during the Second Punic War against Rome. Silius Italicus describes them as forming a combined with the Gallaeci and being led both by a commander named Viriathus (not to be confused with

3534-421: Was especially popular in the south; as the goddess of rebirth (spring), fertility, nature, and cure, she was identified with Proserpina during the Roman era. Lusitanian mythology was heavily influenced by or related to Celtic mythology . Also well attested in inscriptions are the names Bandua (one of the variants of Borvo ) often with a second name linked to a locality such as Bandua Aetobrico, and Nabia ,

3596-405: Was introduced by John Abercromby in 1904. In its early phase, the Bell Beaker culture can be seen as the western contemporary of the Corded Ware culture of Central Europe. From about 2400 BC the Beaker folk culture expanded eastwards, into the Corded Ware horizon. In parts of Central and Eastern Europe, as far east as Poland , a sequence occurs from Corded Ware to Bell Beaker. This period marks

3658-731: Was linked closely to the riverine and landward route, via the Loire , and across the Gâtinais Valley to the Seine Valley, and thence to the lower Rhine . This was a long-established route reflected in early stone axe distributions, and via this network, Maritime Bell Beakers first reached the Lower Rhine in c.  2600  BC. Another expansion brought Bell Beaker to Csepel Island in Hungary by about 2500 BC. In

3720-491: Was not Lusitanian). However, when the three returned to receive their reward from the Romans, the Consul Quintus Servilius Caepio ordered their execution, declaring, "Rome does not pay traitors". After the death of Viriathus, the Lusitanians kept fighting under the leadership of Tautalus , but gradually acquired Roman culture and language; the Lusitanian cities, in a manner similar to those of

3782-430: Was seen as a 'package' of knowledge (including religious beliefs, as well as methods of copper , bronze , and gold working) and artefacts (including copper daggers, v-perforated buttons, and stone wrist-guards ) adopted and adapted by the indigenous peoples of Europe to varying degrees. This new knowledge may have come about by any combination of population movements and cultural contact. An example might be as part of

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3844-491: Was succeeded by the Únětice culture . The culture was widely dispersed throughout Western Europe, being present in many regions of Iberia and stretching eastward to the Danubian plains , and northward to the islands of Great Britain and Ireland , and was also present in the islands of Sardinia and Sicily and some coastal areas in north-western Africa . The Bell Beaker phenomenon shows substantial regional variation, and

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