The Ishtar Gate was the eighth gate to the inner city of Babylon (in the area of present-day Hillah , Babil Governorate , Iraq ). It was constructed c. 569 BC by order of King Nebuchadnezzar II on the north side of the city. It was part of a grand walled processional way leading into the city.
134-420: The original structure was a double gate with a smaller frontal gate and a larger and more grandiose secondary posterior section. The walls were finished in glazed bricks mostly in blue, with animals and deities (also made up of coloured bricks) in low relief at intervals. The gate was 15 metres high, and the original foundations extended another 14 metres underground. German archaeologist Robert Koldewey led
268-421: A ceramic flux which functions by promoting partial liquefaction in the clay bodies and the other glaze materials. Fluxes lower the high melting point of the glass forms silica , and sometimes boron trioxide . Raw materials for ceramic glazes generally include silica, which will be the main glass former. Various metal oxides, such as those of sodium , potassium and calcium , act as flux and therefore lower
402-454: A different myth, The Return of Dumuzid Inanna instead mourns over Dumuzid's death and ultimately decrees that he will be allowed to return to Heaven to be with her for one half of the year. Dina Katz notes that the portrayal of their relationship in Inanna's Descent is unusual; it does not resemble the portrayal of their relationship in other myths about Dumuzi's death, which almost never pin
536-549: A distinct goddess linked to Ningishzida rather than to Ishtar. Another epithet highlighting this aspect of Ishtar's nature was Anunitu ("the martial one"). Like Irnina, Anunitu could also be a separate deity, and as such she is first attested in documents from the Ur III period. Assyrian royal curse-formulas invoked both of Ishtar's primary functions at once, invoking her to remove potency and martial valor alike. Mesopotamian texts indicate that traits perceived as heroic (such as
670-1537: A dragon. The Röhsska Museum in Gothenburg, Sweden, has one dragon and one lion; the Louvre , the State Museum of Egyptian Art in Munich, the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the Oriental Institute in Chicago, the Rhode Island School of Design Museum , the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, and the Yale University Art Gallery in New Haven, Connecticut, each have lions. A smaller reproduction of
804-562: A dual glaze, barium alternative to lead, but they were unsuccessful in achieving the same optical effect as leaded glazes. Ishtar Inanna is the ancient Mesopotamian goddess of love, war, and fertility. She is also associated with sensuality, procreation, divine law , and political power. Originally worshipped in Sumer , she was known by the Akkadian Empire , Babylonians , and Assyrians as Ishtar (and occasionally
938-651: A female deity who presided over the arts of love. Among the Akkadians, Assyrians, and Babylonians, the name of the male god eventually supplanted the name of his female counterpart, but, due to extensive syncretism with Inanna, the deity remained as female, although her name was in the masculine form. Inanna has posed a problem for many scholars of ancient Sumer due to the fact that her sphere of power contained more distinct and contradictory aspects than that of any other deity. Two major theories regarding her origins have been proposed. The first explanation holds that Inanna
1072-450: A giant dove emerging from a palm tree in the temple of Ishtar, indicating that the goddess herself was sometimes believed to take the form of a dove. Inanna was associated with the planet Venus , which is named after her Roman equivalent . Several hymns praise Inanna in her role as the goddess or personification of the planet Venus. Theology professor Jeffrey Cooley has argued that, in many myths, Inanna's movements may correspond with
1206-715: A god list from the Early Dynastic period , a hymn of Ishme-Dagan relaying how Enlil and Ninlil bestowed Inanna's powers upon her, a late syncretic hymn to Nanaya , and an Akkadian ritual from Hattusa . While some authors assert that in Uruk Inanna was usually regarded as the daughter of the sky god An , it is possible that references to him as her father are only referring to his status as an ancestor of Nanna and thus his daughter. In literary texts, Enlil or Enki may be addressed as her fathers but references to major gods being "fathers" can also be examples of
1340-429: A heavily armed warrior goddess with a lion as one of her attributes. Doves were also prominent animal symbols associated with Inanna/Ishtar. Doves are shown on cultic objects associated with Inanna as early as the beginning of the third millennium BCE . Lead dove figurines were discovered in the temple of Ishtar at Aššur, dating to the thirteenth century BCE and a painted fresco from Mari, Syria shows
1474-470: A king's ability to lead his troops and to triumph over enemies) and sexual prowess were regarded as interconnected. While generally classified as a goddess, Inanna/Ishtar could seem at times to have ambiguous gender. Gary Beckman states that "ambiguous gender identification" was a characteristic not just of Ishtar herself but of a category of deities he refers to as "Ishtar type" goddesses (such as Shaushka , Pinikir or Ninsianna ). A late hymn contains
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#17327656021421608-576: A low-relief design with a repeated pattern of images of two of the major gods of the Babylonian pantheon. Marduk , the national deity and chief god, with his servant dragon Mušḫuššu, is depicted as a dragon with a snake-like head and tail, a scaled body of a lion, and powerful talons for back feet. Marduk was seen as the divine champion of good against evil, and the incantations of the Babylonians often sought his protection. The second god shown in
1742-400: A more decorative, glassy look. A piece is fired first, this initial firing being called the glost firing , then the overglaze decoration is applied, and it is fired again. Once the piece is fired and comes out of the kiln, its texture is smoother due to the glaze. Other methods are firstly inglaze , where the paints are applied onto the glaze before firing, and then become incorporated within
1876-537: A reputation for engaging in anal sex with men. During the Akkadian Period, kurgarrū and assinnu were servants of Ishtar who dressed in female clothing and performed war dances in Ishtar's temples. Several Akkadian proverbs seem to suggest that they may have also had homosexual proclivities. Gwendolyn Leick, an anthropologist known for her writings on Mesopotamia, has compared these individuals to
2010-860: A specially designed kiln to re-create the correct color and finish. It was a double gate; the part that is shown in the Pergamon Museum today is the smaller, frontal part. The larger, back part was considered too large to fit into the constraints of the structure of the museum; it is in storage. Parts of the gate and animals from the Processional Way are in various other museums around the world. Only four museums acquired dragons, while lions went to several museums. The Istanbul Archaeology Museum has lions, dragons, and bulls. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek in Copenhagen, Denmark, has one lion, one dragon and one bull. The Detroit Institute of Arts houses
2144-460: A war deity. Inanna's twin brother was Utu (known as Shamash in Akkadian), the god of the sun and justice. In Sumerian texts, Inanna and Utu are depicted as extremely close; some modern authors even perceive their relationship as bordering on incestuous . In the myth of her descent into the underworld, Inanna addresses Ereshkigal , the queen of the underworld, as her "older sister," yet
2278-443: Is applied before the glaze, usually to unfired pottery ("raw" or "greenware") but sometimes to " biscuit "-fired (an initial firing of some articles before the glazing and re-firing). A wet glaze—usually transparent—is applied over the decoration. The pigment fuses with the glaze, and appears to be underneath a layer of clear glaze; generally the body material used fires to a whitish colour. The best known type of underglaze decoration
2412-475: Is attested in the most ancient texts from both Ebla and Mari . He considers her, a moon god (e.g., Sin ) and a sun deity of varying gender ( Shamash / Shapash ) to be the only deities shared between various early Semitic peoples of Mesopotamia and ancient Syria, who otherwise had different not necessarily overlapping pantheons. Gwendolyn Leick assumes that during the Pre-Sargonic era, the cult of Inanna
2546-514: Is described as donning seven accoutrements of lapis lazuli symbolizing her divine power. Once captured by the queen of the underworld, Inanna is described as being lapis lazuli, silver, and wood, two of these materials being key components in the construction of the Ishtar Gate. The creation of the gate out of wood and "lapis lazuli" linking the gate to being part of the Goddess herself. After
2680-668: Is emphasized in the later standard Akkadian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh in which Gilgamesh points out Ishtar's infamous ill-treatment of her lovers. However, according to assyriologist Dina Katz, the portrayal of Inanna's relationship with Dumuzi in the Descent myth is unusual. Inanna was also worshipped as one of the Sumerian war deities. One of the hymns dedicated to her declares: "She stirs confusion and chaos against those who are disobedient to her, speeding carnage and inciting
2814-456: Is eventually permitted to return to heaven for half the year, while his sister Geshtinanna remains in the underworld for the other half, resulting in the cycle of the seasons. Scholars believe that Inanna and Ishtar were originally separate, unrelated deities, but were conflated with one another during the reign of Sargon of Akkad and came to be regarded as effectively the same goddess under two different names. Inanna's name may derive from
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#17327656021422948-411: Is exposed to nitric acid ( HNO 3 ) PbO + 2 HNO 3 → Pb(NO 3 ) 2 + H 2 O Because lead exposure is strongly linked to a variety of health problems, collectively referred to as lead poisoning , the disposal of leaded glass (chiefly in the form of discarded CRT displays) and lead-glazed ceramics is subject to toxic waste regulations. Barium carbonate (BaCO 3 )
3082-467: Is frequently used as a prime example in the debate regarding repatriating artifacts of cultural significance to countries affected by war and whether these pieces of material culture are better off in a safer environment where they could be preserved. The example in the case of the Ishtar Gate is concerning its safety in the aftermath of the Iraq War , and whether or not the gate would be safer remaining at
3216-571: Is fully grown. The tree grows and matures, but the serpent "who knows no charm", the Anzû -bird, and Lilitu (Ki-Sikil-Lil-La-Ke in Sumerian), seen by some as the Sumerian forerunner to the Lilith of Jewish folklore, all take up residence within the tree, causing Inanna to cry with sorrow. The hero Gilgamesh , who, in this story, is portrayed as her brother, comes along and slays the serpent, causing
3350-564: Is not considered a safety hazard by the NIH . Experiments in strontium substitution tend to be successful in gloss type glazes, although there are some effects and colors produced in matte type glazes that can only be obtained through use of barium. To reduce the likelihood of leaching, barium carbonate is used in frit form and bound to silica in a 1:1 ratio. It is also recommended that barium glazes not be used on food contact surfaces or outdoor items. Chromium(III) oxide ( Cr 2 O 3 )
3484-456: Is pictured upon a blue enameled tile background and an orange coloured border that runs along the very bottom portion of the wall. Having a white body and yellow mane, the lion of Ishtar was an embodiment of vivid naturalism that further enhanced the glory of Babylon's Procession Street. The purpose of the New Year's holiday was to affirm the supremacy of Marduk and his representative on Earth,
3618-551: Is the blue and white porcelain first produced in China, and then copied in other countries. The striking blue color uses cobalt as cobalt oxide or cobalt carbonate . However many of the imitative types, such as Delftware , have off-white or even brown earthenware bodies, which are given a white tin-glaze and either inglaze or overglaze decoration. With the English invention of creamware and other white-bodied earthenwares in
3752-454: Is the better choice for a husband, arguing that, for every gift the farmer can give to her, the shepherd can give her something even better. In the end, Inanna marries Dumuzid. The shepherd and the farmer reconcile their differences, offering each other gifts. Samuel Noah Kramer compares the myth to the later Biblical story of Cain and Abel because both myths center around a farmer and a shepherd competing for divine favor and, in both stories,
3886-606: Is the most frequently invoked deity. In the Old Babylonian period, her main cult centers were Uruk, Zabalam, Agade, and Ilip. Her cult was also introduced from Uruk to Kish. During later times, while her cult in Uruk continued to flourish, Ishtar also became particularly worshipped in the Upper Mesopotamian kingdom of Assyria (modern northern Iraq , northeast Syria , and southeast Turkey ), especially in
4020-475: Is the result of a syncretism between several previously unrelated Sumerian deities with totally different domains. The second explanation holds that Inanna was originally a Semitic deity who entered the Sumerian pantheon after it was already fully structured, and who took on all the roles that had not yet been assigned to other deities. As early as the Uruk period ( c. 4000–3100 BCE ), Inanna
4154-579: Is used as a colorant in ceramic glazes. Chromium(III) oxide can undergo a reaction with calcium oxide (CaO) and atmospheric oxygen in temperatures reached by a kiln to produce calcium chromate ( CaCrO 4 ). The oxidation reaction changes chromium from its +3 oxidation state to its +6 oxidation state. Chromium(VI) is very soluble and the most mobile out of all the other stable forms of chromium. Cr 2 O 3 + 2CaO + 3 ⁄ 2 O 2 → CaCrO 4 Chromium may enter water systems via industrial discharge. Chromium(VI) can enter
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4288-546: Is used to create a unique glaze color known as barium blue. However, the ethical nature of using barium carbonate for glazes on food contact surfaces has come into question. Barium poisoning by ingestion can result in convulsions, paralysis, digestive discomfort, and death. It is also somewhat soluble in acid, and can contaminate water and soil for long periods of time. These concerns have led to attempts to substitute Strontium carbonate (SrCO 3 ) in glazes that require barium carbonate. Unlike Barium carbonate, Strontium carbonate
4422-492: The Anzû -bird and Lilitu to flee. Gilgamesh's companions chop down the tree and carve its wood into a bed and a throne, which they give to Inanna, who fashions a pikku and a mikku (probably a drum and drumsticks respectively, although the exact identifications are uncertain), which she gives to Gilgamesh as a reward for his heroism. The Sumerian hymn Inanna and Utu contains an etiological myth describing how Inanna became
4556-713: The Assyrians , who elevated her to become the highest deity in their pantheon, ranking above their own national god Ashur . Inanna/Ishtar is alluded to in the Hebrew Bible , and she greatly influenced the Ugaritic goddess Ashtart and later the Phoenician goddess Astarte , who in turn possibly influenced the development of the Greek goddess Aphrodite . Her cult continued to flourish until its gradual decline between
4690-488: The Early Dynastic period . Many god lists compiled by ancient scribes contained entire "Inanna group" sections enumerating similar goddesses, and tablet IV of the monumental god list An-Anum (7 tablets total) is known as the "Ishtar tablet" due to most of its contents being the names of Ishtar's equivalents, her titles and various attendants. Some modern researchers use the term Ishtar-type to define specific figures of this variety. Some texts contained references to "all
4824-532: The Huluppu Tree", found in the preamble to the epic of Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld (ETCSL 1.8.1.4 ), centers around a young Inanna, not yet stable in her power. It begins with a huluppu tree, which Kramer identifies as possibly a willow , growing on the banks of the river Euphrates . Inanna moves the tree to her garden in Uruk with the intention to carve it into a throne once it
4958-537: The Iraq War (see Impact of the U.S. military ). The acquisition of the Ishtar Gate by the Pergamon Museum is surrounded in controversy as the gate was excavated as part of the excavation of Babylon, and immediately shipped off to Berlin where it remains to this day. The government of Iraq has petitioned the German government to return the gate many times, notably in 2002 as well as in 2009. The Ishtar Gate
5092-529: The Old Babylonian period Bau , introduced from Lagash , became his spouse (an example of a couple consisting out of a warrior god and a medicine goddess, common in Mesopotamian mythology ) and Ishtar of Kish started to instead be worshipped on her own. Inanna is not usually described as having any offspring; however, in the myth of Lugalbanda , as well as in a single building inscription from
5226-522: The Pergamon Museum where it was damaged by bombs in World War II. 32°32′36″N 44°25′20″E / 32.54333°N 44.42222°E / 32.54333; 44.42222 Ceramic glaze Ceramic glaze , or simply glaze , is a glassy coating on ceramics. It is used for decoration, to ensure the item is impermeable to liquids and to minimise the adherence of pollutants. Glazing renders earthenware impermeable to water, sealing
5360-478: The Sumerian phrase nin-an-ak , meaning "Lady of Heaven", but the cuneiform sign for Inanna ( 𒈹 ) is not a ligature of the signs lady ( Sumerian : nin ; cuneiform: 𒊩𒌆 SAL.TUG 2 ) and sky (Sumerian: an ; cuneiform: 𒀭 AN). These difficulties led some early Assyriologists to suggest that Inanna may have originally been a Proto-Euphratean goddess, who was only later accepted into
5494-492: The Sumerian pantheon . This idea was supported by Inanna's youthfulness, as well as the fact that, unlike the other Sumerian divinities, she seems to have initially lacked a distinct sphere of responsibilities. The view that there was a Proto-Euphratean substrate language in Southern Iraq before Sumerian is not widely accepted by modern Assyriologists. The name Ishtar occurs as an element in personal names from both
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5628-470: The Third Dynasty of Ur ( c. 2112 – c. 2004 BCE ), the warrior god Shara is described as her son. She was also sometimes considered the mother of Lulal , who is described in other texts as the son of Ninsun . Wilfred G. Lambert described the relation between Inanna and Lulal as "close but unspecified" in the context of Inanna's Descent. There is also similarly scarce evidence for
5762-442: The aluminium and silica oxides in the body to form and deposit glass . To prevent the glazed article from sticking to the kiln during firing, either a small part of the item is left unglazed, or it is supported on small refractory supports such as kiln spurs and stilts . The supports are then removed and discarded after the firing. Small marks left by these spurs are sometimes visible on finished ware. Underglaze decoration
5896-488: The lion and the eight-pointed star . Her husband is the god Dumuzid (later known as Tammuz), and her sukkal (attendant) is the goddess Ninshubur , later conflated with the male deities Ilabrat and Papsukkal . Inanna was worshipped in Sumer at least as early as the Uruk period ( c. 4000 – 3100 BCE ), and her cultic activity was relatively localized before the conquest of Sargon of Akkad . During
6030-528: The logogram 𒌋𒁯 ). Her primary title is "the Queen of Heaven" . She was the patron goddess of the Eanna temple at the city of Uruk , her early main cult center. In archaic Uruk she was worshipped in three forms: morning Inanna (Inana-UD/hud), evening Inanna (Inanna sig) and princely Inanna (Inanna NUN), the former two reflecting the phases of her associated planet Venus . Her most prominent symbols include
6164-406: The seven judges of the underworld deem her guilty and strike her dead. Three days later, Ninshubur pleads with all the gods to bring Inanna back. All of them refuse her, except Enki, who sends two sexless beings to rescue Inanna. They escort Inanna out of the underworld but the galla , the guardians of the underworld, drag her husband Dumuzid down to the underworld as her replacement. Dumuzid
6298-573: The 120 lion friezes along the Procession Street, the Germans took 118. Walter Andrae played a key role in this endeavor using the strong links (or wasta ) that he had cultivated with German intelligence officers and with local Iraqi tribal sheikhs. The Gate's ceramic pieces were disassembled according to a complex numbering system and were then packed in straw in coal barrels in order to disguise them. These barrels were then transported down
6432-499: The 18th century, underglaze decoration became widely used on earthenware as well as porcelain. Overglaze decoration is applied on top of a fired layer of glaze, and generally uses colours in "enamel", essentially glass, which require a second firing at a relatively low temperature to fuse them with the glaze. Because it is only fired at a relatively low temperature, a wider range of pigments could be used in historic periods. Overglaze colors are low-temperature glazes that give ceramics
6566-497: The 1920s and 1930s for making uranium tile , watch, clock and aircraft dials. Uranium dioxide is produced by reducing uranium trioxide with hydrogen . Chromium oxidation during manufacturing processes can be reduced with the introduction of compounds that bind to calcium. Ceramic industries are reluctant to use lead alternatives since leaded glazes provide products with a brilliant shine and smooth surface. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has experimented with
6700-463: The Biblical book of Jeremiah , the prophet condemns Judean female refugees for worshipping the Queen of Heaven (a syncretism of Ishtar and Asherah) by baking cakes with the goddess's image upon them and pouring libations to her (Jer. Ch. 7 and 44). The women and their husbands defy him, and state that they will follow the practices of their ancestors, who performed these acts "in the towns of Judea and
6834-528: The Euphrates River to Shatt al-Arab , where they were loaded onto German ships and taken to Berlin. The rebuilding of Babylon's Ishtar Gate and Processional Way in Berlin was one of the most complex architectural reconstructions in the history of archaeology. Hundreds of crates of glazed brick fragments were carefully desalinated and then pieced together. Fragments were combined with new bricks fired in
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#17327656021426968-543: The Ishtar Gate. King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned 604–562 BC, the peak of the Neo-Babylonian Empire . He is known as the biblical conqueror who captured Jerusalem . He ordered the construction of the gate and dedicated it to the Babylonian goddess Ishtar . The gate was constructed using glazed brick with alternating rows of bas-relief mušḫuššu ( dragons ), aurochs (bulls), and lions, symbolizing
7102-575: The Ishtar Gate. Robert Koldewey, a successful German excavator, had done previous work for the Royal Museum of Berlin, with his excavations at Surghul (Ancient Nina) and Al-hiba (ancient Lagash ) in 1887. Koldewey's part in Babylon's excavation began in 1899. The method that the British were comfortable with was excavating tunnels and deep trenches, which was damaging the mud brick architecture of
7236-631: The Ishtars" of a given area. In later periods Ishtar's name was sometimes used as a generic term ("goddess") in Babylonia, while a logographic writing of Inanna was used to spell the title Bēltu , leading to further conflations. A possible example of such use of the name is also known from Elam , as a single Elamite inscription written in Akkadian refers to " Manzat -Ishtar", which might in this context mean "the goddess Manzat". The poem Enki and
7370-410: The Processional Way, which was lined with walls showing about 120 lions , bulls, dragons, and flowers on yellow and black glazed bricks, symbolizing the goddess Ishtar. The gate itself depicted only gods and goddesses. These included Ishtar, Adad, and Marduk. During celebrations of the New Year, statues of the deities were paraded through the gate and down the Processional Way. The front of the gate has
7504-638: The Sun, for many days at a time, and then reappears on the other horizon), some cultures did not recognize Venus as a single entity; instead, they assumed it to be two separate stars on each horizon: the morning and evening star. Nonetheless, a cylinder seal from the Jemdet Nasr period indicates that the ancient Sumerians knew that the morning and evening stars were the same celestial object. The discontinuous movements of Venus relate to both mythology as well as Inanna's dual nature. Modern astrologers recognize
7638-533: The World Order ( ETCSL 1.1.3 ) begins by describing the god Enki and his establishment of the cosmic organization of the universe. Towards the end of the poem, Inanna comes to Enki and complains that he has assigned a domain and special powers to all of the other gods except for her. She declares that she has been treated unfairly. Enki responds by telling her that she already has a domain and that he does not need to assign her one. The myth of "Inanna and
7772-465: The ancient Mesopotamians regarded as a symbol of power. Her associations with lions began during Sumerian times; a chlorite bowl from the temple of Inanna at Nippur depicts a large feline battling a giant snake and a cuneiform inscription on the bowl reads "Inanna and the Serpent", indicating that the cat is supposed to represent the goddess. During the Akkadian Period, Ishtar was frequently depicted as
7906-415: The ancient Near East worshipped Ishtar by dedicating to her cakes baked in ashes (known as kamān tumri ). A dedication of this type is described in an Akkadian hymn. Several clay cake molds discovered at Mari are shaped like naked women with large hips who are clutching their breasts. Some scholars have suggested that the cakes made from these molds were intended as representations of Ishtar herself. In
8040-405: The animal reliefs was also made from bricks formed by pressing clay into reusable molds. Seams between the bricks were carefully planned not to occur on the eyes of the animals or any other aesthetically unacceptable places. The bricks were sun-dried and then fired once before glazing. The clay was brownish red in this bisque-fired state. The background glazes are mainly a vivid blue, which imitates
8174-419: The barley harvest, at the time of the vernal equinox . This was the first day of the ancient month of Nisan , equivalent to today's date of March 20 or 21. The Processional Way, which has been traced to a length of over 800 meters, extended north from the Ishtar Gate and was designed with brick relief images of lions, the symbol of the goddess Ishtar (also known as Inanna) the war goddess, the dragon of Marduk,
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#17327656021428308-417: The blame for it on Inanna, but rather on demons or even human bandits. A large corpus of love poetry describing encounters between Inanna and Dumuzi has been assembled by researchers. However, local manifestations of Inanna/Ishtar were not necessarily associated with Dumuzi. In Kish , the tutelary deity of the city, Zababa (a war god), was viewed as the consort of a local hypostasis of Ishtar, though after
8442-499: The cities of Nineveh , Aššur , and Arbela (modern Erbil). During the reign of the Assyrian king Assurbanipal , Ishtar rose to become the most important and widely venerated deity in the Assyrian pantheon, surpassing even the Assyrian national god Ashur . Votive objects found in her primary Assyrian temple indicate that she was a popular deity among women. Individuals who went against the gender binary were heavily involved in
8576-540: The city of Agade. A hymn from that period addresses the Akkadian Ishtar as "Inanna of the Ulmaš" alongside Inanna of Uruk and of Zabalam. The worship of Ishtar and syncretism between her and Inanna was encouraged by Sargon and his successors, and as a result she quickly became one of the most widely venerated deities in the Mesopotamian pantheon. In inscriptions of Sargon, Naram-Sin , and Shar-Kali-Sharri , Ishtar
8710-443: The color of the highly prized lapis lazuli . Gold and brown glazes are used for animal images. The borders and rosettes are glazed in black, white, and gold. It is believed that the glaze recipe used plant ash, sandstone conglomerates, and pebbles for silicates. This combination was repeatedly melted, cooled, and then pulverized. This mixture of silica and fluxes is called a frit . Color-producing minerals, such as cobalt, were added in
8844-497: The conjunction, seven more days elapse before Venus appears as the morning star, corresponding to the ascent from the underworld. Inanna in her aspect as Anunītu was associated with the eastern fish of the last of the zodiacal constellations, Pisces . Her consort Dumuzi was associated with the contiguous first constellation, Aries . The Sumerians worshipped Inanna as the goddess of both warfare and love. Unlike other gods, whose roles were static and whose domains were limited,
8978-421: The contemporary Indian hijra . In one Akkadian hymn, Ishtar is described as transforming men into women. Throughout the latter half of the twentieth century, it was widely believed that the cult of Inanna involved a " sacred marriage " ritual, in which a king would establish his legitimacy by taking on the role of Dumuzid and engaging in ritual sexual intercourse with the high priestess of Inanna, who took on
9112-426: The cult of Inanna. During Sumerian times, a set of priests known as gala worked in Inanna's temples, where they performed elegies and lamentations. Men who became gala sometimes adopted female names, and their songs were composed in the Sumerian eme-sal dialect, which, in literary texts, is normally reserved for the speech of female characters. Some Sumerian proverbs seem to suggest that gala had
9246-482: The devastating flood, clothed in terrifying radiance. It is her game to speed conflict and battle, untiring, strapping on her sandals." Battle itself was occasionally referred to as the "Dance of Inanna". Epithets related to lions in particular were meant to highlight this aspect of her character. As a war goddess she was sometimes referred to with the name Irnina ("victory"), though this epithet could be applied to other deities as well, in addition to functioning as
9380-759: The different types of decoration. In such cases the first firing for the body, any underglaze decoration and glaze is typically followed by a second firing after the overglaze enamels have been applied. Heavy metals are dense metals used in glazes to produce a particular color or texture. Glaze components are more likely to be leached into the environment when non-recycled ceramic products are exposed to warm or acidic water. Leaching of heavy metals occurs when ceramic products are glazed incorrectly or damaged. Lead and chromium are two heavy metals which can be used in ceramic glazes that are heavily monitored by government agencies due to their toxicity and ability to bioaccumulate . Metals used in ceramic glazes are typically in
9514-440: The eight-pointed star. On boundary stones and cylinder seals , the eight-pointed star is sometimes shown alongside the crescent moon , which was the symbol of Sin (Sumerian Nanna) and the rayed solar disk , which was a symbol of Shamash (Sumerian Utu). Inanna's cuneiform ideogram was a hook-shaped twisted knot of reeds, representing the doorpost of the storehouse, a common symbol of fertility and plenty. The rosette
9648-453: The environment directly or oxidants present in soils can react with chromium(III) to produce chromium(VI). Plants have reduced amounts of chlorophyll when grown in the presence of chromium(VI). Uranium(IV) oxide ( U O 2 ) Urania-based ceramic glazes are dark green or black when fired in a reduction or when UO 2 is used; more commonly it is used in oxidation to produce bright yellow, orange and red glazes Uranium glazes were used in
9782-721: The excavation of the site from 1904 to 1914. After the end of the First World War in 1918, the smaller frontal gate was reconstructed in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin . Other panels from the façade of the gate are located in many other museums around the world. The façade of the Iraqi embassy in Beijing, China includes a replica of the Ishtar Gate. The façades of the Iraqi embassies in Amman, Jordan and Islamabad, Pakistan also evoke
9916-415: The final glaze formulations. This was then painted onto the bisque-fired bricks and fired to a higher temperature in a glaze firing. The creation of the gate out of wood and clay glazed to look like lapis lazuli could possibly be a reference to the goddess Inanna , who became syncretized with the goddess Ishtar during the reign of Sargon of Akkad. In the myth of Inanna's descent to the underworld, Inanna
10050-430: The first and sixth centuries CE in the wake of Christianity . Inanna appears in more myths than any other Sumerian deity. She also has a uniquely high number of epithets and alternate names, comparable only to Nergal . Many of her myths involve her taking over the domains of other deities. She is believed to have been given the mes , which represent all positive and negative aspects of civilization, by Enki ,
10184-647: The form of elaborate pottery . Tin-opacified glazing was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in Basra , dating to around the 8th century. Another significant contribution was the development of stoneware , originating from 9th century Iraq. Other places for innovative pottery in the Islamic world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600) and Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550). Glazes need to include
10318-746: The form of metal oxides. Ceramic manufacturers primarily use lead(II) oxide (PbO) as a flux for its low melting range, wide firing range, low surface tension, high index of refraction, and resistance to devitrification . Lead used in the manufacture of commercial glazes are molecularly bound to silica in a 1:1 ratio, or included in frit form, to ensure stabilization and reduce the risk of leaching. In polluted environments, nitrogen dioxide reacts with water ( H 2 O ) to produce nitrous acid ( HNO 2 ) and nitric acid ( HNO 3 ). H 2 O + 2 NO 2 → HNO 2 + HNO 3 Soluble Lead(II) nitrate ( Pb(NO 3 ) 2 ) forms when lead(II) oxide (PbO) of leaded glazes
10452-420: The foundation. Instead, it was suggested that the excavation team focus on tablets and other artefacts rather than pick at the crumbling buildings. Despite the destructive nature of the archaeology used, the recording of data was immensely more thorough than in previous Mesopotamian excavations. Walter Andrae, one of Koldewey's many assistants, was an architect and a draftsman, the first at Babylon. His contribution
10586-525: The gate was built in Iraq under Saddam Hussein as the entrance to a museum that has not been completed. Along with the restored palace, the gate was completed in 1987. The construction was meant to emulate the techniques that were used for the original gate. The replica appears similar to the restored original but is notably smaller. The purpose of the replica's construction was an attempt to reconnect to Iraq's history. Damage to this reproduction has occurred since
10720-440: The glaze . Other techniques include pouring the glaze over the piece, spraying it onto the piece with an airbrush or similar tool, or applying it directly with a tool such as a brush. Though mostly obsolete, salt glaze pottery is another form of glazing. Dry-dusting a mixture over the surface of the clay body or inserting salt or soda into the kiln at high temperatures creates an atmosphere rich in sodium vapor. This interacts with
10854-424: The glaze firing, the bricks were assembled, leaving narrow horizontal seams from one to six millimeters. The seams were then sealed with a naturally occurring black viscous substance called bitumen , like modern asphalt. The Ishtar Gate is only one small part of the design of ancient Babylon that also included the palace, temples, an inner fortress, walls, gardens, other gates, and the Processional Way. The lavish city
10988-672: The glaze layer during firing. This works well with tin-glazed pottery, such as maiolica , but the range of colours was limited to those that could withstand a glost firing, as with underglaze. Coloured glazes, where the pigments are mixed into the liquid glaze before it is applied to the pottery, are mostly used to give a single colour to a whole piece, as in most celadons , but can also be used to create designs in contrasting colours, as in Chinese sancai ("three-colour") wares, or even painted scenes. Many historical styles, for example Japanese Imari ware , Chinese doucai and wucai , combine
11122-465: The glazes have not been recovered. Natural ash glaze, however, was commonly used throughout the country. In the 13th century, flower designs were painted with red, blue, green, yellow and black overglazes. Overglazes became very popular because of the particular look they gave ceramics . From the eighth century, the use of glazed ceramics was prevalent in Islamic art and Islamic pottery , usually in
11256-523: The god of wisdom. She is also believed to have taken over the Eanna temple from An , the god of the sky. Alongside her twin brother Utu (later known as Shamash), Inanna is the enforcer of divine justice ; she destroyed Mount Ebih for having challenged her authority, unleashed her fury upon the gardener Shukaletuda after he raped her in her sleep, and tracked down the bandit woman Bilulu and killed her in divine retribution for having murdered Dumuzid. In
11390-478: The goddess of sex. At the beginning of the hymn, Inanna knows nothing of sex, so she begs her brother Utu to take her to Kur (the Sumerian underworld), so that she may taste the fruit of a tree that grows there, which will reveal to her all the secrets of sex. Utu complies and, in Kur, Inanna tastes the fruit and becomes knowledgeable. The hymn employs the same motif found in the myth of Enki and Ninhursag and in
11524-424: The goddesses Nanaya, Kanisurra , Gazbaba , and Bizila , all of them also associated with each other in various configurations independently from this context. In addition to the full conflation of Inanna and Ishtar during the reign of Sargon and his successors, she was syncretised with a large number of deities to a varying degree. The oldest known syncretic hymn is dedicated to Inanna, and has been dated to
11658-406: The gods Marduk , Adad , and Ishtar respectively. The roof and doors of the gate were made of cedar , according to the dedication plaque. The bricks in the gate were covered in a blue glaze meant to represent lapis lazuli , a deep-blue semi-precious stone that was revered in antiquity due to its vibrancy. The blue-glazed bricks would have given the façade a jewel-like shine. Through the gate ran
11792-473: The heavens, but, by the Old Babylonian Period ( c. 1830 – c. 1531 BCE ), it had come to be specifically associated with the planet Venus , with which Ishtar was identified. Starting during this same period, the star of Ishtar was normally enclosed within a circular disc. During later Babylonian times, slaves who worked in Ishtar's temples were sometimes branded with the seal of
11926-537: The inherent porosity of earthenware. It also gives a tougher surface. Glaze is also used on stoneware and porcelain . In addition to their functionality, glazes can form a variety of surface finishes, including degrees of glossy or matte finish and color. Glazes may also enhance the underlying design or texture either unmodified or inscribed, carved or painted. Most pottery produced in recent centuries has been glazed, other than pieces in bisque porcelain , terracotta , and some other types. Tiles are often glazed on
12060-409: The inscription plaque. It stands 14 m (46 ft) high and 30 m (100 ft) wide. The excavation ran from 1902 to 1914, and, during that time, 14 m (46 ft) of the foundation of the gate was uncovered. Claudius Rich , British resident of Baghdad and a self-taught historian, did personal research on Babylon because it intrigued him. Acting as a scholar and collecting field data, he
12194-462: The king, and to offer thanks for the fertility of the land. The Processional Way was paved with large stone pieces set in a bed of bitumen and was up to 66 feet (20 meters) wide at some points. This street ran from the Euphrates through the temple district and palaces and onto the Ishtar Gate. The inscription of the Ishtar Gate is written in Akkadian cuneiform in white and blue glazed bricks and
12328-461: The later Biblical story of Adam and Eve . The poem Inanna Prefers the Farmer (ETCSL 4.0.8.3.3 ) begins with a rather playful conversation between Inanna and Utu, who incrementally reveals to her that it is time for her to marry. She is courted by a farmer named Enkimdu and a shepherd named Dumuzid . At first, Inanna prefers the farmer, but Utu and Dumuzid gradually persuade her that Dumuzid
12462-478: The lord of the gods, and the bull of Adad, the storm god. Worshipped as the Mistress of Heaven, Ishtar represented the power of sexual attraction and was thought to be savage and determined. Symbolized by the star and her sacred animal, the lion, she was also the goddess of war and the protector of ruling dynasties and their armies. The idea of protection of the city is further incorporated into this gateway design by
12596-462: The love goddess Nanaya being regarded as her daughter, but it is possible all of these instances merely refer to an epithet indicating closeness between the deities and were not a statement about actual parentage. Inanna's sukkal was the goddess Ninshubur , whose relationship with Inanna is one of mutual devotion. In some texts, Ninshubur is listed right after Dumuzi as a member of Inanna's circle, even before some of her relatives; in one text
12730-410: The main entrance to the left and right, both containing the signature double door structure. Once per year, the Ishtar Gate and connecting Processional Way were used for a New Year's procession, which was part of a religious festival celebrating the beginning of the agricultural year. In Babylon, the rituals surrounding this holiday lasted twelve days. The New Year's celebrations started immediately after
12864-478: The melting temperature. Alumina , often derived from clay , stiffens the molten glaze to prevent it from running off the piece. Colorants, such as iron oxide , copper carbonate or cobalt carbonate , and sometimes opacifiers including tin oxide and zirconium oxide , are used to modify the visual appearance of the fired glaze. Most commonly, glazes in aqueous suspension of various powdered minerals and metal oxides are applied by dipping pieces directly into
12998-579: The mountains, replicating the rising and setting of Inanna to the West. In Inanna and Shukaletuda , Shukaletuda is described as scanning the heavens in search of Inanna, possibly searching the Eastern and Western horizons. In the same myth, while searching for her attacker, Inanna herself makes several movements that correspond with the movements of Venus in the sky. Because the movements of Venus appear to be discontinuous (it disappears due to its proximity to
13132-510: The movements of Venus across the sky. In Inanna's Descent to the Underworld , Inanna, unlike any other deity, is able to descend into the netherworld and return to the heavens. The planet Venus appears to make a similar descent, setting in the West and then rising again in the East. An introductory hymn describes Inanna leaving the heavens and heading for Kur , what could be presumed to be
13266-600: The name of Inanna are known, such as a bead in the name of King Aga of Kish c. 2600 BCE , or a tablet by King Lugal-kisalsi c. 2400 BCE : For An , king of all the lands, and for Inanna, his mistress, Lugal-kisalsi , king of Kish , built the wall of the courtyard. During the Akkadian period ( c. 2334–2154 BCE ), following the conquests of Sargon of Akkad , Inanna and originally independent Ishtar became so extensively syncretized that they became regarded as effectively
13400-537: The necessary temperatures was needed. Glazes first appeared on stone materials in the 4th millennium BC, and Ancient Egyptian faience ( fritware rather than a clay-based material) was self-glazing, as the material naturally formed a glaze-like layer during firing. Glazing of pottery followed the invention of glass around 1500 BC, in the Middle East and Egypt with alkali glazes including ash glaze , and in China, using ground feldspar . By around 100 BC lead-glazing
13534-415: The original patron deity of this fourth-millennium BCE city was An . After its dedication to Inanna, the temple seems to have housed priestesses of the goddess. Next to Uruk, Zabalam was the most important early site of Inanna worship, as the name of the city was commonly written with the signs MUŠ 3 and UNUG, meaning respectively "Inanna" and "sanctuary". It is possible that the city goddess of Zabalam
13668-432: The pattern of reliefs on the Ishtar Gate is Adad (also known as Ishkur), whose sacred animal was the aurochs , a now-extinct ancestor of cattle. Adad had power over destructive storms and beneficial rain. The design of the Ishtar Gate also includes linear borders and patterns of rosettes, often seen as symbols of fertility. The bricks of the Ishtar gate were made from finely textured clay pressed into wooden forms. Each of
13802-417: The phrase "Ninshubur, beloved vizier" appears. In another text Ninshubur is listed even before Nanaya , originally possibly a hypostasis of Inanna herself, in a list of deities from her entourage. In an Akkadian ritual text known from Hittite archives, Ishtar's sukkal is invoked alongside her family members Sin, Ningal, and Shamash. Other members of Inanna's entourage frequently listed in god lists are
13936-422: The phrase "she [Ishtar] is Enlil, she is Ninil" which might be a reference to occasionally "dimorphic" character of Ishtar, in addition to serving as an exaltation. A hymn to Nanaya alludes to a male aspect of Ishtar from Babylon alongside a variety of more standard descriptions. However, Ilona Zsolnay only describes Ishtar as a "feminine figure who performed a masculine role" in certain contexts, for example as
14070-532: The post-Sargonic era, she became one of the most widely venerated deities in the Sumerian pantheon, with temples across Mesopotamia . The cult of Inanna/Ishtar, which may have been associated with a variety of sexual rites , was continued by the East Semitic -speaking peoples ( Akkadians , Assyrians and Babylonians ) who succeeded and absorbed the Sumerians in the region. She was especially beloved by
14204-521: The pre- Sargonic and post-Sargonic eras in Akkad, Assyria, and Babylonia. It is of Semitic derivation and is probably etymologically related to the name of the West Semitic god Attar , who is mentioned in later inscriptions from Ugarit and southern Arabia. The morning star may have been conceived as a male deity who presided over the arts of war and the evening star may have been conceived as
14338-419: The report of contributions to Inanna at Uruk from cities supporting her cult. A large number of similar seals have been discovered from phase I of the Early Dynastic period ( c. 2900–2350 BCE ) at Ur , in a slightly different order, combined with the rosette symbol of Inanna. These seals were used to lock storerooms to preserve materials set aside for her cult. Various inscriptions in
14472-432: The role of the goddess. This view has been challenged, however, and scholars continue to debate whether the sacred marriage described in literary texts involved any kind of physical ritual enactment at all and, if so, whether this ritual enactment involved actual intercourse or merely the symbolic representation of intercourse. The scholar of the ancient Near East Louise M. Pryke states that most scholars now maintain, if
14606-468: The sacred marriage was a ritual that was actually acted out, then it involved only symbolic intercourse. The cult of Ishtar was long thought to have involved sacred prostitution , but this is now rejected among many scholars. Hierodules known as ishtaritum are reported to have worked in Ishtar's temples, but it is unclear if such priestesses actually performed any sex acts , and several modern scholars have argued that they did not. Women across
14740-412: The same. The Akkadian poet Enheduanna , the daughter of Sargon, wrote numerous hymns to Inanna, identifying her with Ishtar. As a result of this, the popularity of Inanna/Ishtar's cult skyrocketed. Alfonso Archi, who was involved in early excavations of Ebla, assumes Ishtar was originally a goddess venerated in the Euphrates valley, pointing out that an association between her and the desert poplar
14874-518: The standard Akkadian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh , Ishtar asks Gilgamesh to become her consort. When he disdainfully refuses, she unleashes the Bull of Heaven , resulting in the death of Enkidu and Gilgamesh's subsequent grapple with his own mortality. Inanna's most famous myth is the story of her descent into and return from the ancient Mesopotamian underworld , ruled by her older sister Ereshkigal . After she reaches Ereshkigal's throne room,
15008-403: The stories of Inanna describe her as moving from conquest to conquest. She is portrayed as young and impetuous, constantly striving for more power than had been allotted to her. While she was worshipped as the goddess of love, Inanna was not the goddess of marriage, nor was she ever viewed as a mother goddess. Andrew R. George goes as far as stating that "According to all mythology, Ištar
15142-406: The story of Inanna's descent into the underworld as a reference to an astronomical phenomenon associated with retrograde Venus. Seven days before retrograde Venus makes its inferior conjunction with the sun, it disappears from the evening sky. The seven day period between this disappearance and the conjunction itself is seen as the astronomical phenomenon on which the myth of descent was based. After
15276-413: The streets of Jerusalem" (Jer. 44:15-19). In Ezekiel 8:14, the prophet has a vision of the women of Jerusalem weeping for Tammuz. Inanna/Ishtar's most common symbol was the eight-pointed star, though the exact number of points sometimes varies; six-pointed stars also occur frequently, but their symbolic meaning is unknown. The eight-pointed star seems to have originally borne a general association with
15410-438: The surface face, and modern architectural terracotta is often glazed . Glazed brick is also common. Sanitaryware is invariably glazed, as are many ceramics used in industry, for example ceramic insulators for overhead power lines . The most important groups of traditional glazes, each named after its main ceramic fluxing agent, are: Glaze may be applied by spraying, dipping, trailing or brushing on an aqueous suspension of
15544-404: The temple of Esiskursiskur, the highest festival house of Marduk, the lord of the gods, a place of joy and jubilation for the major and minor deities, be built firm like a mountain in the precinct of Babylon of asphalt and fired bricks. A reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate and Processional Way was built at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin out of material excavated by Robert Koldewey . It includes
15678-498: The two goddesses almost never appear together elsewhere in Sumerian literature and were not placed in the same category in god lists. In some Neo-Assyrian sources, Ishtar is also associated with Adad , with the relationship mirroring that between Shaushka and her brother Teshub in Hurrian mythology . The most common tradition regarded Nanna and his wife Ningal as her parents. Examples of it are present in sources as diverse as
15812-483: The two twisted reeds of the doorpost, while the male figure holds a box and stack of bowls, the later cuneiform sign signifying the En , or high priest of the temple. Seal impressions from the Jemdet Nasr period ( c. 3100–2900 BCE ) show a fixed sequence of symbols representing various cities, including those of Ur , Larsa , Zabalam , Urum , Arina , and probably Kesh . This list probably reflects
15946-551: The unfired glaze. The colour of a glaze after it has been fired may be significantly different from before firing. To prevent glazed wares sticking to kiln furniture during firing, either a small part of the object being fired (for example, the foot) is left unglazed or, alternatively, special refractory " spurs " are used as supports. These are removed and discarded after the firing. Historically, glazing of ceramics developed rather slowly, as appropriate materials needed to be discovered, and also firing technology able to reliably reach
16080-556: The untiring Governor, who always has at heart the care of the cult of Esagila and Ezida and is constantly concerned with the well being of Babylon and Borsippa, the wise, the humble, the caretaker of Esagila and Ezida, the first born son of Nabopolassar, the King of Babylon, am I. Both gate entrances of the (city walls) Imgur-Ellil and Nemetti-Ellil following the filling of the street from Babylon had become increasingly lower. (Therefore,) I pulled down these gates and laid their foundations at
16214-425: The use of crenelated buttresses along both sides to this entrance into the city. Friezes with sixty ferocious lions representing Ishtar decorated each side of the Processional Way, designed with variations in the color of the fur and the manes. On the east side, they had a left foot forward, and on the west side, they had the right foot forward. Each lion was made of forty-six molded bricks in eleven rows. The lion
16348-403: The use of this word as an epithet indicating seniority. Dumuzid (later known as Tammuz), the god of shepherds, is usually described as Inanna's husband, but according to some interpretations Inanna's loyalty to him is questionable; in the myth of her descent into the Underworld, she abandons Dumuzid and permits the galla demons to drag him down into the underworld as her replacement. In
16482-438: The water table with asphalt and bricks and had them made of bricks with blue stone on which wonderful bulls and dragons were depicted. I covered their roofs by laying majestic cedars lengthwise over them. I fixed doors of cedar wood adorned with bronze at all the gate openings. I placed wild bulls and ferocious dragons in the gateways and thus adorned them with luxurious splendor so that Mankind might gaze on them in wonder. I let
16616-570: Was a dedication by Nebuchadnezzar to explain the gate's purpose. On the wall of the Ishtar Gate, the inscription is 15 meters tall by 10 meters wide and includes 60 lines of writing. The inscription was created around the same time as the gate's construction, around 605–562 BC. Inscription: Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, the pious prince appointed by the will of Marduk, the highest priestly prince, beloved of Nabu, of prudent deliberation, who has learnt to embrace wisdom, who fathomed Their (Marduk and Nabu) godly being and pays reverence to their Majesty,
16750-515: Was already associated with the city of Uruk . During this period, the symbol of a ring-headed doorpost was closely associated with Inanna. The famous Uruk Vase (found in a deposit of cult objects of the Uruk ;III period) depicts a row of naked men carrying various objects, including bowls, vessels, and baskets of farm products, and bringing sheep and goats to a female figure facing the ruler. The female stands in front of Inanna's symbol of
16884-472: Was another important symbol of Inanna, which continued to be used as a symbol of Ishtar after their syncretism. During the Neo-Assyrian Period (911 – 609 BCE ), the rosette may have actually eclipsed the eight-pointed star and become Ishtar's primary symbol. The temple of Ishtar in the city of Aššur was adorned with numerous rosettes. Inanna/Ishtar was associated with lions, which
17018-562: Was decorated with over 15 million baked bricks, according to estimates. The main gate led to the Southern Citadel, the gate itself seeming to be a part of Imgur-Bel and Nimitti-Bel, two of the most prominent defensive walls of Babylon. There were three primary entrances to the Ishtar Gate: the central entrance which contained the double gate structure (two sets of double doors, for a fourfold door structure), and doors flanking
17152-481: Was determined to discover the wonders to the ancient world. C. J. Rich's topographical records of the ruins in Babylon were the first ever published, in 1815. It was reprinted in England no fewer than three times. C. J. Rich and most other 19th-century visitors thought a mound in Babylon was a royal palace, and that was eventually confirmed by Robert Koldewey's excavations, who found two palaces of King Nebuchadnezzar and
17286-559: Was documentation and reconstruction of Babylon, and then later, the smuggling of the remains out of Iraq and into Germany. A small museum was built at the site, and Andrea was the museum's first director. As the German Oriental Society had provided such large funding for the project, the German archeologists involved felt that they needed to justify the cost by smuggling much of the material back to Germany. For example, of
17420-553: Was made earlier than glazed earthenware, since the Shang dynasty (1600 – 1046 BCE). During the Kofun period of Japan, Sue ware was decorated with greenish natural ash glazes . From 552 to 794 AD, differently colored glazes were introduced. The three colored glazes of the Tang dynasty were frequently used for a period, but were gradually phased out; the precise colors and compositions of
17554-414: Was not [...] temperamentally disposed" towards such functions. Julia M. Asher-Greve has even championed the significance of Inanna specifically because she is not a mother-goddess . As a love goddess, she was commonly invoked by Mesopotamians in incantations. In Inanna's Descent to the Underworld , Inanna treats her lover Dumuzid in a very capricious manner. This aspect of Inanna's personality
17688-536: Was originally a distinct deity, though one whose cult was absorbed by that of the Urukean goddess very early on. Joan Goodnick Westenholz proposed that a goddess identified by the name Nin-UM (reading and meaning uncertain), associated with Ishtaran in a zame hymn, was the original identity of Inanna of Zabalam. In the Old Akkadian period, Inanna merged with the Akkadian goddess Ishtar, associated with
17822-475: Was rather limited, though other experts argue that she was already the most prominent deity in Uruk and a number of other political centers in the Uruk period . She had temples in Nippur , Lagash , Shuruppak , Zabalam , and Ur , but her main cult center was the Eanna temple in Uruk , whose name means "House of Heaven" (Sumerian: e 2 -anna ; cuneiform: 𒂍𒀭 E 2 .AN). Some research assumes that
17956-729: Was widespread in the Old World . Glazed brick goes back to the Elamite Temple at Chogha Zanbil , dated to the 13th century BC. The Iron Pagoda , built in 1049 in Kaifeng , China , of glazed bricks is a well-known later example. Lead glazed earthenware was probably made in China during the Warring States period (475 – 221 BC), and its production increased during the Han dynasty. High temperature proto-celadon glazed stoneware
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