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39-403: Unguided rocket artillery is notoriously inaccurate and slow to reload compared to gun artillery. A multiple rocket launcher helps compensate for this with its ability to launch multiple rockets in rapid succession, which, coupled with the large kill zone of each warhead, can easily deliver saturation fire over a target area. However, modern rockets can use GPS or inertial guidance to combine

78-451: A CEP of hundreds of meters at dozens of kilometers' range to just a few meters and largely independent of the range of the round (except for INS, as INS navigation creates a small dispersion that is about proportional to range). This in turn made great increases of rocket (or missile) ranges useful; previously dispersion had made rockets too inefficient and often too dangerous to friendly troops at long ranges. Long-range MRL missiles often fly

117-747: A 19th century military conflict between the Russian Empire and various peoples of the North Caucasus who resisted subjugation during the Russian conquest of the Caucasus . The first British invasion of Afghanistan ended in 1842, when 16,000 British soldiers and camp followers were killed as they retreated from Kabul through the Hindu Kush back to India. Mountain warfare came to the fore once again during World War I , when some of

156-465: A coded message to the rocket to deploy air brakes at just the right time to correct most of the range error. This requires that the rockets were originally aimed too far, as the range can only be shortened by the air brakes, not extended. A more sophisticated system makes use of radar data and a one-way radio datalink to initiate a two dimensional (range and azimuth ) correction of the rocket's flight path with steering by fins or nose thrusters. The latter

195-566: A distance, offering cover for the remaining soldiers to gradually advance. Since the Partition of India in 1947, India and Pakistan have been in conflict over the Kashmir region . They have fought two wars and numerous additional skirmishes or border conflicts in the region. Kashmir is located in the Himalayas , the highest mountain range in the world. The first hostilities between

234-638: A greater ratio of attacking soldiers to defending soldiers than a war conducted on level ground. Mountains present natural hazards such as lightning , strong gusts of wind, rockfalls , avalanches , snowpacks , ice , extreme cold , and glaciers with their crevasses ; in these ways, it can be similar to cold-weather warfare . The generally uneven terrain and the slow pace of troop and material movements are additional threats to combatants. Movement, reinforcements, and medical evacuation up and down steep slopes and areas in which even pack animals cannot reach involves an enormous exertion of energy. In 218 BC ,

273-559: A higher quasi-ballistic trajectory than shorter-ranged rockets and thus pose a de-confliction challenge, as they might collide with friendly aircraft in the air. The differences between an MRL missile and a large anti-tank guided missile, such as the Nimrod , have blurred due to guided MRL missiles such as the M31 GMLRS (guided unitary multiple launch rocket system), which passed flight tests in 2014. Blast radius A blast radius

312-460: A launcher mounted on a wheelbarrow. The Joseon dynasty of Korea used an expanded variant of such a launcher (called a hwacha ) made of 100 to 200 holes containing rocket arrows placed on a two-wheeled cart. The range of the fired arrows is estimated to have been 2,000 meters. The hwacha was used to great effect against invading armies during the Japanese invasions of 1592–1598 , most notably

351-525: A system of two rows of 12 guide rails mounted to a Maultier chassis, each row providing the capacity for 24 rockets, underslung as well as on top of the rails, for 48 rockets total. This vehicle was designated 8 cm Raketen-Vielfachwerfer (8 cm multiple rocket launcher). As the launch system was inspired by and looked similar to the BM-13, which the Germans had nicknamed " Stalin-Orgel " or "Stalin-Organ",

390-507: Is a periantarctic island , and the conflict took place during the southern winter and so Alpine conditions prevailed almost down to sea level. The operation (codenamed Operation Paraquet ) was unusual in that it combined aspects of long-range amphibious warfare , arctic warfare and mountain warfare. It involved several ships, special forces troops and helicopters . Throughout history but especially since 1979, many mountain warfare operations have taken place throughout Afghanistan . Since

429-490: Is more common with systems which can be used to upgrade old rockets and the IMI ACCULAR is an example. Fin-stabilised rockets also allow for easy course corrections using rudders or minute charges. Precision-guided munitions have been introduced to exploit this. Guidance principles such as satellite navigation, inertial navigation systems and semi-active laser seekers are used for this. This improves dispersion from

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468-938: Is more difficult to determine the trajectory compared to that of a howitzer by adding or removing propellant increments. Simple MRL rocket types have a rather long minimum firing range for the same reason. An approach to lessen this limit is the addition of drag rings to the rocket nose. The increased drag slows the rocket down relative to a clean configuration and creates a less flat trajectory. Pre-packaged MRL munitions do not offer this option but some MRL types with individually loaded rockets do. Improvised MRLs based on helicopter or aircraft-mounted rocket pods (typically of 57–80   mm caliber) especially on light trucks and pickups (so-called " technicals ") are often seen in civil wars when rebels make use of captured launchers and munitions. Modern MRL systems can use modern land navigation (especially satellite navigation such as GPS) for quick and accurate positioning. The accurate determination of

507-432: Is the distance from the source that will be affected when an explosion occurs. A blast radius is often associated with bombs , mines , explosive projectiles ( propelled grenades ), and other weapons with an explosive charge. In cloud computing , the term blast radius is used to designate the impact that a security breach of one single component of an application could have on the overall composite application. Reducing

546-624: The 1809 rebellion in Tyrol , mountain warfare played a large role. Another example of mountain warfare was the Crossing of the Andes , which was carried out by the Argentinean Army of the Andes ( Spanish : Ejército de los Andes ), commanded by General José de San Martín in 1817. One of the divisions climbed mountains surpassing 5000 meters in height. The Caucasian War was

585-737: The Battle of Haengju , in which 40 hwachas were deployed to repel 30,000 Japanese soldiers. European armies preferred relatively large single-launch rockets prior to World War II. Napoleonic armies of both sides followed the British adoption of Mysorean rockets as the Congreve rocket . These were explosive steel-cased bombardment rockets with minimal launchers. European navies developed naval multiple launcher mounts with steadily improving explosive rockets for light and coastal vessels. These weapons were largely replaced by conventional light artillery during

624-514: The Battles of Narvik , Battle of the Caucasus , Kokoda Track campaign , Battle of Attu , Operation Rentier , Operation Gauntlet , Operation Encore , and the British defence at the Battle of Hong Kong . One ambush tactic used against the Germans during the Battles of Narvik utilised hairpin bends . Defenders would position themselves above them and open fire when attackers reached a certain point below, parallel to themselves. This would force

663-567: The Old Swiss Confederacy in the Alps. The Swiss fought in smaller units and took vantage points against a huge unmaneuverable army. Similar styles of attack and defence were later employed by guerrillas , partisans and irregulars, who hid in the mountains after an attack, which made it challenging for an army of regulars to fight back. In Napoleon Bonaparte 's Italian campaign, Alexander Suvorov 's Italian and Swiss expedition and

702-826: The T34 Calliope rocket launching tank, only used in small numbers, as their closest equivalent to the Katyusha. The Germans began using a towed six-tube multiple rocket launcher during World War II, the Nebelwerfer , called the "Screaming Mimi" by the Allies. The system was developed before the war to skirt the limitations of the Treaty of Versailles. Later in the war, 15 cm Nebelwerfer 41s were mounted on modified Opel Maultier "Mule" halftracks, becoming Panzerwerfer 42 4/1s. Another version produced in limited numbers towards

741-447: The US military adopted a hybrid style of mountain warfare incorporating counterinsurgency (COIN) theory in which the population is paramount as the center of gravity in the fight. In counterinsurgency, seizing and holding territory are less important than avoiding civilian casualties. The primary goals of counterinsurgency are to secure the backing of the populace and thereby to legitimize

780-453: The coalition invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, they have been primarily in the eastern provinces of Kunar and Nuristan . Kunar and eastern Nuristan are strategic terrain since the area constitutes a major infiltration route into Afghanistan, and insurgents can enter the provinces from any number of places along the border with Pakistan to gain access to a vast network of river valleys. In that part of Afghanistan ( Regional Command East ),

819-570: The Carthaginian army commander Hannibal marched troops, cavalry and African elephants across the Alps in an effort to conquer Rome by approaching it from north of the Italian Peninsula. The Roman government was complacent because the Alps were viewed as a secure natural obstacle to would-be invaders. In December 218 BC, the Carthaginian forces defeated Roman troops, in the north, with the use of elephants. Many elephants did not survive

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858-512: The Vielfachwerfer soon became known as the " Himmler-Orgel ", or "Himmler-Organ". There are two main types of MRLs: Like all artillery, MRLs have a reputation of devastating morale on ill-disciplined or already-shaken troops. The material effect depends on circumstances, as well-covered field fortifications may provide reasonable protection. MRLs are still unable to properly engage reverse slope positions in mountain warfare because it

897-638: The advantages of rockets with the higher accuracy of precision-guided munitions . The first multiple rocket launchers, known as Huo Che , were invented during the medieval Chinese Song dynasty , in which the Chinese fire lance was fixed backward on a pike or arrow and shot at an enemy as early as 1180. This form of rocket was used during the Mongol siege of Kaifeng . Chinese militaries later created multiple rocket launchers that fired up to 100 small fire-arrow rockets simultaneously. The typical powder section of

936-404: The air. The tracking allows determination of the influence of winds and propellant temperatures on the rockets' flight paths. These observations can then be factored into the firing solution for the rocket salvo for effect. Such tracking radars can also be used to predict the range error of individual rockets. Trajectory-correcting munitions may then benefit from this, as a directional radio may send

975-433: The arrow-rockets was 1/3 to 1/2 ft (10 to 15 cm) long. Bamboo arrow shafts varied from 1.5 ft (45 cm) to 2.5 ft (75 cm) long and the striking distance reached 300 to 400 paces. The Chinese also enhanced rocket tips with poison and made sure that the launchers were mobile. They designed a multiple rocket launcher to be carried and operated by a single soldier. Various forms of MRLs evolved, including

1014-419: The attackers to retreat, to continue under fire, or to attempt to climb the mountain another way. The tactic could be planned in advance, or employed by a retreating force. Another tactic utilised was the 'ascending platoon attack'. Attackers would scout higher enemy positions from the ground, aided by bad weather or poor visibility. A light machine gun team would open fire towards the high enemy position from

1053-423: The battery position previously required such effort that making a dispersed operation of the battery was at times impractical. MRL systems with GPS can have their MRLs dispersed and fire from various positions at a single target, just as previously multiple batteries were often united on one target area. Radar may be used to track weather balloons to determine winds or to track special rockets that self-destruct in

1092-466: The blast radius of any component is a security good practice. The concept is used in Zero trust security model and Chaos engineering . This explosives -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Mountain warfare Mountain warfare or alpine warfare is warfare in mountains or similarly rough terrain. The term encompasses military operations affected by

1131-631: The cold weather and disease typical of the European climate. Hannibal's army fought Roman troops in Italy for 15 years but failed to conquer Rome. Carthage was ultimately defeated by Roman general Scipio Africanus at Zama in North Africa in 202 BC. The term mountain warfare is said to have come about in the Middle Ages after the European monarchies found it difficult to fight the armies of

1170-673: The end of the war was a conversion of the Schwerer Wehrmachtschlepper ("heavy military transport", sWS) halftrack to a configuration similar to the Panzerwerfer 42 4/1, mounting the 10-barreled 15 cm Nebelwerfer. Another German halftrack MRL system was inspired by the Russian BM-13. Keeping the Soviet 82 mm rocket caliber as well as the launch and rocket stabilisation designs, it was developed into

1209-463: The government, rather than to focus on militarily defeating the insurgents. Counterinsurgency doctrine has proved difficult to implement in Kunar and Nuristan. In the sparsely-populated mountain regions of eastern Afghanistan, strategists have argued for holding the high ground, a tenet of classical mountain warfare. The argument suggests that if the counterinsurgent does not deny the enemy the high ground,

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1248-500: The insurgents can attack at will. In Kunar and Nuristan, US forces continued to pursue a hybrid style of counterinsurgency warfare, with its focus on winning hearts and minds , and mountain warfare, with the US forces seizing and holding the high ground. The expense of training mountain troops precludes them from being on the order of battle of most armies except those that reasonably expect to fight in such terrain. Mountain warfare training

1287-479: The late nineteenth century. The first self-propelled MRLs—and arguably the most famous—was the Soviet BM-13 Katyusha , first used during World War II and exported to Soviet allies afterwards. They were simple systems in which a rack of launch rails was mounted on the back of a truck. This set the template for modern MRLs. The Americans mounted tubular launchers atop M4 Sherman tanks to create

1326-533: The mountains, where ballistic projectiles have different characteristics than at sea level. Most of the Falklands War took place on hills in semi-Arctic conditions on the Falkland Islands . However, during the opening stage of the war, there was military action on the bleak mountainous island of South Georgia , where a British expedition sought to eject occupying Argentine forces. South Georgia

1365-600: The nations that were involved in the war had mountain divisions that had not been tested. The Austro-Hungarian defence repelled Italian attacks by taking advantage of the terrain in the Julian Alps and the Dolomites , where frostbite and avalanches proved deadlier than bullets. During the summer of 1918, the Battle of San Matteo took place on the Italian front and was fought at the highest elevation of any during

1404-602: The peaks, ridges and passes of Saltoro with India occupying most of the ridge line whilst Pakistan army to the west along the bases. During the Kargil War (1999), Indian forces sought to flush out opponents who had captured high mountain posts. That proxy war was the only modern war that was fought exclusively in the mountains. After the Kargil War, the Indian Army implemented specialist training on artillery use in

1443-483: The terrain, hazards, and factors of combat and movement through rough terrain, as well as the strategies and tactics used by military forces in these situations and environments. Mountain ranges are of strategic importance since they often act as a natural border and may also be the origin of a water source such as the Golan Heights . Attacking a prepared enemy position in mountain terrain generally requires

1482-868: The two nations, during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 , showed that both were ill-equipped to fight in biting cold, let alone at the highest altitudes in the world. During the Sino-Indian War of 1962, hostilities broke out between India and China in the same area. The subsequent Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 between India and Pakistan was mainly fought in Kashmir's valleys, rather than the mountains themselves, but several mountain battles took place. Siachen Conflict (along Saltoro Mustgah) has been witness to battles, operations and skirmishes where many posts higher than 5000m have been captured or fought over. The fighting here has been concentrated on

1521-568: The war. In December 1914, another offensive was launched by the Ottoman supreme commander Enver Pasha with 95,000–190,000 troops against the Russians in the Caucasus . Insisting on a frontal attack against Russian positions in the mountains in the heart of winter, the result was devastating, and Enver lost 86% of his forces. Examples of mountain warfare used during World War II include

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