MPTP ( 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine ) is an organic compound . It is classified as a tetrahydropyridine . It is of interest as a precursor to the monoaminergic neurotoxin MPP , which causes permanent symptoms of Parkinson's disease by destroying dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra of the brain . It has been used to study disease models in various animals.
96-494: While MPTP itself has no psychoactive effects, the compound may be accidentally produced during the manufacture of MPPP , a synthetic opioid drug with effects similar to those of morphine and pethidine (meperidine). The Parkinson-inducing effects of MPTP were first discovered following accidental injection as a result of contaminated MPPP. Injection of MPTP causes rapid onset of Parkinsonism , hence users of MPPP contaminated with MPTP will develop these symptoms. MPTP itself
192-445: A Freedom of Information Act request fulfilled that confirmed that the use of psychoactive drugs during interrogation was a long-standing practice. Captives and former captives had been reporting medical staff collaborating with interrogators to drug captives with powerful psychoactive drugs prior to interrogation since the very first captives release. In May 2003 recently released Pakistani captive Sha Mohammed Alikhel described
288-461: A 1,200,000 acres (490,000 ha) area encompassing much of eastern Santa Clara County as well as portions of southern Alameda County, western Merced and Stanislaus Counties , and northern San Benito County . Acquisitions to date include the 1,756-acre (711 ha) Rancho Cañada de Pala , straddling the Alameda Creek and Coyote Creek watersheds for California tiger salamander habitat;
384-472: A 23-year-old chemistry graduate student in Maryland , US, synthesized MPPP with MPTP as a major impurity and self-injected the result. Within three days he began exhibiting symptoms of Parkinson's disease. The National Institute of Mental Health found traces of MPTP and other pethidine analogs in his lab. They tested the substances on rats, but due to rodents' tolerance for this type of neurotoxin, nothing
480-554: A category of psychoactive drugs (substances) that are designed to mimic the effects of often illegal drugs, usually in efforts to circumvent existing drug laws. Psychoactive drugs are divided according to their pharmacological effects. Common subtypes include: The ways in which psychoactive substances are used vary widely between cultures. Some substances may have controlled or illegal uses, others may have shamanic purposes, and others are used medicinally. Examples would be social drinking, nootropic supplements, and sleep aids. Caffeine
576-702: A combination of psychotherapy , support groups, and other psychoactive substances. Conversely, certain psychoactive drugs may be so unpleasant that the person will never use the substance again. This is especially true of certain deliriants (e.g. Jimson weed ), powerful dissociatives (e.g. Salvia divinorum ), and classic psychedelics (e.g. LSD , psilocybin ), in the form of a " bad trip ". Psychoactive drug misuse, dependence, and addiction have resulted in legal measures and moral debate. Governmental controls on manufacture, supply, and prescription attempt to reduce problematic medical drug use; worldwide efforts to combat trafficking in psychoactive drugs are commonly termed
672-482: A conservation easement on the 3,259-acre Blue Oak Ranch Reserve , which abuts the north side of Joseph D. Grant County Park ; a conservation easement on the 28,359-acre San Felipe Ranch, connecting Joseph D. Grant County Park with Henry W. Coe State Park ; the 2,899-acre South Valley Ranch which protects a tule elk herd in the San Antonio Valley, and other properties. As of 1980, Santa Clara County had
768-661: A drug overdose was the most common suicide method in females. In 2019 in males the percentage is 16%. Self-poisoning accounts for the highest number of non-fatal suicide attempts. In the United States about 60% of suicide attempts and 14% of suicide deaths involve drug overdoses. The risk of death in suicide attempts involving overdose is about 2%. Most people are under the influence of sedative-hypnotic drugs (such as alcohol or benzodiazepines) when they die by suicide, with alcoholism present in between 15% and 61% of cases. Countries that have higher rates of alcohol use and
864-843: A few miles of Santa Clara). The San Andreas Fault runs along the Santa Cruz Mountains in the south and west of the county. Both tule elk ( Cervus canadensis nannodes ) and pronghorn ( Antilocapra americana ) were historically native to Santa Clara County. In June 1776, Lieutenant Commander Don José Joaquín Moraga led a group of soldiers and colonists from the Presidio of Monterey to establish Mission San Francisco de Asis and encountered both tule elk and pronghorn, and clearly distinguished these two species from deer. The deer in California being California mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ). Regarding elk, Moraga wrote: "In
960-654: A fifth herd of tule elk was documented by local naturalist Roger Castillo, likely having split from the Coyote Ridge herd and established itself in Silver Creek Valley around the closed Ranch Golf Club. The elk herds in eastern Santa Clara County are blocked from dispersal to the west by U.S. Highway 101, with environmentalists advocating re-purposing the Metcalf Road bridge at the Coyote Gap into
1056-465: A greater density of bars generally also have higher rates of suicide. About 2.2–3.4% of those who have been treated for alcoholism at some point in their life die by suicide. Alcoholics who attempt suicide are usually male, older, and have tried to take their own lives in the past. In adolescents who misuse alcohol, neurological and psychological dysfunctions may contribute to the increased risk of suicide. Overdose attempts using painkillers are among
SECTION 10
#17327905656551152-443: A higher form of reality. It is, however, necessary to understand precisely what is meant by the use of drugs. We do not mean the purely physical craving ... That of which we speak is something much higher, namely the knowledge of the possibility of the soul to enter into a lighter being, and to catch a glimpse of deeper insights and more magnificent visions of the beauty, truth, and the divine than we are normally able to spy through
1248-575: A majority in the county was Ronald Reagan in 1984. While Republicans remained competitive at the state and local level throughout the 1990s, there are currently no elected Republicans representing the county above the local level. According to the California Secretary of State , as of February 10, 2019, Santa Clara County has 895,965 registered voters. Of those, 405,470 (45.3%) are registered Democrats , 151,213 (16.9%) are registered Republicans , and 308,769 (35.4%) have declined to state
1344-712: A means of decompression from combat to everyday life. However, this reliance on alcohol can have negative consequences for physical and mental health. The first documented case of a soldier overdosing on methamphetamine during combat, was the Finnish corporal Aimo Koivunen , a soldier who fought in the Winter War and the Continuation War . Psychoactive drugs have been used in military applications as non-lethal weapons . Psychoactive drugs are often prescribed to manage pain . The subjective experience of pain
1440-732: A number of other officials to county-wide positions, including the Santa Clara County District Attorney, the Santa Clara County Sheriff, and a large number of criminal and civil judges that serve in courts throughout the county. Historically, Santa Clara County was a Republican stronghold in presidential elections. From 1872 through 1984 , the only Democrats to carry Santa Clara County were Franklin Roosevelt , Lyndon Johnson , and Hubert Humphrey . However, 1988 would begin to mark
1536-444: A political party. As of November 2012, all of the cities, towns, and unincorporated areas of Santa Clara County have more registered Democrats than Republicans. In 2008 , Barack Obama carried every city and town in the county, as well as the unincorporated areas. Following the passage of Proposition 8 , Santa Clara County joined San Francisco and Los Angeles in a lawsuit , becoming, along with San Francisco and Los Angeles,
1632-719: A primary goal of reducing the adverse health effects of drug use. Psychoactive and psychotropic are often used interchangeably in general and academic sources, to describe substances that act on the brain to alter cognition and perception; some sources make a distinction between the terms. One narrower definition of psychotropic refers to drugs used to treat mental disorders, such as anxiolytic sedatives, antidepressants, antimanic agents, and neuroleptics. Another usage of psychotropic refers to substances determined to pose "high abuse liability", including stimulants, hallucinogens, opioids, and sedatives/hypnotics including alcohol. In international drug control, psychotropic substances refers to
1728-580: A significant shift in the county's political leanings, starting with Michael Dukakis ' narrow win and culminating in Bill Clinton 's substantial 20-point victory in 1992 . Since then, the Democratic presidential candidate has won Santa Clara County by large margins, and it also remains solidly blue in congressional elections, as all politicians representing the county at the state and federal level are known to be Democrats. The last Republican to win
1824-662: A wildlife overcrossing. This would enable elk to recolonize rural southwestern Santa Clara County, as well as Santa Cruz and San Mateo Counties. In 1990, the California Department of Fish and Game 's Henry Coletto translocated excess pronghorn from Modoc County to six locations in California, including 51 animals to the San Felipe Ranch in Santa Clara County, where the swift-footed ungulates had not lived for generations. The animals left
1920-506: Is James R. Williams, J.D. The County Executive is responsible for the administration of the county and appoints almost all other officers and department heads. The county is one among three counties in California (with Napa and Madera) to establish a separate department, the Santa Clara County Department of Corrections, to deal with corrections pursuant to California Government Code §23013. The county operates
2016-620: Is a human behavior in which an individual uses a substance or any exogenous influence to self-administer treatment for physical or psychological conditions, for example headaches or fatigue . The substances most widely used in self-medication are over-the-counter drugs and dietary supplements, which are used to treat common health issues at home. These do not require a doctor's prescription to obtain and, in some countries, are available in supermarkets and convenience stores. Sex and drugs date back to ancient humans and have been interlocked throughout human history. Both legal and illegal,
SECTION 20
#17327905656552112-1119: Is a GABA agonist, and ketamine is an NMDA receptor antagonist . Performance-enhancing substances , also known as performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs), are substances that are used to improve any form of activity performance in humans. A well-known example of cheating in sports involves doping in sport , where banned physical performance-enhancing drugs are used by athletes and bodybuilders . Athletic performance-enhancing substances are sometimes referred as ergogenic aids. Cognitive performance-enhancing drugs, commonly called nootropics , are sometimes used by students to improve academic performance. Performance-enhancing substances are also used by military personnel to enhance combat performance. Many psychoactive substances are used for their mood and perception altering effects, including those with accepted uses in medicine and psychiatry. Examples of psychoactive substances include caffeine , alcohol , cocaine , LSD , nicotine , cannabis , and dextromethorphan . Classes of drugs frequently used recreationally include: In some modern and ancient cultures, drug usage
2208-443: Is a less harmful, more ethical and a more effective public policy." In some countries, there has been a move toward harm reduction , where the use of illicit drugs is neither condoned nor promoted, but services and support are provided to ensure users have adequate factual information readily available, and that the negative effects of their use be minimized. Such is the case with Portugal's drug policy of decriminalization , with
2304-539: Is a public library system serving the communities and cities of Campbell, Cupertino, Gilroy, Los Altos, Los Altos Hills, Milpitas, Monte Sereno, Morgan Hill, Saratoga, and all unincorporated areas of the county. Other cities run their own library systems. The county's main airport is Norman Y. Mineta San José International Airport (SJC). It is a U.S. Customs and Border Protection port of entry and as of 2019 has five international routes (two to Canada, one to England, one to Japan, seven to Mexico, and one to China) but
2400-468: Is a time to consume cannabis. Operation Overgrow is the name, given by cannabis activists, of an "operation" to spread marijuana seeds wildly "so it grows like weed". The thought behind the operation is to draw attention to the debate about legalization/decriminalization of marijuana. A drug overdose involves taking a dose of a drug that exceeds safe levels. In the UK (England and Wales) until 2013,
2496-481: Is a useful model in dealing with the effects of psychoactive substances, especially in a controlled therapeutic setting as well as in recreational use. Dr. Timothy Leary , based on his own experiences and systematic observations on psychedelics, developed this theory along with his colleagues Ralph Metzner , and Richard Alpert ( Ram Dass ) in the 1960s. The first factor, dosage, has been a truism since ancient times, or at least since Paracelsus who said, "Dose makes
2592-480: Is a violation of personal autonomy and freedom . In the United States, critics have noted that prohibition or regulation of recreational and spiritual drug use might be unconstitutional , and causing more harm than is prevented. Some people who take psychoactive drugs experience drug or substance induced psychosis. A 2019 systematic review and meta-analysis by Murrie et al. found that the pooled proportion of transition from substance-induced psychosis to schizophrenia
2688-456: Is based from the substantia nigra to the putamen and caudate nucleus , which then relay signals to the rest of the brain. This pathway is controlled via dopamine-using neurons, which MPTP selectively destroys, resulting, over time, in parkinsonism. MPTP causes Parkinsonism in primates , including humans. Rodents are much less susceptible. Rats are almost immune to the adverse effects of MPTP. Mice were thought to only suffer from cell death in
2784-480: Is evidence of the chewing of coca leaves, for example, in Peruvian society 8,000 years ago. Psychoactive substances have been used medicinally and to alter consciousness. Consciousness altering may be a primary drive, akin to the need to satiate thirst, hunger, or sexual desire. This may be manifest in the long history of drug use, and even in children's desire for spinning, swinging, or sliding, suggesting that
2880-474: Is exhibited by both VTA and SNc neurons, VTA neurons are protective against MPP insult due to the expression of calbindin. Calbindin regulates the availability of Ca within the cell, which is not the case in SNc neurons due to their high-calcium-dependent autonomous pacemaker activity. The gross depletion of dopaminergic neurons severely affects cortical control of complex movements. The direction of complex movement
2976-561: Is not legally available outside clinical trials, with some exceptions. The aims and methods of psychonautics, when state-altering substances are involved, is commonly distinguished from recreational drug use by research sources. Psychonautics as a means of exploration need not involve drugs, and may take place in a religious context with an established history. Cohen considers psychonautics closer in association to wisdom traditions and other transpersonal and integral movements. Self-medication , sometime called do-it-yourself (DIY) medicine,
MPTP - Misplaced Pages Continue
3072-451: Is not toxic, but it is a lipophilic compound and can therefore cross the blood–brain barrier . Once inside the brain, MPTP is metabolized into the toxic cation 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP) by the enzyme monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) of glial cells , specifically astrocytes. MPP kills primarily dopamine-producing neurons in a part of the brain called the pars compacta of the substantia nigra . MPP interferes with complex I of
3168-979: Is often used interchangeably, while some sources present narrower definitions . These substances may be used medically; recreationally ; to purposefully improve performance or alter consciousness ; as entheogens for ritual, spiritual, or shamanic purposes; or for research, including psychedelic therapy . Physicians and other healthcare practitioners prescribe psychoactive drugs from several categories for therapeutic purposes. These include anesthetics , analgesics , anticonvulsant and antiparkinsonian drugs as well as medications used to treat neuropsychiatric disorders , such as antidepressants , anxiolytics , antipsychotics , and stimulants . Some psychoactive substances may be used in detoxification and rehabilitation programs for persons dependent on or addicted to other psychoactive drugs. Psychoactive substances often bring about subjective changes in consciousness and mood (although these may be objectively observed) that
3264-451: Is primarily regulated by endogenous opioid peptides . Thus, pain can often be managed using psychoactives that operate on this neurotransmitter system, also known as opioid receptor agonists . This class of drugs can be highly addictive, and includes opiate narcotics , like morphine and codeine . NSAIDs , such as aspirin and ibuprofen , are also analgesics. These agents also reduce eicosanoid -mediated inflammation by inhibiting
3360-695: Is protected only for members of the Native American Church , which is allowed to cultivate and distribute peyote . However, the genuine religious use of peyote, regardless of one's personal ancestry, is protected in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and Oregon. Psychedelic therapy (or psychedelic-assisted therapy ) refers to the proposed use of psychedelic drugs , such as psilocybin , MDMA , LSD , and ayahuasca , to treat mental disorders . As of 2021, psychedelic drugs are controlled substances in most countries and psychedelic therapy
3456-414: Is seen as a status symbol. Recreational drugs are seen as status symbols in settings such as at nightclubs and parties. For example, in ancient Egypt , gods were commonly pictured holding hallucinogenic plants. Because there is controversy about regulation of recreational drugs, there is an ongoing debate about drug prohibition . Critics of prohibition believe that regulation of recreational drug use
3552-547: Is still being used as a herbicide in some countries. Analogues of MPTP include 2′-NH 2 -MPTP (2′-amino-MPTP) and 2′-CH 3 -MPTP (2′-methyl-MPTP). The haloperidol -derived monoaminergic neurotoxins HPTP and HPP are structurally related to MPTP. Psychoactive A psychoactive drug , mind-altering drug , or consciousness-altering drug is a chemical substance that changes brain function and results in alterations in perception , mood , consciousness , cognition , or behavior . The term psychotropic drug
3648-604: Is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive substance, and is legal and unregulated in nearly all jurisdictions; in North America, 90% of adults consume caffeine daily. Psychiatric medications are psychoactive drugs prescribed for the management of mental and emotional disorders , or to aid in overcoming challenging behavior . There are six major classes of psychiatric medications: In addition, several psychoactive substances are currently employed to treat various addictions. These include acamprosate or naltrexone in
3744-502: The De Anza Expedition on March 23, 1776: " In Gilroy Valley (Santa Clara Valley) Moraga 's larder was replenished by three elks which the men killed without leaving the road." General John Bidwell , of the 1841 Bartleson-Bidwell Party wrote: "In some of the fertile valleys, such as Napa and Santa Clara, there were elk literally by the thousand." In 1978, California Department of Fish and Game warden Henry Coletto urged
3840-764: The San Luis National Wildlife Refuge to add genetic diversity to the San Antonio Valley Ecological Reserve herd in San Antonio Valley in extreme eastern Santa Clara County. As of 2017 there were four herds in the Coyote Ridge area, often visible from U. S. Highway 101, according to Craige Edgerton, recently retired executive director of the Silicon Valley Land Conservancy and local naturalist Michael Hundt. In 2019,
3936-713: The Santa Clara County Health System of medical centers and clinics. In the United States House of Representatives , Santa Clara County is split among four congressional districts: In the California State Senate , the county is split among four legislative districts: In the California State Assembly , the county is split among six legislative districts: Voters in the county also elect
MPTP - Misplaced Pages Continue
4032-535: The U.S. Census Bureau , the county has a total area of 1,291.08 square miles (3,343.9 km ). Counties which border with Santa Clara County are, clockwise, Alameda County , San Joaquin (within a few hundred feet at Mount Boardman ), Stanislaus , Merced , San Benito , Santa Cruz , and San Mateo County . Santa Clara County formerly shared borders with Contra Costa , San Francisco , Mariposa , Monterey , and Tuolumne counties until 1853, 1856, 1874, and 1854 respectively (Monterey County currently comes within
4128-406: The electron transport chain , a component of mitochondrial metabolism, which leads to cell death and causes the buildup of free radicals , toxic molecules that contribute further to cell destruction. Because MPTP itself is not directly harmful, toxic effects of acute MPTP poisoning can be mitigated by the administration of monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) such as selegiline . MAOIs prevent
4224-577: The most populous city in Northern California . Home to Silicon Valley , Santa Clara County is an economic center for high technology , and had the third-highest gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in the world as of 2015 behind Zürich and Oslo , according to the Brookings Institution . Located on the southern coast of San Francisco Bay , the urbanized Santa Clara Valley within Santa Clara County contains most of
4320-508: The " war on drugs ". Ethical concerns have also been raised about the overuse of these drugs clinically and about their marketing by manufacturers. Popular campaigns to decriminalize or legalize the recreational use of certain drugs (e.g., cannabis ) are also ongoing. Psychoactive drug use can be traced to prehistory . Archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances, mostly plants, dates back at least 10,000 years; historical evidence indicates cultural use 5,000 years ago. There
4416-917: The San Felipe Ranch for the Isabel and San Antonio Valleys, as well as an area near Lake Del Valle in Alameda County may now be extirpated by poaching, highway vehicle collisions, and insufficient numbers to defend pronghorn fawns against coyote predation. As of 2012, the Isabel Valley Ranch herd had dwindled to 3 animals, and the Lake del Valle herd to 13. Currently, iNaturalist.org has zero observer records of pronghorn in Santa Clara County. The Nature Conservancy "Mount Hamilton Project" has acquired or put under conservation easement 100,000 acres (40,000 ha) of land towards its 500,000 acres (200,000 ha) goal for habitat conservation within
4512-645: The San Jose–Sunnyvale–Santa Clara metropolitan statistical area , which is part of the larger San Jose–San Francisco–Oakland combined statistical area . Santa Clara is the most populous county in the San Francisco Bay Area and in Northern California . The county seat and largest city with a population of 971,233 is San Jose , the 13th-most populous city in the nation, California's third-most populous city , and
4608-522: The UK on the BBC science series Horizon . Langston et al. (1984) found that injections of MPTP in squirrel monkeys resulted in Parkinsonism, symptoms of which were subsequently reduced by levodopa , the drug-of-choice in the treatment of Parkinson's disease along with carbidopa and entacapone . The symptoms and brain structures of MPTP-induced Parkinson's disease are fairly indistinguishable to
4704-518: The US, NORML ( National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws ) has led since the 1970s a movement to legalize cannabis nationally. The so-called " 420 movement " is the global association of the number 420 with cannabis consumption: April 20th – fourth month, twentieth day – has become an international counterculture holiday based on the celebration and consumption of cannabis; 4:20 pm on any day
4800-486: The United States , where early in the century alcohol was made illegal for 13 years. In recent decades, an emerging perspective among governments and law enforcement holds that illicit drug use cannot be stopped through prohibition. One organization holding that view, Law Enforcement Against Prohibition (LEAP), concluded that "[in] fighting a war on drugs the government has increased the problems of society and made them far worse. A system of regulation rather than prohibition
4896-776: The airport's busiest routes are all to cities in the western United States. San Francisco International Airport (SFO) is also often used for commercial services by residents of Santa Clara County. Moffett Federal Airfield (NUQ), a former U.S. Naval Air Station , is used by the Air National Guard , NASA , Lockheed Martin , Google , and by the Santa Clara County Sheriff's Department as an air operations base. There are also smaller general aviation airports in Palo Alto (PAO) , San Jose (Reid-Hillview) (RHV) , and San Martin(E16) Santa Clara County
SECTION 50
#17327905656554992-751: The area was promoted as the "Valley of the Heart's Delight" due to its natural beauty, including a significant number of orchards . The region was also memorably referred to as the "sun-kissed Santa Clara Valley" in Jack London's 1903 Call of the Wild . The first major technology company to be based in the area was Hewlett-Packard , founded in a garage in Palo Alto in 1939. IBM selected San Jose as its West Coast headquarters in 1943. Varian Associates , Fairchild Semiconductor , and other early innovators were in
5088-401: The average family size was 3.41. In the county, the age distribution was 24.7% under 18, 9.3% from 18 to 24, 35.4% from 25 to 44, 21.0% from 45 to 64, and 9.5% who were 65 or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.80 males. For every 100 females 18 and over, there were 101.90 males. The median income for a household in the county was $ 74,335, and for a family
5184-557: The cause, and its effects on primates were researched. After performing neural grafts of fetal tissue on three of the patients at Lund University Hospital in Sweden , the motor symptoms of two of the three patients were successfully treated, and the third showed partial recovery. Langston documented the case in his 1995 book The Case of the Frozen Addicts , which was later featured in two NOVA productions by PBS , re-aired in
5280-410: The consumption of drugs and their effects on the human body encompasses all aspects of sex, including desire , performance , pleasure , conception , gestation , and disease . There are many different types of drugs that are commonly associated with their effects on sex, including alcohol , cannabis , cocaine , MDMA , GHB , amphetamines , opioids , antidepressants , and many others. In
5376-502: The country, despite extreme land prices. The surge in metro GDP is highly correlated with home prices, which for average single-family homes passed $ 1 million ($ 1,017,528) in August 2013. As of the fourth quarter of 2021, the median value of homes in Santa Clara County was $ 1,253,400, an increase of 11.9% from the prior year, and ranking fourth in the US for highest median home value. School districts include: Santa Clara County Library
5472-444: The county by the late 1940s and 1950s. The U.S. Navy had a large presence in the area and began giving large contracts to Silicon Valley electronics companies. The term " Silicon Valley " was coined in 1971. The trend accelerated in the 1980s and 1990s, and agriculture has since been nearly eliminated from the northern part of the county. Santa Clara County is the headquarters for about 6500 high-technology companies, including many of
5568-468: The county's population. More recently, extensive droughts in California , further complicated by drainage of the Anderson reservoir within the county for seismic repairs, have strained the county's water security . As of 2020, it has a median household income of $ 130,890, the third-highest household income of any county in the nation behind Loudoun County, Virginia and Falls Church, Virginia , and
5664-497: The county's territory was given to Alameda County in 1853. In 1882, Santa Clara County tried to levy taxes upon property of the Southern Pacific Railroad within county boundaries. The result was the U.S. Supreme Court case of Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad , 118 U.S. 394 (1886), in which the court extended due-process rights to artificial legal entities . In the early 20th century,
5760-550: The cracks in our prison cell. But there are not many drugs which have the power of stilling such craving. The entire catalog, at least to the extent that research has thus far written it, may include only opium, hashish, and in rarer cases alcohol , which has enlightening effects only upon very particular characters. During the 20th century, the majority of countries initially responded to the use of recreational drugs by prohibiting production, distribution, or use through criminalization. A notable example occurred with Prohibition in
5856-530: The department to choose the Mount Hamilton area as one of California's relocation sites under a new statewide effort to restore tule elk. While other ranchers refused, tech pioneers Bill Hewlett and David Packard allowed Coletto and state biologists to translocate the initial 32 tule elk from the Owens Valley in the eastern Sierra onto the 28,000-acre (11,000 ha) San Felipe Ranch , which
SECTION 60
#17327905656555952-407: The drive to alter one's state of mind is universal. In The Hasheesh Eater (1857), American author Fitz Hugh Ludlow was one of the first to describe in modern terms the desire to change one's consciousness through drug use: [D]rugs are able to bring humans into the neighborhood of divine experience and can thus carry us up from our personal fate and the everyday circumstances of our life into
6048-404: The elk horns as four varas [11 feet (3.4 m)] across... "These animals [elk] are called ciervos in order to differentiate them from the ordinary Spanish variety of deer, here called venados , which also exist in abundance and of large size in the vicinity." Regarding pronghorn, Moraga reported: "In the said plains of San Bernardino (Santa Clara Valley)…there is another species of deer about
6144-468: The enzyme cyclooxygenase . General anesthetics are a class of psychoactive drug used on people to block physical pain and other sensations. Most anesthetics induce unconsciousness , allowing the person to undergo medical procedures like surgery , without the feelings of physical pain or emotional trauma . To induce unconsciousness, anesthetics affect the GABA and NMDA systems. For example, Propofol
6240-960: The families jointly own, in the hills east of Morgan Hill . From the three original 1978–1981 translocations (totaling 65 animals) to the Mount Hamilton region of the Diablo Range , there are multiple herds in different locations including the Isabel Valley, San Antonio Valley , Livermore area, San Felipe Ranch, Metcalf Canyon, Coyote Ridge , Anderson Lake , and surrounding areas such as the Sunol and Cottonwood Creek (near San Luis Reservoir in western Merced County, California ) herds. As of 2012 , an estimated 400 tule elk roam 1,875 square kilometres (724 sq mi) in northeastern Santa Clara County and southeastern Alameda County . In March 2014 CDFW translocated nine bull elk from
6336-428: The first governmental entities in the world to sue for same-sex marriage. The following table includes the number of incidents reported in 2009 and the rate per 1,000 persons for each type of offense. Law Enforcement in Santa Clara County is handled by the Santa Clara County Sheriff's Office and local police departments. The county's economy is heavily services-based. Technology, both hardware and software, dominates
6432-529: The great plain called San Bernardino (the Santa Clara Valley which stretches from south San Jose to Gilroy ), while the expedition was strung out at length, we descried in the distance a herd of large animals that looked like cattle, but we could not imagine where they belonged or from whence they had come...with horns similar in shape to those of the deer, but so large that they measured sixteen palms from tip to tip." Upon measurement, Morago reported
6528-573: The highest number of Superfund Sites of any county in the United States, accounting for 25 polluted locations requiring a long-term response to clean up hazardous material contaminations. As of 2019 , Santa Clara County has 23 active Superfund Sites, still more than any other county in the United States. The vast majority of these Superfund sites were caused by firms associated with the high tech sector in Silicon Valley . Census demographics data released in 2019 show Asian Americans have had
6624-541: The highest of any county in the Western United States . Santa Clara County is named for Mission Santa Clara , which was established in 1777, and was in turn named for Saint Clare of Assisi . Santa Clara County was one of the original counties of California , formed in 1850 at the time of statehood. The original inhabitants included the Ohlone , residing on Coyote Creek and Calaveras Creek . Part of
6720-784: The length of properly followed treatment regimens (that is, relapse rate substantially declines over time), and to a much greater degree than placebo. Militaries worldwide have used or are using various psychoactive drugs to treat pain and to improve performance of soldiers by suppressing hunger, increasing the ability to sustain effort without food, increasing and lengthening wakefulness and concentration, suppressing fear , reducing empathy, and improving reflexes and memory-recall among other things. Both military and civilian American intelligence officials are known to have used psychoactive drugs while interrogating captives apprehended in its " war on terror " . In July 2012 Jason Leopold and Jeffrey Kaye , psychologists and human rights workers, had
6816-431: The metabolism of MPTP to MPP by inhibiting the action of MAO-B, minimizing toxicity, and preventing neural death. Dopaminergic neurons are selectively vulnerable to MPP because DA neurons exhibit dopamine reuptake which is mediated by DAT, which also has high-affinity for MPP. The dopamine transporter scavenges for excessive dopamine at the synaptic spaces and transports them back into the cell. Even though this property
6912-437: The metro area reached $ 176.7 billion in 2011, or $ 94,587 per capita, roughly on par with Qatar in both total GDP and per capita (nominal). GDP grew a strong 7.7% in 2011, and in contrast with most of California, GDP and per capita GDP (nominal) is well above 2007 (financial crisis) levels. Despite relative wealth vis a vis other regions nationally, a large underclass exists whose income is roughly equivalent to that elsewhere in
7008-873: The most common, due to their easy availability over-the-counter. Psychoactive drugs are administered via oral ingestion as a tablet, capsule, powder, liquid, and beverage; via injection by subcutaneous , intramuscular , and intravenous route; via rectum by suppository and enema ; and via inhalation by smoking , vaporizing , and snorting. The efficiency of each method of administration varies from drug to drug. The psychiatric drugs fluoxetine , quetiapine , and lorazepam are ingested orally in tablet or capsule form. Alcohol and caffeine are ingested in beverage form; nicotine and cannabis are smoked or vaporized ; peyote and psilocybin mushrooms are ingested in botanical form or dried; and crystalline drugs such as cocaine and methamphetamine are usually inhaled or snorted. The theory of dosage, set, and setting
7104-484: The official US census) calculates a religious diversity score of 0.876 for Santa Clara County, where 1 represents complete diversity (each religious group of equal size) and 0 a total lack of diversity. Only four counties in the US have higher diversity scores than Santa Clara County. Santa Clara County has five elected supervisors , elected within their districts. The board appoints the County Executive, who
7200-594: The plurality of Santa Clara's population since 2014. As of 2013, Santa Clara County has the highest median household income of any county in California at $ 84,741. The 2010 United States census reported that Santa Clara County had a population of 1,781,642. The racial makeup of Santa Clara County was 836,616 (47.0%) White, 46,428 (2.6%) African American, 12,960 (0.7%) Native American, 7,060 (0.4%) Pacific Islander, 570,524 (32.0%) Asian, 220,806 (12.4%) from other races, and 87,248 (4.9%) from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 479,210 persons (26.9% of
7296-896: The point that MPTP may be used to simulate the disease in order to study Parkinson's disease physiology and possible treatments within the laboratory. Mouse studies have shown that susceptibility to MPTP increases with age. Knowledge of MPTP and its use in reliably recreating Parkinson's disease symptoms in experimental models has inspired scientists to investigate the possibilities of surgically replacing neuron loss through fetal tissue implants, subthalamic electrical stimulation and stem cell research, all of which have demonstrated initial provisional successes. It has been postulated that Parkinson's disease may be caused by minute amounts of MPP-like compounds from ingestion or exogenously through repeated exposure and that these substances are too minute to be detected significantly by epidemiological studies. In 2000, another animal model for Parkinson's disease
7392-408: The poison." Some compounds are beneficial or pleasurable when consumed in small amounts, but harmful, deadly, or evoke discomfort in higher doses. The set is the internal attitudes and constitution of the person, including their expectations, wishes, fears, and sensitivity to the drug. This factor is especially important for the hallucinogens, which have the ability to make conscious experiences out of
7488-410: The population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. Of the 565,863 households, 34.9% had children under 18 living with them, 54.9% were married couples living together, 10.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.1% were not families. About 21.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.9% had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2.92, and
7584-496: The population). Demographic profile As of the census of 2000, 1,682,585 people, 565,863 households, and 395,538 families were residing in the county. The population density was 503/km (1,300/sq mi). The 579,329 housing units had an average density of 173/km (450/sq mi). The ethnic makeup of the county was 53.8% White, 2.8% African American, 0.7% Native American, 25.6% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 12.1% from other races, and 4.7% from two or more races. About 24.0% of
7680-415: The present Code of Canon Law (1983) states: §3 The wine must be natural, made from grapes of the vine, and not corrupt. Certain psychoactives, particularly hallucinogens, have been used for religious purposes since prehistoric times. Native Americans have used peyote cacti containing mescaline for religious ceremonies for as long as 5700 years. The muscimol -containing Amanita muscaria mushroom
7776-432: The routine use of psychoactive drugs. He said that Jihan Wali , a captive kept in a nearby cell, was rendered catatonic through the use of these drugs. Alcohol has a long association of military use, and has been called " liquid courage " for its role in preparing troops for battle, anaesthetize injured soldiers, and celebrate military victories . It has also served as a coping mechanism for combat stress reactions and
7872-476: The service sector by value, but like any other county, Santa Clara has its share of retail and office support workers. The San Jose/Sunnyvale/Santa Clara metropolitan region, comprising Santa Clara County and San Benito County, was ranked as the highest performing metropolitan area in the US in 2012, ahead of Austin, Texas and Raleigh, North Carolina , according to the Milken Institute . The GDP of
7968-496: The size of three-year-old sheep. They are similar in appearance to the deer, except they have short horns and also short legs like the sheep. They live in the plains where they go in herds of 100, 200, or more. They run all together over the plains so fast that they seem to fly…These animals are called berrendos and there are many of them also in the southern Missions wherever the country is level." Herbert Eugene Bolton also wrote of elk reports from another Spanish expedition, from
8064-520: The study, hospital or community location, urban or rural setting, diagnostic methods, or duration of follow-up. Alcohol and tobacco (nicotine) have been and are used as offerings in various religions and spiritual practices. Coca leaves have been used as offerings in rituals. According to the Catholic Church , the sacramental wine used in the Eucharist must contain alcohol. Canon 924 of
8160-487: The substances specified in the Convention on Psychotropic Substances , which does not include narcotics. The term "drug" has become a skunked term . "Drugs" can have a negative connotation, often associated with illegal substances like cocaine or heroin, despite the fact that the terms "drug" and "medicine" are sometimes used interchangeably. Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) , also known as " designer drugs " are
8256-505: The substantia nigra (to a differing degree according to the strain of mice used) but do not show Parkinsonian symptoms; however, most of the recent studies indicate that MPTP can result in Parkinsonism-like syndromes in mice (especially chronic syndromes). It is believed that the lower levels of MAO-B in the rodent brain's capillaries may be responsible for this. The neurotoxicity of MPTP was hinted at in 1976 after Barry Kidston,
8352-401: The treatment of alcoholism, or methadone or buprenorphine maintenance therapy in the case of opioid addiction . Exposure to psychoactive drugs can cause changes to the brain that counteract or augment some of their effects; these changes may be beneficial or harmful. However, there is a significant amount of evidence that the relapse rate of mental disorders negatively corresponds with
8448-506: The unconscious. In traditional cultures, set is shaped primarily by the worldview, health and genetic characteristics that all the members of the culture share. Santa Clara County, California Santa Clara County , officially the County of Santa Clara , is the sixth-most populous county in the U.S. state of California , with a population of 1,936,259 as of the 2020 census . Santa Clara County and neighboring San Benito County form
8544-651: The user may find rewarding and pleasant (e.g., euphoria or a sense of relaxation) or advantageous in an objectively observable or measurable way (e.g. increased alertness), thus the effects are reinforcing to varying degrees. Substances which are rewarding and thus positively reinforcing have the potential to induce a state of addiction – compulsive drug use despite negative consequences. In addition, sustained use of some substances may produce physical or psychological dependence or both, associated with physical or psychological withdrawal symptoms respectively. Drug rehabilitation attempts to reduce addiction through
8640-519: The world's largest such companies, including AMD , Nvidia , Cisco Systems , and Intel , computer and consumer electronics companies Apple Inc. and Hewlett-Packard, and internet companies eBay , Google , and Yahoo! . Most of what is considered to be Silicon Valley is within the county, although some adjoining tech regions in San Mateo (e.g., Facebook ), Alameda , and Santa Cruz counties are also considered part of Silicon Valley. According to
8736-524: Was $ 81,717. Males had a median income of $ 56,240 versus $ 40,574 for females. The per capita income for the county was $ 32,795. About 4.9% of families and 7.5% of the population were below the poverty line , including 8.4% of those under age 18 and 6.4% of those age 65 or over. Santa Clara County is among the most religiously diverse counties in the US. A 2020 census by the Public Religion Research Institute (unconnected to
8832-578: Was 25% (95% CI 18%–35%), compared with 36% (95% CI 30%–43%) for brief, atypical and not otherwise specified psychoses. Type of substance was the primary predictor of transition from drug-induced psychosis to schizophrenia, with highest rates associated with cannabis (6 studies, 34%, CI 25%–46%), hallucinogens (3 studies, 26%, CI 14%–43%) and amphetamines (5 studies, 22%, CI 14%–34%). Lower rates were reported for opioid (12%), alcohol (10%) and sedative (9%) induced psychoses. Transition rates were slightly lower in older cohorts but were not affected by sex, country of
8928-405: Was found. It was shown that the pesticide and insecticide rotenone causes Parkinsonism in rats by killing dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Like MPP, rotenone also interferes with complex I of the electron transport chain . MPTP was first synthesized as a potential analgesic in 1947 by Ziering et al. by reaction of phenylmagnesium bromide with 1-methyl-4-piperidinone . It
9024-608: Was observed. Kidston's Parkinsonism was treated with levodopa but he died 18 months later from a cocaine overdose. Upon autopsy, Lewy bodies and destruction of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra were discovered. In 1983, four people in Santa Clara County, California , US, were diagnosed with Parkinsonism after having used MPPP contaminated with MPTP, and as many as 120 were reported to have been diagnosed with Parkinson's symptoms. The neurologist J. William Langston in collaboration with NIH tracked down MPTP as
9120-412: Was tested as a treatment for various conditions, but the tests were halted when Parkinson-like symptoms were noticed in monkeys. In one test of the substance, two of six human subjects died. MPTP is used in industry as a chemical intermediate; the chloride of the toxic metabolite MPP, cyperquat , has been used as a herbicide . While cyperquat is not used anymore, the closely related substance paraquat
9216-474: Was used for ritual purposes throughout prehistoric Europe. The use of entheogens for religious purposes resurfaced in the West during the counterculture movements of the 1960s and 70s. Under the leadership of Timothy Leary , new spiritual and intention-based movements began to use LSD and other hallucinogens as tools to access deeper inner exploration. In the United States, the use of peyote for ritual purposes
#654345