Lykhny ( Georgian : ლიხნი , Abkhaz : Лыхны) is a village in the Gudauta District of Abkhazia , a disputed region on the Black Sea coast.
89-475: In medieval Georgian sources the village is also known as Zupu ( ზუფუ ). The village lies along the narrow Black Sea plain of Abkhazia at an elevation of 50 meters above sea level. Lykhny is located five kilometers from the administrative center of Gudauta . There are several important historical monuments in and around Lykhny. Of particular importance are the 10-11th century Church of the Virgin Mary and
178-527: A halocline that stops at the Cold Intermediate Layer (CIL). This layer is composed of cool, salty surface waters, which are the result of localized atmospheric cooling and decreased fluvial input during the winter months. It is the remnant of the winter surface mixed layer. The base of the CIL is marked by a major pycnocline at about 100–200 metres (330–660 ft), and this density disparity
267-537: A commercial and military point of view, and remains strategically important today. It is a major sea access route for numerous countries, including Russia and Ukraine . Control over it has been an objective of a number of hostilities in modern history, notably the attack of the Allied Powers on the Dardanelles during the 1915 Battle of Gallipoli in the course of World War I . The ancient city of Troy
356-620: A commercial and military waterway. In more recent years, the Turkish Straits have become particularly important for the oil industry. Russian oil, from ports such as Novorossyisk , is exported by tankers primarily to western Europe and the U.S. via the Bosporus and the Dardanelles straits. The Dardanelles were closed in late February 2022 to all foreign warships at the beginning of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in accordance with
445-539: A decrease in the flux of silicon associated with advection across isopycnal surfaces. This phenomenon demonstrates the potential for localized alterations in Black Sea nutrient-input to have basin-wide effects. Dardanelles The Dardanelles ( / ˌ d ɑːr d ə ˈ n ɛ l z / DAR -də- NELZ ; Turkish : Çanakkale Boğazı , lit. 'Strait of Çanakkale'; Greek : Δαρδανέλλια , romanized : Dardanéllia ), also known as
534-793: A different literal meaning (see below), is still widely used: The Black Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms – the others being the Red Sea , the White Sea and the Yellow Sea . The earliest known name of the Black Sea is the Sea of Zalpa, so called by both the Hattians and their conquerors, the Hittites . The Hattic city of Zalpa was "situated probably at or near
623-484: A marked vertical stratification and a warm, shallow mixed layer. Day length and insolation intensity also control the extent of the photic zone . Subsurface productivity is limited by nutrient availability, as the anoxic bottom waters act as a sink for reduced nitrate , in the form of ammonia . The benthic zone also plays an important role in Black Sea nutrient cycling, as chemosynthetic organisms and anoxic geochemical pathways recycle nutrients which can be upwelled to
712-539: A maximum depth of 103 metres (338 ft) at its narrowest point abreast the city of Çanakkale . The first fixed crossing across the Dardanelles opened in 2022 with the completion of the 1915 Çanakkale Bridge . Most of the northern shores of the strait along the Gallipoli peninsula ( Turkish : Gelibolu ) are sparsely settled, while the southern shores along the Troad peninsula ( Turkish : Biga ) are inhabited by
801-466: A maximum depth of 103 metres (338 ft) at its narrowest point at Nara Burnu , abreast Çanakkale . There are two major currents through the strait: a surface current flows from the Black Sea towards the Aegean Sea, and a more saline undercurrent flows in the opposite direction. The Dardanelles is unique in many respects. The very narrow and winding shape of the strait is more akin to that of
890-510: A river. It is considered one of the most hazardous, crowded, difficult and potentially dangerous waterways in the world. The currents produced by the tidal action in the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara are such that ships under sail must wait at anchorage for the right conditions before entering the Dardanelles. As part of the only passage between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Dardanelles has always been of great importance from
979-526: A strongly stratified vertical structure. Because of the extreme stratification, it is classified as a salt wedge estuary . Inflow from the Mediterranean Sea through the Bosporus and Dardanelles has a higher salinity and density than the outflow, creating the classic estuarine circulation. This means that the inflow of dense water from the Mediterranean occurs at the bottom of the basin while
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#17327725295931068-433: A threat to health—and perhaps even life—for people living on the Black Sea coast. There have been isolated reports of flares on the Black Sea occurring during thunderstorms, possibly caused by lightning igniting combustible gas seeping up from the sea depths. The Black Sea supports an active and dynamic marine ecosystem, dominated by species suited to the brackish , nutrient-rich, conditions. As with all marine food webs,
1157-529: A very thick convective bottom layer. The Black Sea undersea river is a current of particularly saline water flowing through the Bosporus Strait and along the seabed of the Black Sea. The discovery of the river, announced on August 1, 2010, was made by scientists at the University of Leeds and is the first of its kind to be identified. The undersea river stems from salty water spilling through
1246-728: A village of the Gelibolu district, on the European side. It is part of planned expansions to the Turkish National Highway Network. Work on the bridge began in March 2017, and it was opened on March 18, 2022. 2 submarine cable systems transmitting electric power at 400 kV bridge the Dardanelles to feed west and east of Istanbul. They have their own landing stations in Lapseki and Sütlüce. The first, situated in
1335-496: A weaker mixed assemblage of community development below the seasonal thermocline during summer months, and surface-intensified autumn production. This pattern of productivity is augmented by an Emiliania huxleyi bloom during the late spring and summer months. Since the 1960s, rapid industrial expansion along the Black Sea coastline and the construction of a major dam on the Danube have significantly increased annual variability in
1424-618: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Black Sea Unrecognised states: The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea lying between Europe and Asia , east of the Balkans , south of the East European Plain , west of the Caucasus , and north of Anatolia . It is bounded by Bulgaria , Georgia , Romania , Russia , Turkey , and Ukraine . The Black Sea is supplied by major rivers, principally
1513-442: Is a current of particularly saline water flowing through the Bosporus Strait and along the seabed of the Black Sea, the first of its kind discovered. Current names of the sea are usually equivalents of the English name "Black Sea", including these given in the countries bordering the sea: Such names have not yet been shown conclusively to predate the 13th century. In Greece , the historical name "Euxine Sea", which holds
1602-462: Is about 1,175 km (730 mi). Important cities along the coast include (clockwise from the Bosporus ) Burgas , Varna , Constanța , Odesa , Sevastopol , Novorossiysk , Sochi , Poti , Batumi , Trabzon and Samsun . The Black Sea has a positive water balance , with an annual net outflow of 300 km (72 cu mi) per year through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles into
1691-679: Is an abbreviation of Strait of the Dardanelles . During Ottoman times there was a castle on each side of the strait. These castles together were called the Dardanelles , probably named after Dardanus , an ancient city on the Asian shore of the strait which in turn was said to take its name from Dardanus , the mythical son of Zeus and Electra . The name comes from the Dardani in the Balkans, according to Papazoglu. The ancient Greek name Ἑλλήσποντος ( Hellēspontos ) means "Sea of Helle", and
1780-470: Is connected to the Sea of Azov by the Kerch Strait . The water level has varied significantly over geological time. Due to these variations in the water level in the basin, the surrounding shelf and associated aprons have sometimes been dry land. At certain critical water levels, connections with surrounding water bodies can become established. It is through the most active of these connective routes,
1869-509: Is one of the seven shrines of the Abkhaz people and the place where is held the harvest festival every October. The square was also the place of the gathering of all the Abkhaz in 1931 and 1989. Abkhaz Communist revolutionary Nestor Lakoba was born in Lykhny in 1893. This Abkhazia location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Georgia location article
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#17327725295931958-590: Is subject to interannual variability. Outside of the Rim Current, numerous quasi-permanent coastal eddies are formed as a result of upwelling around the coastal apron and "wind curl" mechanisms. The intra-annual strength of these features is controlled by seasonal atmospheric and fluvial variations. During the spring, the Batumi eddy forms in the southeastern corner of the sea. Beneath the surface waters—from about 50 to 100 metres (160 to 330 ft)—there exists
2047-460: Is the major mechanism for isolation of the deep water. Below the pycnocline is the Deep Water mass, where salinity increases to 22.3 PSU and temperatures rise to around 8.9 °C (48.0 °F). The hydrochemical environment shifts from oxygenated to anoxic, as bacterial decomposition of sunken biomass utilizes all of the free oxygen. Weak geothermal heating and long residence time create
2136-469: Is then said to have thrown fetters into the strait, given it three hundred lashes with multiple whips and branded it with red-hot irons as the soldiers shouted at the water. Herodotus commented that this was a "highly presumptuous way to address the Hellespont" but in no way atypical of Xerxes. (vii.35) Harpalus the engineer is said to have eventually helped the invading armies to cross by lashing
2225-475: Is therefore anoxic . This anoxic layer is responsible for the preservation of ancient shipwrecks which have been found in the Black Sea, which ultimately drains into the Mediterranean Sea , via the Turkish Straits and the Aegean Sea. The Bosporus strait connects it to the small Sea of Marmara which in turn is connected to the Aegean Sea via the strait of the Dardanelles . To the north, the Black Sea
2314-477: Is thought the climate conditions established in western Europe mediate the heat and precipitation fluxes reaching Central Europe and Eurasia, regulating the formation of winter cyclones , which are largely responsible for regional precipitation inputs and influence Mediterranean sea surface temperatures (SSTs). The relative strength of these systems also limits the amount of cold air arriving from northern regions during winter. Other influencing factors include
2403-557: The Aegean Sea . While the net flow of water through the Bosporus and Dardanelles (known collectively as the Turkish Straits ) is out of the Black Sea, water generally flows in both directions simultaneously: Denser, more saline water from the Aegean flows into the Black Sea underneath the less dense, fresher water that flows out of the Black Sea. This creates a significant and permanent layer of deep water that does not drain or mix and
2492-833: The Balkans , the Near East , and Western Eurasia , and specifically connects the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara . The Marmara further connects to the Black Sea via the Bosporus , while the Aegean further links to the Mediterranean . Thus, the Dardanelles allows maritime connections from the Black Sea all the way to the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean via Gibraltar, and the Indian Ocean through
2581-515: The Bosporus , the Dardanelles forms the Turkish Straits . One of the world's narrowest straits used for international navigation , the Dardanelles connects the Sea of Marmara with the Aegean and Mediterranean seas while also allowing passage to the Black Sea by extension via the Bosporus. The Dardanelles is 61 kilometres (38 mi) long and 1.2 to 6 kilometres (0.75 to 3.73 mi) wide. It has an average depth of 55 metres (180 ft) with
2670-540: The Danube , Dnieper and Dniester . Consequently, while six countries have a coastline on the sea, its drainage basin includes parts of 24 countries in Europe. The Black Sea, not including the Sea of Azov , covers 436,400 km (168,500 sq mi), has a maximum depth of 2,212 m (7,257 ft), and a volume of 547,000 km (131,000 cu mi). Most of its coasts ascend rapidly. These rises are
2759-726: The Dardanelles Operation — blockaded the straits in 1807. In 1833, following the Ottoman Empire 's defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 , Russia pressured the Ottomans to sign the Treaty of Hunkiar Iskelesi —which required the closing of the straits to warships of non-Black Sea powers at Russia's request. That would have effectively given Russia a free hand in the Black Sea. This treaty alarmed
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2848-595: The Kartvelian tribe of Speris or Saspers . Other modern names such as Chyornoye more and Karadeniz (both meaning Black Sea) originated during the 13th century. A 1570 map Asiae Nova Descriptio from Abraham Ortelius 's Theatrum Orbis Terrarum labels the sea Mar Maggior (Great Sea), compare Latin Mare major . English writers of the 18th century often used Euxine Sea ( / ˈ j uː k s ɪ n / or / ˈ j uː k ˌ s aɪ n / ). During
2937-496: The Montreux Convention . The waters of the Dardanelles are traversed by numerous passenger and vehicular ferries daily, as well as recreational and fishing boats ranging from dinghies to yachts owned by both public and private entities. The strait also experiences significant amounts of commercial shipping traffic. The Çanakkale 1915 Bridge joins Lapseki , a district of Çanakkale, on the Asian side and Sütlüce ,
3026-593: The Ottoman Empire , it was called either Bahr-e Siyah ( Perso-Arabic ) or Karadeniz ( Ottoman Turkish ), both meaning "Black Sea". The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Black Sea as follows: On the Southwest. The Northeastern limit of the Sea of Marmara [A line joining Cape Rumili with Cape Anatoli (41°13'N)]. In the Kertch Strait . A line joining Cape Takil and Cape Panaghia (45°02'N). The area surrounding
3115-683: The Ottoman Empire , who were concerned that the consequences of potential Russian expansionism in the Black Sea and Mediterranean regions could conflict with their own possessions and economic interest in the region. At the London Straits Convention in July 1841, the United Kingdom , France , Austria , and Prussia pressured Russia to agree that only Turkish warships could traverse the Dardanelles in peacetime. The United Kingdom and France subsequently sent their fleets through
3204-793: The Pontic Mountains to the south, bar the southwest-facing peninsulas, the Caucasus Mountains to the east, and the Crimean Mountains to the mid-north. In the west, the coast is generally small floodplains below foothills such as the Strandzha ; Cape Emine , a dwindling of the east end of the Balkan Mountains ; and the Dobruja Plateau considerably farther north. The longest east–west extent
3293-743: The Strait of Gallipoli (after the Gallipoli peninsula) and in Classical Antiquity as the Hellespont ( / ˈ h ɛ l ɪ s p ɒ n t / HEL -isp-ont ; Classical Greek : Ἑλλήσποντος , romanized: Hellḗspontos , lit. 'Sea of Helle '), is a narrow, natural strait and internationally significant waterway in northwestern Turkey that forms part of the continental boundary between Asia and Europe and separates Asian Turkey from European Turkey. Together with
3382-468: The Suez Canal , making it a crucial international waterway, in particular for the passage of goods coming in from Russia . The strait is located at approximately 40°13′N 26°26′E / 40.217°N 26.433°E / 40.217; 26.433 . The strait is 61 kilometres (38 mi) long, and 1.2 to 6 kilometres (0.7 to 3.7 mi) wide, averaging 55 metres (180 ft) deep with
3471-582: The Black Sea Depression they are terrigenous non-carbonate silts , and at the foot of the continental slope turbidite sediments. The Black Sea is the world's largest body of water with a meromictic basin. The deep waters do not mix with the upper layers of water that receive oxygen from the atmosphere. As a result, over 90% of the deeper Black Sea volume is anoxic water. The Black Sea's circulation patterns are primarily controlled by basin topography and fluvial inputs, which result in
3560-544: The Black Sea belong to Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, and Ukraine: Short-term climatic variation in the Black Sea region is significantly influenced by the operation of the North Atlantic oscillation , the climatic mechanisms resulting from the interaction between the north Atlantic and mid-latitude air masses. While the exact mechanisms causing the North Atlantic Oscillation remain unclear, it
3649-585: The Black Sea features a range of trophic groups, with autotrophic algae, including diatoms and dinoflagellates , acting as primary producers. The fluvial systems draining Eurasia and central Europe introduce large volumes of sediment and dissolved nutrients into the Black Sea, but the distribution of these nutrients is controlled by the degree of physiochemical stratification, which is, in turn, dictated by seasonal physiographic development. During winter, strong wind promotes convective overturning and upwelling of nutrients, while high summer temperatures result in
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3738-632: The Black Sea is commonly referred to as the Black Sea Region . Its northern part lies within the Chernozem belt (black soil belt) which goes from eastern Croatia ( Slavonia ), along the Danube (northern Serbia, northern Bulgaria ( Danubian Plain ) and southern Romania ( Wallachian Plain ) to northeast Ukraine and further across the Central Black Earth Region and southern Russia into Siberia . The littoral zone of
3827-828: The Black Sea is often referred to as the Pontic littoral or Pontic zone . The largest bays of the Black Sea are Karkinit Bay in Ukraine; the Gulf of Burgas in Bulgaria; Dnieprovski Bay and Dniestrovski Bay, both in Ukraine; and Sinop Bay and Samsun Bay, both in Turkey. The largest rivers flowing into the Black Sea are: These rivers and their tributaries comprise a 2-million km (0.77-million sq mi) Black Sea drainage basin that covers wholly or partially 24 countries: Unrecognised states: Some islands in
3916-457: The Bosporus Strait from the Mediterranean Sea into the Black Sea, where the water has a lower salt content. Because of the anoxic water at depth, organic matter, including anthropogenic artifacts such as boat hulls, are well preserved. During periods of high surface productivity, short-lived algal blooms form organic rich layers known as sapropels . Scientists have reported an annual phytoplankton bloom that can be seen in many NASA images of
4005-483: The Bosporus is located at 36.5 m (120 ft) below present sea level (deepest spot of the shallowest cross-section in the Bosporus, located in front of Dolmabahçe Palace ) and has a wet section of around 38,000 m (410,000 sq ft). Inflow and outflow current speeds are averaged around 0.3 to 0.4 m/s (1.0 to 1.3 ft/s), but much higher speeds are found locally, inducing significant turbulence and vertical shear. This allows for turbulent mixing of
4094-497: The Dardanelles officials 6 follis. Cilician sea-merchants have to pay 3 follis and in addition to that, 1 keration (12 follis) to enter, and 2 keration to exit. – All wheat merchants have to pay the officials 3 follis per modius, and a further sum of 3 follis when leaving. Since the 14th century the Dardanelles have almost continuously been controlled by the Turks. The Dardanelles continued to constitute an important waterway during
4183-541: The Gallipoli peninsula, and the British cabinet ordered its withdrawal in December 1915, after eight months' fighting. Total Allied deaths included 41,000 British and Irish, 15,000 French, 8,700 Australians, 2,700 New Zealanders, 1,370 Indians and 49 Newfoundlanders. Total Turkish deaths were around 60,000. Following the war, the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres demilitarized the strait and made it an international territory under
4272-674: The Mid-Black Sea High, which includes the Andrusov Ridge, Tetyaev High, and Archangelsky High, extending south from the Crimean Peninsula . The basin includes two distinct relict back-arc basins which were initiated by the splitting of an Albian volcanic arc and the subduction of both the Paleo - and Neo- Tethys oceans, but the timings of these events remain uncertain. Arc volcanism and extension occurred as
4361-576: The N:P:Si ratio in the basin. Coastal areas, accordingly, have seen an increase in the frequency of monospecific phytoplankton blooms, with diatom-bloom frequency increasing by a factor of 2.5 and non-diatom bloom frequency increasing by a factor of 6. The non-diatoms, such as the prymnesiophytes Emiliania huxleyi (coccolithophore), Chromulina sp., and the Euglenophyte Eutreptia lanowii , can out-compete diatom species because of
4450-454: The Neo-Tethys Ocean subducted under the southern margin of Laurasia during the Mesozoic . Uplift and compressional deformation took place as the Neotethys continued to close. Seismic surveys indicate that rifting began in the Western Black Sea in the Barremian and Aptian followed by the formation of oceanic crust 20 million years later in the Santonian . Since its initiation, compressional tectonic environments led to subsidence in
4539-464: The Rim Current. The Rim Current has a maximum velocity of about 50–100 cm/s (20–39 in/s). Within this feature, two smaller cyclonic gyres operate, occupying the eastern and western sectors of the basin. The Eastern and Western Gyres are well-organized systems in the winter but dissipate into a series of interconnected eddies in the summer and autumn. Mesoscale activity in the peripheral flow becomes more pronounced during these warmer seasons and
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#17327725295934628-406: The Turkish Straits, that the Black Sea joins the World Ocean . During geological periods when this hydrological link was not present, the Black Sea was an endorheic basin , operating independently of the global ocean system (similar to the Caspian Sea today). Currently, the Black Sea water level is relatively high; thus, water is being exchanged with the Mediterranean. The Black Sea undersea river
4717-425: The basin, interspersed with extensional phases resulting in large-scale volcanism and numerous orogenies , causing the uplift of the Greater Caucasus , Pontides , southern Crimean Peninsula and Balkanides mountain ranges. During the Messinian salinity crisis in the neighboring Mediterranean Sea , water levels fell but without drying up the sea. The collision between the Eurasian and African plates and
4806-412: The centre of the Black Sea reaches a maximum depth of 2,212 metres (7,257.22 feet) just south of Yalta on the Crimean Peninsula . The Paleo- Euxinian is described by the accumulation of eolian silt deposits (related to the Riss glaciation ) and the lowering of sea levels ( MIS 6, 8 and 10). The Karangat marine transgression occurred during the Eemian Interglacial (MIS 5e). This may have been
4895-454: The city of Çanakkale's urban population of 110,000. The contemporary Turkish name Çanakkale Boğazı , meaning ' Çanakkale Strait', is derived from the eponymous midsize city that adjoins the strait, itself meaning 'pottery fort'—from چاناق ( çanak , 'pottery') + قلعه ( kale , 'fortress')—in reference to the area's famous pottery and ceramic wares, and the landmark Ottoman fortress of Sultaniye. The English name Dardanelles
4984-412: The control of the League of Nations . The Ottoman Empire's non-ethnically Turkish territories were broken up and partitioned among the Allied Powers, and Turkish jurisdiction over the straits curbed. After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire following a lengthy campaign by Turks as part of the Turkish War of Independence against both the Allied Powers and the Ottoman court, the Republic of Turkey
5073-503: The customs office of the Dardanelles. Translation: ... Whoever dares to violate these regulations shall no longer be regarded as a friend, and he shall be punished. Besides, the administrator of the Dardanelles must have the right to receive 50 golden Litrons, so that these rules, which we make out of piety, shall never ever be violated... ... The distinguished governor and major of the capital, who already has both hands full of things to do, has turned to our lofty piety in order to reorganize
5162-401: The dark color of the water or climatic conditions. Some scholars understand the name to be derived from a system of colour symbolism representing the cardinal directions , with black or dark for north, red for south, white for west, and green or light blue for east. Hence, "Black Sea" meant "Northern Sea". According to this scheme, the name could only have originated with a people living between
5251-436: The entry and exit of all ships through the Dardanelles... ... Starting from our day and also in the future, anybody who wants to pass through the Dardanelles must pay the following: – All wine merchants who bring wine to the capital (Constantinopolis), except Cilicians , have to pay the Dardanelles officials 6 follis and 2 sextarius of wine. – In the same manner, all merchants of olive-oil, vegetables and lard must pay
5340-480: The estuary of the Marrassantiya River, the modern Kızıl Irmak , on the Black Sea coast." The principal Greek name Póntos Áxeinos is generally accepted to be a rendering of the Iranian word * axšaina- ("dark colored"). Ancient Greek voyagers adopted the name as Á-xe(i)nos , identified with the Greek word áxeinos (inhospitable). The name Πόντος Ἄξεινος Póntos Áxeinos (Inhospitable Sea), first attested in Pindar ( c. 475 BC ),
5429-441: The highest sea levels reached in the late Pleistocene . Based on this some scholars have suggested that the Crimean Peninsula was isolated from the mainland by a shallow strait during the Eemian Interglacial. The Neoeuxinian transgression began with an inflow of waters from the Caspian Sea . Neoeuxinian deposits are found in the Black Sea below −20 m (−66 ft) water depth in three layers. The upper layers correspond with
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#17327725295935518-408: The land campaign. The Turks mined the straits to prevent Allied ships from penetrating them but, in minor actions two submarines, one British and one Australian, did succeed in penetrating the minefields. The British submarine sank an obsolete Turkish pre-dreadnought battleship off the Golden Horn of Istanbul. Sir Ian Hamilton 's Mediterranean Expeditionary Force failed in its attempt to capture
5607-518: The late 1980s. Additionally, an alien species—the warty comb jelly ( Mnemiopsis leidyi )—established itself in the basin, exploding from a few individuals to an estimated biomass of one billion metric tons. The change in species composition in Black Sea waters also has consequences for hydrochemistry, as calcium-producing coccolithophores influence salinity and pH, although these ramifications have yet to be fully quantified. In central Black Sea waters, silicon levels also reduced significantly, due to
5696-407: The limited availability of silicon, a necessary constituent of diatom frustules. As a consequence of these blooms, benthic macrophyte populations were deprived of light, while anoxia caused mass mortality in marine animals. Overfishing during the 1970s further compounded the decline in macrophytes, while the invasive ctenophore Mnemiopsis reduced the biomass of copepods and other zooplankton in
5785-431: The north of the basin is up to 190 km (120 mi) wide and features a shallow apron with gradients between 1:40 and 1:1000. The southern edge around Turkey and the eastern edge around Georgia , however, are typified by a narrow shelf that rarely exceeds 20 km (12 mi) in width and a steep apron that is typically 1:40 gradient with numerous submarine canyons and channel extensions. The Euxine abyssal plain in
5874-457: The northeast quarter portion of the strait, was energised in April 2015 and provides 2 GW via 6 phases 400 kV AC 3.9 km far through the sea. The second, somewhat in the middle of the strait, was still under construction in June 2016 and will provide similar capabilities to the first line. Both subsea power lines cross 4 optical fibre data lines laid earlier along the strait. A published map shows communication lines leading from Istanbul into
5963-434: The northern (black) and southern (red) seas : this points to the Achaemenids (550–330 BC). In the Greater Bundahishn , a Middle Persian Zoroastrian scripture, the Black Sea is called Siyābun . In the tenth-century Persian geography book Hudud al-'Alam , the Black Sea is called Georgian Sea ( daryā-yi Gurz ). The Georgian Chronicles use the name zğua sperisa ზღუა სპერისა (Sea of Speri) after
6052-454: The outflow of fresher Black Sea surface-water into the Sea of Marmara occurs near the surface. According to Gregg (2002), the outflow is 16,000 cubic metres per second (570,000 cubic feet per second) or around 500 cubic kilometres per year (120 cubic miles per year), and the inflow is 11,000 m /s (390,000 cu ft/s) or around 350 km /a (84 cu mi/a). The following water budget can be estimated: The southern sill of
6141-448: The peak of the Khvalinian transgression, on the shelf shallow-water sands and coquina mixed with silty sands and brackish-water fauna, and inside the Black Sea Depression hydrotroilite silts. The middle layers on the shelf are sands with brackish-water mollusc shells. Of continental origin, the lower level on the shelf is mostly alluvial sands with pebbles, mixed with less common lacustrine silts and freshwater mollusc shells . Inside
6230-429: The period of the Ottoman Empire , which conquered Gallipoli in 1354. Ottoman control of the strait continued largely without interruption or challenges until the 19th century, when the Empire started its decline . Gaining control of, or guaranteed access to, the strait became a key foreign-policy goal of the Russian Empire during the 19th century. During the Napoleonic Wars , Russia—supported by Great Britain in
6319-488: The photic zone, enhancing productivity. In total, the Black Sea's biodiversity contains around one-third of the Mediterranean's and is experiencing natural and artificial invasions or "Mediterranizations". The main phytoplankton groups present in the Black Sea are dinoflagellates , diatoms , coccolithophores and cyanobacteria . Generally, the annual cycle of phytoplankton development comprises significant diatom and dinoflagellate-dominated spring production, followed by
6408-626: The priestess Hero, but was ultimately drowned in a storm. The Dardanelles were vital to the defence of Constantinople during the Byzantine period. Also, the Dardanelles was an important source of income for the ruler of the region. At the Istanbul Archaeological Museum a marble plate contains a law by the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I (491–518 AD), that regulated fees for passage through
6497-437: The region. As a result of these characteristics the Black Sea has gained interest from the field of marine archaeology , as ancient shipwrecks in excellent states of preservation have been discovered, such as the Byzantine wreck Sinop D , located in the anoxic layer off the coast of Sinop, Turkey . Modelling shows that, in the event of an asteroid impact on the Black Sea, the release of hydrogen sulfide clouds would pose
6586-470: The regional topography , as depressions and storm systems arriving from the Mediterranean are funneled through the low land around the Bosporus, with the Pontic and Caucasus mountain ranges acting as waveguides, limiting the speed and paths of cyclones passing through the region. The Black Sea is divided into two depositional basins—the Western Black Sea and Eastern Black Sea—separated by
6675-518: The ruins of a two-storey palace which was used as a residence by the princes of Abkhazia (the palace collapsed in 1866 when the Russian punitive expedition attacked the village). An older monument, the fortress of Abaanta (built in the 7th century) is located at the edge of the village on the left bank of the Khipsta River . Lykhnashta , a large square located centrally in the village,
6764-579: The sea was called the "Inhospitable Sea Πόντος Ἄξεινος Póntos Áxeinos by the inhabitants of the Pontus region of the southern shoreline before Greek colonisation due to its difficult navigation and hostile barbarian natives (7.3.6), and that the name was changed to "hospitable" after the Milesians colonised the region, bringing it into the Greek world. Popular supposition derives "Black Sea" from
6853-491: The ships together with their bows facing the current and adding two additional anchors to each ship. From the perspective of ancient Greek mythology Helle , the daughter of Athamas, supposedly was drowned at the Dardanelles in the legend of the Golden Fleece . Likewise, the strait was the scene of the legend of Hero and Leander , wherein the lovesick Leander swam the strait nightly in order to tryst with his beloved,
6942-605: The straits area over the following decade. Following extensive diplomatic negotiations, the reversion was formalized under the Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits on 20 July 1936. That convention, which is still in force today, treats the straits as an international shipping lane while allowing Turkey to retain the right to restrict the naval traffic of non-Black Sea states. During World War II , through February 1945, when Turkey
7031-823: The straits to defend the Danube front and to attack the Crimean Peninsula during the Crimean War of 1853–1856 – but they did so as allies of the Ottoman Empire. Following the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War, the Congress of Paris in 1856 formally reaffirmed the London Straits Convention. In 1915 the Allies sent a substantial invasion force of British, Indian, Australian, New Zealand, French and Newfoundland troops to attempt to open up
7120-610: The straits. In the Gallipoli campaign , Turkish troops trapped the Allies on the coasts of the Gallipoli peninsula. The campaign damaged the career of Winston Churchill , then First Lord of the Admiralty (in office 1911–1915), who had eagerly promoted the (unsuccessful) use of Royal Navy sea power to force open the straits. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , subsequent founder of the Republic of Turkey , served as an Ottoman commander during
7209-408: The two layers. Surface water leaves the Black Sea with a salinity of 17 practical salinity units (PSU) and reaches the Mediterranean with a salinity of 34 PSU. Likewise, an inflow of the Mediterranean with salinity 38.5 PSU experiences a decrease to about 34 PSU. Mean surface circulation is cyclonic ; waters around the perimeter of the Black Sea circulate in a basin-wide shelfbreak gyre known as
7298-599: The westward escape of the Anatolian block along the North Anatolian and East Anatolian faults dictates the current tectonic regime, which features enhanced subsidence in the Black Sea basin and significant volcanic activity in the Anatolian region. These geological mechanisms, in the long term, have caused the periodic isolations of the Black Sea from the rest of the global ocean system. The large shelf to
7387-532: The width of the Hellespont at Abydos , in order that his huge army could cross from Persia into Greece . This crossing was named by Aeschylus in his tragedy The Persians as the cause of divine intervention against Xerxes. According to Herodotus (vv.34), both bridges were destroyed by a storm and Xerxes had those responsible for building the bridges beheaded and the strait itself whipped. The Histories of Herodotus vii.33–37 and vii.54–58 give details of building and crossing of Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges . Xerxes
7476-510: Was considered an ill omen and was euphemized to its opposite, Εὔξεινος Πόντος Eúxeinos Póntos (Hospitable Sea), also first attested in Pindar. This became the commonly used designation in Greek, although in mythological contexts the "true" name Póntos Áxeinos remained favoured. Strabo 's Geographica (1.2.10) reports that in antiquity, the Black Sea was often simply called "the Sea" ( ὁ πόντος ho Pontos ). He thought that
7565-434: Was created in 1923 by the Treaty of Lausanne , which established most of the modern sovereign territory of Turkey and restored the straits to Turkish territory, with the condition that Turkey keep them demilitarized and allow all foreign warships and commercial shipping to traverse the straits freely. As part of its national security strategy, Turkey eventually rejected the terms of the treaty, and subsequently remilitarized
7654-680: Was located near the western entrance of the strait, and the strait's Asiatic shore was the focus of the Trojan War . Troy was able to control the marine traffic entering this vital waterway. The Persian army of Xerxes I of Persia and later the Macedonian army of Alexander the Great crossed the Dardanelles in opposite directions to invade each other's lands, in 480 BC and 334 BC respectively. Herodotus says that, circa 482 BC, Xerxes I (the son of Darius ) had two pontoon bridges built across
7743-530: Was neutral for most of the length of the conflict, the Dardanelles were closed to the ships of the belligerent nations. Turkey declared war on Germany in February 1945, but it did not employ any offensive forces during the war. In July 1946, the Soviet Union sent a note to Turkey proposing a new régime for the Dardanelles that would have excluded all nations except the Black Sea powers. The second proposal
7832-529: Was that the straits should be put under joint Turkish-Soviet defence. This meant that Turkey, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria and Romania would be the only states having access to the Black Sea through the Dardanelles. The Turkish government however, under pressure from the United States, rejected these proposals. Turkey joined NATO in 1952, thus affording its straits even more strategic importance as
7921-471: Was the ancient name of the narrow strait. It was variously named in classical literature Hellespontium Pelagus , Rectum Hellesponticum , and Fretum Hellesponticum . It was so called from Helle , the daughter of Athamas, who was drowned here in the mythology of the Golden Fleece . As a maritime waterway , the Dardanelles connects various seas along the Eastern Mediterranean ,
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