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49-843: The five-member commission, headed by British politician Victor Bulwer-Lytton , announced its conclusions in October 1932. It stated that the Empire of Japan must withdraw from Manchuria, recognized Chinese sovereignty of Manchuria, and refused to recognize the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo . The League of Nations General Assembly adopted the report, and Japan quit the League. The recommendations went into effect after Japan surrendered in World War II in 1945. The Lytton Commission, headed by Lord Lytton, included four other members, one each from

98-475: A state visit . Recognition may, but need not, have domestic and international legal consequences. If sufficient countries recognise a particular entity as a state, that state may have a right to membership in international organizations , while treaties may require all existing member countries unanimously agreeing to the admission of a new member. A vote by a country in the United Nations in favour of

147-401: A government implies recognition of the state it governs, but even countries which have a policy of formally recognising states may not have a policy of doing the same regarding governments. De facto recognition of states, rather than de jure , is rare. De jure recognition is stronger, while de facto recognition is more tentative and recognizes only that a government exercises control over

196-565: A peremptory character (jus cogens). In the context of Kosovo, the Security Council has never taken this position. The exceptional character of the resolutions enumerated above appears to the Court to confirm that no general prohibition against unilateral declarations of independence may be inferred from the practice of the Security Council." States can exercise their recognition powers either explicitly or implicitly. The recognition of

245-448: A rejection of a change of government by illegal means. Diplomatic recognition must be distinguished from formal recognition of states or their governments. The fact that states do not maintain bilateral diplomatic relations does not mean that they do not recognize or treat one another as states. A state is not required to accord formal bilateral recognition to any other state, and some have a general policy of not doing so, considering that

294-627: A safety measure to prevent it. It was hoped that the report would defuse the hostilities between Japan and China and thus help maintain peace and stability in the Far East. The Lytton Report contained an account of the situation in Manchuria before September 1931, when the Mukden Incident took place as the Japanese army (without authorization from the Japanese government) seized the large Chinese province of Manchuria. The Report described

343-400: A state (may be also a recognized state). Recognition can be accorded either on a de facto or de jure basis. Partial recognition can occur if many sovereign states refuse to recognize an entity as a peer. Recognition can be a declaration to that effect by the recognizing government or may be implied from an act of recognition, such as entering into a treaty with the other state or making

392-698: A territory. An example of the difference is when the United Kingdom recognized the Soviet state de facto in 1921, but de jure only in 1924. Another example is the state of Israel in 1948, whose government was immediately recognized de facto by the United States and three days later de jure by the Soviet Union . Another example is the Republic of Indonesia which was whose government

441-891: A visit of the head of state , or the signing of a bilateral treaty. If implicit recognition is possible, a state may feel the need to explicitly proclaim that its acts do not constitute diplomatic recognition, like when the United States commenced its dialogue with the Palestine Liberation Organization in 1988. Formal diplomatic recognition can be used as a tool of political influence with examples including European Community 's conditional recognition of independence of former republics of SFR Yugoslavia in early 1990s dependent on new states commitment to protection of human and national minorities rights. A state may withdraw diplomatic recognition of another state (despite doing so being specifically banned by

490-683: A vote for its membership of an international organisation restricted to states, such as the United Nations , is an act of recognition. Some consider that a state has a responsibility not to recognize as a state any entity that has attained the qualifications for statehood by a violation of basic principles of the UN Charter : the UN Security Council has in several instances ( Resolution 216 (1965) and Resolution 217 (1965), concerning Rhodesia ; Resolution 541 (1983), concerning Northern Cyprus ; and Resolution 787 (1992), concerning

539-565: Is called the Stimson Doctrine , and has become more important since the Second World War , especially in the United Nations where it is a method of ensuring compliance with international law – for instance, in the case of Rhodesia in 1965. Withdrawal of recognition of a government is a more severe act of disapproval than the breaking of diplomatic relations . Besides recognizing other states, states also can recognize

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588-496: Is necessary that there be a government with which to engage in diplomatic relations. Countries such as the United States answer queries over the recognition of governments with the statement: "The question of recognition does not arise: we are conducting our relations with the new government." Several of the world's geopolitical entities lack general international recognition, but wish to be recognized as sovereign states . The degree of de facto control these entities exert over

637-416: Is the case with Vatican City , and Switzerland was not a member until 2002 because of its concerns to maintain its neutrality policy . The non-recognition of particular acts of a state does not normally affect the recognition of the state itself. For example, the international rejection of the occupation of particular territory by a recognised state does not imply non-recognition of the state itself, nor

686-435: The 1933 Montevideo Convention ) or simply refuse to deal with that other country, after withdrawing from all diplomatic relations with that country, such as embassies and consulates, and requiring the other country to do the same. The state will appoint a protecting power to represent its interests in the other state. The doctrine of non-recognition of illegal or immoral situations, like territorial gains achieved by force ,

735-626: The People's Republic of China in 1971. Renewing recognition of a government is not necessary when it changes in a normal, constitutional way (such as an election or referendum ), but may be necessary in the case of a coup d'etat or revolution . Recognition of a new government by other states can be important for its long-term survival. For instance, the Taliban government of the Islamic State of Afghanistan , which lasted from 1996 to 2001,

784-534: The Republika Srpska ) issued Chapter VII resolutions (binding in international law) that denied their statehood and precluded recognition. In the 2010 International Court of Justice advisory opinion on Kosovo's declaration of independence , the ICJ ruled that "general international law contains no applicable prohibition of declarations of independence." The Court carefully noted "that in all of those instances

833-544: The Stimson Doctrine , which warned Japan that areas gained by conquest would not be recognized. In the end, the Lytton Report showcased the weaknesses of the League of Nations and its inability to enforce its decisions. The situation was complicated by the length of time it took for the Lytton Commission to prepare its report, during which time Japan was able to firmly secure its control over Manchuria and

882-507: The membership of another country is an implicit recognition of that country by the country so voting, as only states may be members of the UN. On the other hand, a negative vote for UN membership does not necessarily mean non-recognition of the applicant as a state, as other criteria, requirements or special circumstances may be considered relevant for UN membership. Similarly, a country may choose not to apply for UN membership for its own reasons, as

931-531: The puppet government of Manchukuo. When the findings of the Report were announced before the General Assembly of the League of Nations, recognizing Chinese sovereignty over Manchuria and refusing to recognize Manchukuo, the Japanese delegation led by ambassador Yosuke Matsuoka walked out. Japan gave formal notice of its withdrawal from the League of Nations on March 27, 1933. The United States announced

980-406: The League of Nations. On 3 April 1902, Lord Lytton married Pamela Frances Audrey Chichele-Plowden (1874–1971) at St Margaret's, Westminster . Pamela was a daughter of Sir Trevor Chichele Plowden and Millicent Frances Foster (eldest daughter of Gen. Sir Charles John Foster KCB). Her elder brother was Alfred Chichele Plowden . She had been an early flame of Winston Churchill , but that relationship

1029-629: The Parliamentary Franchise (Women) Bill, known as the Conciliation Bill , in 1910. The wartime coalition gave Lytton the chance to hold government office, and he started his official career by filling various posts in the Admiralty between 1916 and 1920, before being appointed Under-Secretary of State for India , a post which he held between 1920 and 1922. He was made a Privy Counsellor in 1919. On 16 February 1922 he

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1078-509: The Report concluded that the new State could not have been formed without the presence of Japanese troops; that it had no general support locally or from China; and that it was not part of a genuine and spontaneous independent movement. Still, the report held that both China and Japan had legitimate grievances. Japan, it states, took advantage of questionable rights, and China obstructed by the exercise of her undoubted rights. The Geneva correspondent of The Daily Telegraph says: "The report, which

1127-481: The Security Council was making a determination as regards the concrete situation existing at the time that those declarations of independence were made; the illegality attached to the declarations of independence thus stemmed not from the unilateral character of these declarations as such, but from the fact that they were, or would have been, connected with the unlawful use of force or other egregious violations of norms of general international law, in particular, those of

1176-515: The United States (Major General Frank Ross McCoy ), Germany (Doctor Heinrich Schnee ), Italy (Count Luigi Aldrovandi Marescotti ), and France (General Henri Claudel ). The group spent six weeks in Manchuria in spring 1932 (despite having been sent in December 1931) on a fact-finding mission after they had met government leaders in the Republic of China and in Japan. There were also members of

1225-661: The aggressor. In spite of care to preserve impartiality between the conflicting views of China and Japan, the effect of the Report was regarded as a substantial vindication of the Chinese case on most fundamental issues. In particular, the Commission stated that the operations of the Imperial Japanese Army following on the Mukden incident could not be regarded as legitimate self-defence . Regarding Manchukuo,

1274-442: The area occupied , not occupation of the area claimed . Unrecognized countries may have either full control over their occupied territory (such as Northern Cyprus ), or only partial control (such as Western Sahara ). In the former, the de jure governments have little or no influence in the areas they claim to rule, whereas in the latter they have varying degrees of control, and may provide essential services to people living in

1323-412: The areas. Other elements that may be recognized include occupation or annexation of territory, or belligerent rights of a party in a conflict. Recognition of the latter does not imply recognition of a state. Formal recognition of belligerency , which is rare today, signifies that the parties to the civil war or other internal conflict "are entitled to excise belligerent rights, thus accepting that

1372-554: The brother of the future Prime Minister Arthur Balfour ), Constance Bulwer-Lytton (a prominent suffragette), Henry Meredith Edward Bulwer-Lytton (who died young), Emily Bulwer-Lytton (who married architect Edwin Lutyens ), and Neville Bulwer-Lytton, 3rd Earl of Lytton . He was the grandson of the English novelist, writer, and politician Edward Bulwer-Lytton . He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge , where he

1421-595: The commission in September 1932. At the time, Manchuria was plagued by a large series of trains attacks , also many with sabotaging the railway with explosions. The bandits were also planning an attack on the express train transporting the German governor Heinrich Schnee and French general Henri Claudel , representative of the Lytton Commission during their voyage back to Europe. They planned to kidnap them and then demand ransom. Airplanes were used during their journey as

1470-401: The governments of states. This can be problematic particularly when a new government comes to power by illegal means, such as a coup d'état , or when an existing government stays in power by fixing an election. States once formally recognized both the government of a state and the state itself, but many no longer follow that practice, even though, if diplomatic relations are to be maintained, it

1519-426: The policy used was largely appeasement . Without Article 16, it was impossible for the League to enforce the Lytton Report. Victor Bulwer-Lytton, 2nd Earl of Lytton Victor Alexander George Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 2nd Earl of Lytton , KG , GCSI , GCIE , GCStJ , PC , DL (9 August 1876 – 25 October 1947), styled Viscount Knebworth from 1880 to 1891,

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1568-594: The rebel group possesses sufficient international personality to support the position of such rights and duties." Extension of the rights of belligerency is usually done by other states, rather than by the government fighting the rebel group. (A 1907 report by William E. Fuller for the Spanish Treaty Claims Commission noted that "A parent state never formally recognizes the insurgents as belligerents, although it may in fact treat them as such by carrying on war against them in accordance with

1617-520: The report did not directly address one of its chief goals: the cause of the Mukden Incident. Instead, it simply stated the Japanese position (that the Chinese had been responsible), with no comment as to the truth or falsity of the Japanese claims. Although there was no doubt as to Japan's guilt among the five commission members, Claudel (the French delegate) insisted that Japan not be portrayed as

1666-427: The sovereignty of China to deal with conditions in Manchuria, taking due account of the rights and interests of Japan, and the formation of a committee of negotiation for the application of these and other recommendations." In September 1932, even before the official announcement of the findings of the Lytton Report on October 2, 1932, was made public, the Japanese government extended official diplomatic recognition to

1715-538: The territories they claim varies. Most are subnational regions with an ethnic or national identity of their own that have separated from the original parent state . Such states are commonly referred to as "break-away" states. Some of these entities are in effect internally self-governing protectorates that enjoy military protection and informal diplomatic representation abroad through another state to prevent forced reincorporation into their original states. The word "control" in this list refers to control over

1764-526: The time the Commission reached Manchuria. It also covered the question of the economic interests of Japan both in Manchuria and China as a whole, and the nature and effects of the Chinese anti-Japanese boycott. Soviet Union interests in the region were also mentioned. Finally, the Commission submitted a study of the conditions to which, in its judgment, any satisfactory solution should conform, and made various proposals and suggestions as to how an agreement embodying these principles might be brought about. However,

1813-413: The time when his father was Viceroy of India . Lytton was the fourth, but eldest surviving, son of the 2nd Baron Lytton (later created, in 1880, the 1st Earl of Lytton ) and Edith Villiers , daughter of Edward Ernest Villiers and granddaughter of George Villiers . His six siblings were Edward Rowland John Bulwer-Lytton (who died young), Elizabeth Edith Bulwer-Lytton (wife of the 2nd Earl of Balfour ,

1862-471: The unsatisfactory features of the Chinese administration and giving weight to the various claims and complaints of Japan. It then proceeded with a narrative of the events in Manchuria subsequent to September 18, 1931, based on the evidence of many participants and on that of eyewitnesses. It devoted particular attention to the origins and development of the State of Manchukuo , which had already been proclaimed by

1911-669: Was a British politician and colonial administrator. He served as Governor of Bengal between 1922 and 1927 and was briefly Acting Viceroy of India in 1926. He headed the Lytton Commission for the League of Nations in 1931–1932, producing the Lytton Report which condemned the Japanese invasion of Manchuria and denounced Manchukuo as a Japanese puppet state . He was born in Simla in British India on 9 August 1876, during

1960-417: Was also interviewed as part of the project and outlines his support for the suffrage movement. [REDACTED] Media related to Victor Bulwer-Lytton, 2nd Earl of Lytton at Wikimedia Commons Diplomatic recognition Diplomatic recognition in international law is a unilateral declarative political act of a state that acknowledges an act or status of another state or government in control of

2009-416: Was amicably broken off when she decided to marry Lytton instead. Together, the couple were the parents of two sons, both of whom predeceased Lytton, and two daughters: Lord Lytton died in October 1947, aged 71. As neither of his sons had left a son, Lytton's titles were inherited upon his death by his younger brother Neville Bulwer-Lytton . Knebworth House passed to his daughter Lady Hermione Cobbold . She

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2058-470: Was approved unanimously, proposes that China and Japan shall be given three months in which to accept or reject the recommendations. It is hoped that the parties will agree to direct negotiations." The Daily Telegraph French correspondent says: "The report insists on the withdrawal of Japanese troops within the South Manchuria railway zone, and recommends the establishment of an organisation under

2107-650: Was called Pundits and Elephants , published in 1942. He was made a Knight Companion of the Garter in 1933. He was chairman of London Associated Electricity Undertakings Limited from 1937 to 1947. Lytton is best known for his chairmanship of the Lytton Commission, which was sent by the League of Nations on a fact-finding mission to determine who was to blame in the 1931 war between Japan and China. The commission's Lytton Report , officially issued on 1 October 1932, blames Japanese aggression. In response Japan withdrew from

2156-548: Was interviewed about her father by the historian Brian Harrison, as part of the Suffrage Interviews project, titled Oral evidence on the suffragette and suffragist movements: the Brian Harrison interviews. She talks about her father's childhood; his love of skating, mountaineering and skiing; the family's move to India; his interest in health and his experience with depression. His second daughter, Davina,

2205-504: Was posted as Governor of Bengal , remaining there until 3 March 1927. For a short while, when there was a vacancy caused by change in incumbents in 1926, he functioned as Viceroy, his father's old post. After this he filled miscellaneous positions in various capacities when matters concerning India arose. He wrote two books, the first being a life of his grandfather Lord Lytton , while the other book dealt with his experiences in India and

2254-533: Was recognized de facto by the Netherlands in 1946 and de jure by the international community in 1949. Also, the Republic of China , commonly known as " Taiwan ", is generally recognized as de facto independent and sovereign, but is not universally recognized as de jure independent due to the complex political status of Taiwan related to the United Nations' withdrawal of recognition in favor of

2303-531: Was recognized only by Pakistan , the United Arab Emirates , and Saudi Arabia , while far more had recognized the government of ousted President Burhanuddin Rabbani . The disputed territory of Jammu and Kashmir under the control of India is not recognized by either Pakistan or the People's Republic of China , and the Republic of Turkey . Recognition can be implied by other acts, such as

2352-762: Was secretary of the University Pitt Club . In 1905 he was President of the Edinburgh Sir Walter Scott Club and gave the Toast to Sir Walter at the club's annual dinner. Lytton took his seat in the House of Lords as a Conservative in January 1902, where he was an advocate for female suffrage, being influenced by his sister, the suffragette, Lady Constance Bulwer-Lytton . He chaired the all-party ‘Conciliation Committee’ that drafted

2401-532: Was thus able to reject the condemnation of the League with impunity. Despite insistence by the small powers of the League of Nations, the great powers never invoked Article 16 of the Covenant , to mark the Empire of Japan as an aggressor and levy economic sanctions. Amid the Great Depression , the great powers were reluctant to further damage their own economies by sanctioning another great power, and

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