120-545: 42°21′48″N 71°05′28″W / 42.3633°N 71.091°W / 42.3633; -71.091 Moderna, Inc. ( / m ə ˈ d ɜːr n ə / mə- DUR -nə ) is an American pharmaceutical and biotechnology company based in Cambridge, Massachusetts , that focuses on RNA therapeutics , primarily mRNA vaccines . These vaccines use a copy of a molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA) to carry instructions for proteins to produce an immune response . The company's name
240-652: A cytomegalovirus vaccine , a Zika virus vaccine funded by the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority , and three cancer vaccines . The company's pipeline also includes a cell therapy -based treatment: a relaxin fusion protein being developed to treat acute decompensated heart failure . It also includes candidates that use OX40 ligand , interleukin 23 , IL36G , and interleukin 12 for cancer immunotherapy , specifically treatment of breast cancer , urothelial carcinoma , lymphoma , and melanoma . Also being developed by Moderna
360-491: A herbicide ), reduction of spoilage, or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents , biofuels , and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation . Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Between 1996 and 2011, the total surface area of land cultivated with GM crops had increased by a factor of 94, from 17,000 to 1,600,000 square kilometers (4,200,000 to 395,400,000 acres). 10% of
480-401: A maculopapular rash . Symptoms generally last less than seven days. It has not caused any reported deaths during the initial infection. Infection during pregnancy causes microcephaly and other brain malformations in some babies. Infection in adults has been linked to Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS) and Zika virus has been shown to infect human Schwann cells . Diagnosis is by testing
600-474: A plasmid vector inserted into the bacterium Escherichia coli . Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from the pancreas of abattoir animals (cattle or pigs). The genetically engineered bacteria are able to produce large quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost. Biotechnology has also enabled emerging therapeutics like gene therapy . The application of biotechnology to basic science (for example through
720-532: A 10-year partnership with the Government of Canada , Quebec , and McGill University to produce 100 million Spikevax doses annually and expand vaccine research capabilities. The plant is scheduled to supply COVID-19 vaccines in the fall of 2025. In February 2023, the company agreed to pay $ 400 million to the National Institutes of Health , Dartmouth College , and Scripps Research to settle
840-486: A 200,000 square foot facility in Norwood, Massachusetts for manufacturing, preclinical and clinical work. In December 2018, Moderna became a public company via the largest initial public offering of a biotechnology company in history, raising $ 621 million by selling 27 million shares at $ 23 per share. The first mRNA vaccine developed by Moderna was for influenza in 2015, and its first antibody encoded by mRNA
960-698: A Unified Database System) database is intended to help companies, interested private users and competent authorities to find precise information on the presence, detection and identification of GMOs used in the European Union . The information is provided in English. In 1988, after prompting from the United States Congress , the National Institute of General Medical Sciences ( National Institutes of Health ) (NIGMS) instituted
1080-461: A bacterium (of the genus Pseudomonas ) capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills. (Chakrabarty's work did not involve gene manipulation but rather the transfer of entire organelles between strains of the Pseudomonas bacterium). The MOSFET invented at Bell Labs between 1955 and 1960, Two years later, Leland C. Clark and Champ Lyons invented
1200-556: A blood-donor screening study during the French Polynesian Zika outbreak, in which 2.8% (42) of donors from November 2013 and February 2014 tested positive for Zika RNA and were all asymptomatic at the time of blood donation. Eleven of the positive donors reported symptoms of Zika fever after their donation, but only three of 34 samples grew in culture. Zika virus replicates in the mosquito's midgut epithelial cells and then its salivary gland cells. After 5–10 days,
1320-438: A child's parentage (genetic mother and father) or in general a person's ancestry . In addition to studying chromosomes to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader sense includes biochemical tests for the possible presence of genetic diseases, or mutant forms of genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders. Genetic testing identifies changes in chromosomes , genes, or proteins. Most of
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#17327801315311440-413: A consortium could be used as industrial microbes to produce precursors of the chemotherapeutic agent paclitaxel by applying the metabolic engineering in a co-culture approach to exploit the benefits from the two microbes. Another example of synthetic biology applications in industrial biotechnology is the re-engineering of the metabolic pathways of E. coli by CRISPR and CRISPRi systems toward
1560-401: A dispute over the rights to a chemical technique that was used in the vaccine. Arbutus Biopharma filed a patent infringement lawsuit against Moderna in 2022, alleging that Arbutus developed lipid nanoparticles that enclose Modern'a vaccine's mRNA payload. In April 2023, a court affirmed a decision to cancel a patent by Arbutus Biopharma in connection with the dispute. In April 2024, however,
1680-422: A drug's efficacy or toxicity . The purpose of pharmacogenomics is to develop rational means to optimize drug therapy, with respect to the patients' genotype , to ensure maximum efficacy with minimal adverse effects . Such approaches promise the advent of " personalized medicine "; in which drugs and drug combinations are optimized for each individual's unique genetic makeup. Biotechnology has contributed to
1800-452: A focus on "viral, bacterial and parasitic infectious diseases." Employees of Valera and Moderna developed an mRNA vaccine candidate against Zika virus infection. Another venture, Elpidera, was announced in May 2015 to continue work on RNA therapies advancing Moderna's work with Alexion. In 2015, the company formed a partnership with Merck & Co. to develop treatments for cancer, and in 2016
1920-410: A food source into another form. Before the time of Charles Darwin 's work and life, animal and plant scientists had already used selective breeding. Darwin added to that body of work with his scientific observations about the ability of science to change species. These accounts contributed to Darwin's theory of natural selection. For thousands of years, humans have used selective breeding to improve
2040-417: A funding mechanism for biotechnology training. Universities nationwide compete for these funds to establish Biotechnology Training Programs (BTPs). Each successful application is generally funded for five years then must be competitively renewed. Graduate students in turn compete for acceptance into a BTP; if accepted, then stipend, tuition and health insurance support are provided for two or three years during
2160-543: A greater degree by changes in precipitation and temperature than dengue, making it more likely to be confined to tropical areas. However, rising global temperatures would allow for the disease vector to expand its range further north, allowing Zika to follow. Zika can be transmitted from men and women to their sexual partners; most known cases involve transmission from symptomatic men to women. As of April 2016, sexual transmission of Zika has been documented in six countries – Argentina, Australia, France, Italy, New Zealand, and
2280-536: A harmful microbe are examples of environmental implications of biotechnology. Many cities have installed CityTrees , which use biotechnology to filter pollutants from urban atmospheres. The regulation of genetic engineering concerns approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the use of genetic engineering technology, and the development and release of genetically modified organisms (GMO), including genetically modified crops and genetically modified fish . There are differences in
2400-575: A human disease and spread in a mosquito–human–mosquito cycle, like the yellow fever virus and the dengue fever virus (both flaviviruses), and the chikungunya virus (a togavirus ). Though the reason for the pandemic is unknown, dengue, a related arbovirus that infects the same species of mosquito vectors , is known in particular to be intensified by urbanization and globalization . Zika is primarily spread by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, and can also be transmitted through sexual contact or blood transfusions . The basic reproduction number ( R 0 ,
2520-482: A lawsuit against Moderna Inc. in a U.S. federal court in Delaware , alleging that Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine Spikevax and RSV vaccine mResvia infringe on GSK’s patents related to messenger RNA (mRNA) technology. According to the complaint, Moderna's use of lipid nanoparticles—crucial for delivering fragile mRNA into the human body—violates several GSK patents covering similar delivery innovations. This lawsuit follows
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#17327801315312640-608: A measure of transmissibility) of Zika virus has been estimated to be between 1.4 and 6.6 . In 2015, news reports drew attention to the rapid spread of Zika in Latin America and the Caribbean. At that time, the Pan American Health Organization published a list of countries and territories that experienced "local Zika virus transmission" comprising Barbados, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
2760-548: A narrow equatorial belt from Africa to Asia. From 2007 to 2016 , the virus spread eastward, across the Pacific Ocean to the Americas, leading to the 2015–2016 Zika virus epidemic . The infection, known as Zika fever or Zika virus disease, often causes no or only mild symptoms, similar to a very mild form of dengue fever . While there is no specific treatment, paracetamol (acetaminophen) and rest may help with
2880-415: A notable advance in comparison with the lack of studies published in recent years in scientific journals by those companies. Krimsky, Sheldon (2015). "An Illusory Consensus behind GMO Health Assessment". Science, Technology, & Human Values . 40 (6): 883–914. doi : 10.1177/0162243915598381 . S2CID 40855100 . I began this article with the testimonials from respected scientists that there
3000-513: A number of articles some of which have strongly and negatively influenced the public opinion on GM crops and even provoked political actions, such as GMO embargo, share common flaws in the statistical evaluation of the data. Having accounted for these flaws, we conclude that the data presented in these articles does not provide any substantial evidence of GMO harm. The presented articles suggesting possible harm of GMOs received high public attention. However, despite their claims, they actually weaken
3120-434: A number of ecological benefits, if not used in excess. Insect-resistant crops have proven to lower pesticide usage, therefore reducing the environmental impact of pesticides as a whole. However, opponents have objected to GM crops per se on several grounds, including environmental concerns, whether food produced from GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to address the world's food needs, and economic concerns raised by
3240-552: A pathway which regulates growth of new neurons. In fruit flies, both NS4A and the neighboring NS4B restrict eye growth. Zika fever (also known as Zika virus disease) is an illness caused by Zika virus . Around 80% of cases are estimated to be asymptomatic, though the accuracy of this figure is hindered by the wide variance in data quality, and figures from different outbreaks can vary significantly. Symptomatic cases are usually mild and can resemble dengue fever . Symptoms may include fever , red eyes , joint pain , headache, and
3360-602: A promising method to combat malnutrition in India and other countries. Industrial biotechnology (known mainly in Europe as white biotechnology) is the application of biotechnology for industrial purposes, including industrial fermentation . It includes the practice of using cells such as microorganisms , or components of cells like enzymes , to generate industrially useful products in sectors such as chemicals, food and feed, detergents, paper and pulp, textiles and biofuels . In
3480-478: A pure microbiological culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing corn starch using Clostridium acetobutylicum , to produce acetone , which the United Kingdom desperately needed to manufacture explosives during World War I . Biotechnology has also led to the development of antibiotics. In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the mold Penicillium . His work led to the purification of
3600-492: A similar legal action GSK brought against Pfizer and BioNTech earlier in 2024, claiming patent infringement over their mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccine. GSK’s latest litigation seeks unspecified monetary damages from Moderna. Biotechnology Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary field that involves the integration of natural sciences and engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms and parts thereof for products and services. The term biotechnology
3720-513: A vaccine is unlikely to be widely available for about 10 years. In June 2016, the FDA granted the first approval for a human clinical trial for a Zika vaccine. In March 2017, a DNA vaccine was approved for phase-2 clinical trials. This vaccine consists of a small, circular piece of DNA, known as a plasmid, that expresses the genes for the Zika virus envelope proteins. As the vaccine does not contain
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3840-414: A wide range of procedures for modifying living organisms for human purposes, going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of plants, and "improvements" to these through breeding programs that employ artificial selection and hybridization . Modern usage also includes genetic engineering, as well as cell and tissue culture technologies. The American Chemical Society defines biotechnology as
3960-716: Is a regenerative medicine treatment that encodes vascular endothelial growth factor A to stimulate blood vessel growth for patients with myocardial ischemia . Moderna was founded in 2010 by Derrick Rossi , Timothy A. Springer , Kenneth R. Chien , Robert S. Langer , and Noubar Afeyan . Stéphane Bancel , the current CEO, was appointed as CEO in 2011. Between 2011 and 2017, Moderna raised $ 2 billion in venture capital funding. In November 2024, Moderna Inc. announced that Stéphane Bancel, currently serving as Chief Executive Officer, will step down from his role as Chief Commercial Officer while continuing as CEO. Moderna's President, Stephen Hoge, will take over responsibilities for
4080-480: Is a member of the virus family Flaviviridae . It is spread by daytime-active Aedes mosquitoes, such as A. aegypti and A. albopictus . Its name comes from the Ziika Forest of Uganda , where the virus was first isolated in 1947. Zika virus shares a genus with the dengue , yellow fever , Japanese encephalitis , and West Nile viruses. Since the 1950s, it has been known to occur within
4200-507: Is a rapidly evolving field with significant potential to address pressing global challenges and improve the quality of life for people around the world; however, despite its numerous benefits, it also poses ethical and societal challenges, such as questions around genetic modification and intellectual property rights . As a result, there is ongoing debate and regulation surrounding the use and application of biotechnology in various industries and fields. The concept of biotechnology encompasses
4320-635: Is based on the basic biological sciences (e.g., molecular biology , biochemistry , cell biology , embryology , genetics , microbiology ) and conversely provides methods to support and perform basic research in biology. Biotechnology is the research and development in the laboratory using bioinformatics for exploration, extraction, exploitation, and production from any living organisms and any source of biomass by means of biochemical engineering where high value-added products could be planned (reproduced by biosynthesis , for example), forecasted, formulated, developed, manufactured, and marketed for
4440-638: Is considered one of the essential cornerstones in industrial biotechnology due to its financial and sustainable contribution to the manufacturing sector. Jointly biotechnology and synthetic biology play a crucial role in generating cost-effective products with nature-friendly features by using bio-based production instead of fossil-based. Synthetic biology can be used to engineer model microorganisms , such as Escherichia coli , by genome editing tools to enhance their ability to produce bio-based products, such as bioproduction of medicines and biofuels . For instance, E. coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae in
4560-585: Is derived from the terms "modified", "RNA", and "modern". The company's commercial products are the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine , marketed as Spikevax and a RSV vaccine, marketed as Mresvia. The company has 44 treatment and vaccine candidates, of which 37 have entered clinical trials . Candidates include possible vaccines for influenza , HIV , Epstein–Barr virus , the Nipah virus , chikungunya , human metapneumovirus , varicella zoster virus , as well as
4680-597: Is expanding due to global trade and travel. A. aegypti distribution is now the most extensive ever recorded – on parts of all continents except Antarctica, including North America and even the European periphery ( Madeira , the Netherlands, and the northeastern Black Sea coast). A mosquito population capable of carrying Zika has been found in a Capitol Hill neighborhood of Washington, DC, and genetic evidence suggests they survived at least four consecutive winters in
4800-865: Is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the Department of Energy estimating ethanol usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030. The biotechnology sector has allowed the U.S. farming industry to rapidly increase its supply of corn and soybeans—the main inputs into biofuels—by developing genetically modified seeds that resist pests and drought. By increasing farm productivity, biotechnology boosts biofuel production. Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non-food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g., biodegradable plastics , vegetable oil , biofuels ), and environmental uses. For example, one application of biotechnology
4920-572: Is literally no scientific controversy over the health effects of GMOs. My investigation into the scientific literature tells another story. And contrast: Panchin, Alexander Y.; Tuzhikov, Alexander I. (January 14, 2016). "Published GMO studies find no evidence of harm when corrected for multiple comparisons". Critical Reviews in Biotechnology . 37 (2): 213–217. doi : 10.3109/07388551.2015.1130684 . ISSN 0738-8551 . PMID 26767435 . S2CID 11786594 . Here, we show that
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5040-673: Is the application of the principles of engineering and natural sciences to tissues, cells, and molecules. This can be considered as the use of knowledge from working with and manipulating biology to achieve a result that can improve functions in plants and animals. Relatedly, biomedical engineering is an overlapping field that often draws upon and applies biotechnology (by various definitions), especially in certain sub-fields of biomedical or chemical engineering such as tissue engineering , biopharmaceutical engineering , and genetic engineering . Although not normally what first comes to mind, many forms of human-derived agriculture clearly fit
5160-708: Is the directed use of microorganisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching . Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities ( bioremediation ), and also to produce biological weapons . A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example: In medicine, modern biotechnology has many applications in areas such as pharmaceutical drug discoveries and production, pharmacogenomics , and genetic testing (or genetic screening ). In 2021, nearly 40% of
5280-488: Is widely used in biomedical applications, such as the detection of DNA hybridization , biomarker detection from blood , antibody detection, glucose measurement, pH sensing, and genetic technology . By the mid-1980s, other BioFETs had been developed, including the gas sensor FET (GASFET), pressure sensor FET (PRESSFET), chemical field-effect transistor (ChemFET), reference ISFET (REFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET). By
5400-860: The Cook Islands , and New Caledonia . There was an epidemic in 2015 and 2016 in the Americas . The outbreak began in April ;2015 in Brazil , and spread to other countries in South America , Central America , North America , and the Caribbean . In January 2016, the WHO said the virus was likely to spread throughout most of the Americas by the end of the year; and in February 2016,
5520-634: The DNA of which has been modified with genetic engineering techniques. In most cases, the main aim is to introduce a new trait that does not occur naturally in the species. Biotechnology firms can contribute to future food security by improving the nutrition and viability of urban agriculture. Furthermore, the protection of intellectual property rights encourages private sector investment in agrobiotechnology. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, stressful environmental conditions, resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to
5640-705: The Food and Drug Administration approved clinical trials for the Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine candidate, and in December, the vaccine, mRNA-1273, was issued an emergency use authorization in the United States. In 2022, it gained FDA approval both for the monovalent vaccine , Spikevax , and a bivalent booster . In April 2022, Moderna announced plans to build a $ 180 million vaccine factory in Montreal , forming
5760-470: The Human Genome Project ) has also dramatically improved our understanding of biology and as our scientific knowledge of normal and disease biology has increased, our ability to develop new medicines to treat previously untreatable diseases has increased as well. Genetic testing allows the genetic diagnosis of vulnerabilities to inherited diseases , and can also be used to determine
5880-452: The 12-kDa capsid protein. The nucleocapsid, in turn, is enveloped within a host-derived membrane modified with two viral glycoproteins . Viral genome replication depends on the making of double-stranded RNA from the single-stranded, positive-sense RNA (ssRNA(+)) genome followed by transcription and replication to provide viral mRNAs and new ssRNA(+) genomes. A longitudinal study shows that 6 hours after cells are infected with Zika virus ,
6000-434: The 2013–2014 outbreak . The Asian strain appears to have first evolved around 1928. The vertebrate hosts of the virus were primarily monkeys in a so-called enzootic mosquito-monkey-mosquito cycle, with only occasional transmission to humans. Before 2007, Zika "rarely caused recognized 'spillover' infections in humans, even in highly enzootic areas". Infrequently, however, other arboviruses have become established as
6120-454: The CDC has advised men who have traveled to an area with Zika should use condoms or not have sex for at least six months after their return as the virus is still transmissible even if symptoms never develop. Zika virus can spread by vertical (or "mother-to-child") transmission , during pregnancy or at delivery. An infection during pregnancy has been linked to changes in neuronal development of
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#17327801315316240-474: The Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Martinique, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Puerto Rico, Saint Martin, Suriname, and Venezuela. By August 2016, more than 50 countries had experienced active (local) transmission of Zika virus . Zika is primarily spread by the female Aedes aegypti mosquito, which is active mostly in
6360-458: The EU and approval for import and processing. While only a few GMOs have been approved for cultivation in the EU a number of GMOs have been approved for import and processing. The cultivation of GMOs has triggered a debate about the coexistence of GM and non-GM crops. Depending on the coexistence regulations, incentives for the cultivation of GM crops differ. The EUginius (European GMO Initiative for
6480-902: The Indian Air Force in Kanpur tested positive for Zika virus, making it the first reported case in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh . On 22 March 2016, Reuters reported that Zika was isolated from a 2014 blood sample of an elderly man in Chittagong in Bangladesh as part of a retrospective study . Between August and November 2016, 455 cases of Zika virus infection were confirmed in Singapore . In 2023, 722 Zika virus cases were reported in Thailand. From 2019-2022
6600-449: The United States – during the 2015 outbreak. ZIKV can persist in semen for several months, with viral RNA detected up to one year. The virus replicates in the human testis, where it infects several cell types including testicular macrophages, peritubular cells and germ cells, the spermatozoa precursors. Semen parameters can be altered in patients for several weeks post-symptoms onset, and spermatozoa can be infectious. Since October 2016,
6720-518: The WHO declared the cluster of microcephaly and Guillain–Barré syndrome cases reported in Brazil – strongly suspected to be associated with the Zika outbreak – a Public Health Emergency of International Concern . It was estimated that 1.5 million people were infected by Zika in Brazil, with over 3,500 cases of microcephaly reported between October 2015 and January 2016. A number of countries issued travel warnings , and
6840-616: The ZIKV IgM antibodies. In 2017, Angola reported two cases of Zika fever. Zika was also occurring in Tanzania as of 2016. In April 2007, the first outbreak outside of Africa and Asia occurred on the island of Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia, characterized by rash, conjunctivitis, and arthralgia, which was initially thought to be dengue, chikungunya , or Ross River disease . Serum samples from patients in
6960-537: The acute phase of illness contained RNA of Zika. There were 49 confirmed cases, 59 unconfirmed cases, no hospitalizations, and no deaths. After October 2013 Oceania's first outbreak showed an estimated 11% population infected for French Polynesia that also presented with Guillain–Barre syndrome (GBS). The spread of ZIKV continued to New Caledonia, Easter Island, and the Cook Islands and where 1385 cases were confirmed by January 2014. During
7080-518: The antibiotic compound formed by the mold by Howard Florey , Ernst Boris Chain and Norman Heatley – to form what we today know as penicillin . In 1940, penicillin became available for medicinal use to treat bacterial infections in humans. The field of modern biotechnology is generally thought of as having been born in 1971 when Paul Berg's (Stanford) experiments in gene splicing had early success. Herbert W. Boyer (Univ. Calif. at San Francisco) and Stanley N. Cohen (Stanford) significantly advanced
7200-511: The application of biological organisms, systems, or processes by various industries to learning about the science of life and the improvement of the value of materials and organisms, such as pharmaceuticals, crops, and livestock . As per the European Federation of Biotechnology , biotechnology is the integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services. Biotechnology
7320-518: The blood, urine, or saliva for the presence of Zika virus RNA when the person is sick. In 2019, an improved diagnostic test, based on research from Washington University in St. Louis , that detects Zika infection in serum was granted market authorization by the FDA . Prevention involves decreasing mosquito bites in areas where the disease occurs, and proper use of condoms. Efforts to prevent bites include
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#17327801315317440-471: The broad definition of "utilizing a biotechnological system to make products". Indeed, the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise. Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution . Through early biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best-suited crops (e.g., those with
7560-581: The cell has been infected, the virus restructures the endoplasmic reticulum, forming the large vacuoles, resulting in cell death. There are two Zika lineages: the African lineage and the Asian lineage. Phylogenetic studies indicate that the virus spreading in the Americas is 89% identical to African genotypes, but is most closely related to the Asian strain that circulated in French Polynesia during
7680-455: The company formed a partnership with Vertex Pharmaceuticals to develop treatments for cystic fibrosis . In January 2016, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation committed to provide at least $ 20 million in grant funding to the company. In 2017, Alexion terminated its partnership with Moderna after safety issues prevented their work from reaching human trials. In July 2018, the company opened
7800-434: The company's sales, medical, and research affairs. In 2013, the company formed a partnership with AstraZeneca to develop treatments for cardiovascular, metabolic, and renal diseases, as well as cancer. Moderna was also awarded a $ 25,000,000 grant by DARPA through a program Autonomous Diagnostics to Enable Prevention and Therapeutics: Prophylactic Options to Environmental and Contagious Threats (ADEPT-PROTECT). Its stated goal
7920-407: The country and become the primary vector for the concomitant chikungunya and dengue virus outbreaks. New outbreaks can occur if a person carrying the virus travels to another region where A. albopictus is common. The potential societal risk of Zika can be delimited by the distribution of the mosquito species that transmit it. The global distribution of the most cited carrier of Zika, A. aegypti ,
8040-509: The course of their PhD thesis work. Nineteen institutions offer NIGMS supported BTPs. Biotechnology training is also offered at the undergraduate level and in community colleges. But see also: Domingo, José L.; Bordonaba, Jordi Giné (2011). "A literature review on the safety assessment of genetically modified plants" (PDF) . Environment International . 37 (4): 734–742. Bibcode : 2011EnInt..37..734D . doi : 10.1016/j.envint.2011.01.003 . PMID 21296423 . Archived (PDF) from
8160-490: The court issued an order that strengthened Arbutus's arguments by interpreting patents at issue in the manner Arbutus had urged. Several legal cases between Moderna and Pfizer and BioNTech in various countries, alleging that the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine violates the patent on Moderna's mRNA vaccine technology, are ongoing. In November 2024, British pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) filed
8280-445: The current decades, significant progress has been done in creating genetically modified organisms (GMOs) that enhance the diversity of applications and economical viability of industrial biotechnology. By using renewable raw materials to produce a variety of chemicals and fuels, industrial biotechnology is actively advancing towards lowering greenhouse gas emissions and moving away from a petrochemical-based economy. Synthetic biology
8400-613: The daytime. The mosquitos must feed on blood to lay eggs. The virus has also been isolated from a number of arboreal mosquito species in the genus Aedes , such as A. africanus , A. apicoargenteus , A. furcifer , A. hensilli , A. luteocephalus , and A. vittatus , with an extrinsic incubation period in mosquitoes around 10 days. The true extent of the vectors is still unknown. Zika has been detected in many more species of Aedes , along with Anopheles coustani, Mansonia uniformis , and Culex perfuscus , although this alone does not incriminate them as vectors. To detect
8520-488: The difference between beneficial biotechnology (e.g., bioremediation is to clean up an oil spill or hazard chemical leak) versus the adverse effects stemming from biotechnological enterprises (e.g., flow of genetic material from transgenic organisms into wild strains) can be seen as applications and implications, respectively. Cleaning up environmental wastes is an example of an application of environmental biotechnology ; whereas loss of biodiversity or loss of containment of
8640-458: The discovery and manufacturing of traditional small molecule pharmaceutical drugs as well as drugs that are the product of biotechnology – biopharmaceutics . Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 Genentech developed synthetic humanized insulin by joining its gene with
8760-402: The early 2000s, BioFETs such as the DNA field-effect transistor (DNAFET), gene-modified FET (GenFET) and cell-potential BioFET (CPFET) had been developed. A factor influencing the biotechnology sector's success is improved intellectual property rights legislation—and enforcement—worldwide, as well as strengthened demand for medical and pharmaceutical products. Rising demand for biofuels
8880-438: The evidence for the harm and lack of substantial equivalency of studied GMOs. We emphasize that with over 1783 published articles on GMOs over the last 10 years it is expected that some of them should have reported undesired differences between GMOs and conventional crops even if no such differences exist in reality. and Zika virus Zika virus ( ZIKV ; pronounced / ˈ z iː k ə / or / ˈ z ɪ k ə / )
9000-607: The fact these organisms are subject to intellectual property law. Biotechnology has several applications in the realm of food security. Crops like Golden rice are engineered to have higher nutritional content, and there is potential for food products with longer shelf lives. Though not a form of agricultural biotechnology, vaccines can help prevent diseases found in animal agriculture. Additionally, agricultural biotechnology can expedite breeding processes in order to yield faster results and provide greater quantities of food. Transgenic biofortification in cereals has been considered as
9120-468: The first biosensor in 1962. Biosensor MOSFETs were later developed, and they have since been widely used to measure physical , chemical , biological and environmental parameters. The first BioFET was the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET), invented by Piet Bergveld in 1970. It is a special type of MOSFET, where the metal gate is replaced by an ion -sensitive membrane , electrolyte solution and reference electrode . The ISFET
9240-416: The first forms of biotechnology. These processes also were included in early fermentation of beer . These processes were introduced in early Mesopotamia , Egypt , China and India , and still use the same basic biological methods. In brewing , malted grains (containing enzymes ) convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process, carbohydrates in
9360-512: The full sequence of the virus, it cannot cause infection. As of April 2017, both subunit and inactivated vaccines have entered clinical trials. The virus was first isolated in April 1947 from a rhesus macaque monkey placed in a cage in the Ziika Forest of Uganda , near Lake Victoria , by the scientists of the Yellow Fever Research Institute . A second isolation from the mosquito A. africanus followed at
9480-641: The genus Flavivirus , thus is related to the dengue , yellow fever , Japanese encephalitis , and West Nile viruses. Like other flaviviruses, Zika virus is enveloped and icosahedral and has a nonsegmented, single-stranded, 10 kilobase , positive-sense RNA genome . It is most closely related to the Spondweni virus and is one of the two known viruses in the Spondweni virus clade . A positive-sense RNA genome can be directly translated into viral proteins. As in other flaviviruses, such as
9600-416: The grains broke down into alcohols, such as ethanol. Later, other cultures produced the process of lactic acid fermentation , which produced other preserved foods, such as soy sauce . Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened bread . Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur 's work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert
9720-478: The highest yields) to produce enough food to support a growing population. As crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain, it was discovered that specific organisms and their by-products could effectively fertilize , restore nitrogen , and control pests . Throughout the history of agriculture, farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments and breeding them with other plants — one of
9840-420: The key techniques used in biotechnology is genetic engineering , which allows scientists to modify the genetic makeup of organisms to achieve desired outcomes. This can involve inserting genes from one organism into another, and consequently, create new traits or modifying existing ones. Other important techniques used in biotechnology include tissue culture, which allows researchers to grow cells and tissues in
9960-511: The lab for research and medical purposes, and fermentation , which is used to produce a wide range of products such as beer, wine, and cheese. The applications of biotechnology are diverse and have led to the development of essential products like life-saving drugs, biofuels , genetically modified crops, and innovative materials. It has also been used to address environmental challenges, such as developing biodegradable plastics and using microorganisms to clean up contaminated sites. Biotechnology
10080-606: The mRNA vaccine Mresvia was approved for medical use in the United States by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the prevention of lower respiratory tract disease caused by respiratory syncytial virus in individuals 60 years of age and older, the third RSV vaccine approved in the United States. From 2020 to 2021, Moderna received $ 955 million from Operation Warp Speed to accelerate development of its COVID-19 vaccine, with $ 4.9 billion committed in total for producing 300 million vaccine doses. In March 2020,
10200-669: The market, but in 2015 the FDA approved the first GM salmon for commercial production and consumption. There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation. GM crops also provide
10320-815: The methods of genetic engineering . These techniques have allowed for the introduction of new crop traits as well as a far greater control over a food's genetic structure than previously afforded by methods such as selective breeding and mutation breeding . Commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, when Calgene first marketed its Flavr Savr delayed ripening tomato. To date most genetic modification of foods have primarily focused on cash crops in high demand by farmers such as soybean , corn , canola , and cotton seed oil . These have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and better nutrient profiles. GM livestock have also been experimentally developed; in November 2013 none were available on
10440-435: The microcephaly phenotype and/or enhance damage during pregnancy, but it is unknown whether this occurs in humans. As of April 2016 , two cases of Zika transmission through blood transfusions have been reported globally, both from Brazil, after which the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommended screening blood donors and deferring high-risk donors for 4 weeks. A potential risk had been suspected based on
10560-542: The new technology in 1972 by transferring genetic material into a bacterium, such that the imported material would be reproduced. The commercial viability of a biotechnology industry was significantly expanded on June 16, 1980, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that a genetically modified microorganism could be patented in the case of Diamond v. Chakrabarty . Indian-born Ananda Chakrabarty , working for General Electric , had modified
10680-865: The number of new Zika virus cases in the Americas had fallen dramatically. On May 15, 2017, three cases of Zika virus infection in India were reported in the state of Gujarat . By late 2018, there had been at least 159 cases in Rajasthan and 127 in Madhya Pradesh . In July 2021, the first case of Zika virus infection in the Indian state of Kerala was reported. After the first confirmed case, 19 other people who had previously presented symptoms were tested, and 13 of those had positive results, showing that Zika had been circulating in Kerala since at least May 2021. By August 6th 2021, there had been 65 reported cases in Kerala. On October 22, 2021, an officer in
10800-404: The original on October 9, 2022. In spite of this, the number of studies specifically focused on safety assessment of GM plants is still limited. However, it is important to remark that for the first time, a certain equilibrium in the number of research groups suggesting, on the basis of their studies, that a number of varieties of GM products (mainly maize and soybeans) are as safe and nutritious as
10920-510: The outbreak was expected to significantly impact the tourism industry. Several countries took the unusual step of advising their citizens to delay pregnancy until more was known about the virus and its impact on fetal development. With the 2016 Summer Olympics hosted in Rio de Janeiro , health officials worldwide voiced concerns over a potential crisis, both in Brazil and when international athletes and tourists returned home and possibly would spread
11040-465: The patient affected is already taking treatment for another medical condition it is advisable to inform your attending physician before taking any other drug or additional treatment; The World Health Organization has suggested that priority should be to develop inactivated vaccines and other nonlive vaccines, which are safe to use in pregnant women. As of March 2016 , 18 companies and institutions were developing vaccines against Zika, but they state
11160-493: The presence of the virus usually requires genetic material to be analysed in a lab using the technique RT-PCR . A much cheaper and faster method involves shining a light at the head and thorax of the mosquito, and detecting chemical compounds characteristic of the virus using near-infrared spectroscopy . Transmission by A. albopictus , the tiger mosquito, was reported from a 2007 urban outbreak in Gabon, where it had newly invaded
11280-463: The production of a chemical known as 1,4-butanediol , which is used in fiber manufacturing. In order to produce 1,4-butanediol, the authors alter the metabolic regulation of the Escherichia coli by CRISPR to induce point mutation in the glt A gene, knockout of the sad gene, and knock-in six genes ( cat 1, suc D, 4hbd , cat 2, bld , and bdh ). Whereas CRISPRi system used to knockdown
11400-460: The production of crops and livestock to use them for food. In selective breeding, organisms with desirable characteristics are mated to produce offspring with the same characteristics. For example, this technique was used with corn to produce the largest and sweetest crops. In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology and explored ways of manufacturing specific products. In 1917, Chaim Weizmann first used
11520-441: The products). The utilization of biological processes, organisms or systems to produce products that are anticipated to improve human lives is termed biotechnology. By contrast, bioengineering is generally thought of as a related field that more heavily emphasizes higher systems approaches (not necessarily the altering or using of biological materials directly ) for interfacing with and utilizing living things. Bioengineering
11640-422: The purpose of sustainable operations (for the return from bottomless initial investment on R & D) and gaining durable patents rights (for exclusives rights for sales, and prior to this to receive national and international approval from the results on animal experiment and human experiment, especially on the pharmaceutical branch of biotechnology to prevent any undetected side-effects or safety concerns by using
11760-409: The region. The study authors conclude that mosquitos are adapting for persistence in a northern climate. Zika virus appears to be contagious via mosquitoes for around a week after infection. The virus is thought to be infectious for a longer period of time after infection (at least 2 weeks) when transmitted via semen . Research into its ecological niche suggests that Zika may be influenced to
11880-470: The regulation of GMOs between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe. Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of the products of the genetic engineering. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety. The European Union differentiates between approval for cultivation within
12000-404: The respective conventional non-GM plant, and those raising still serious concerns, was observed. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that most of the studies demonstrating that GM foods are as nutritional and safe as those obtained by conventional breeding, have been performed by biotechnology companies or associates, which are also responsible of commercializing these GM plants. Anyhow, this represents
12120-582: The same site in January 1948. When the monkey developed a fever, researchers isolated from its serum a "filterable transmissible agent" which was named Zika in 1948. Zika was first known to infect humans from the results of a serological survey in Uganda, published in 1952. Of 99 human blood samples tested, 6.1% had neutralizing antibodies. As part of a 1954 outbreak investigation of jaundice suspected to be yellow fever, researchers reported isolation of
12240-517: The same year, Easter Island acknowledged 51 cases. Australia began seeing cases in 2012. Research showed it was brought by travelers returning from Indonesia and other infected countries. New Zealand also experienced infections rate increases through returning foreign travelers. Oceania countries experiencing Zika today are New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, Marshall Islands, American Samoa, Samoa, and Tonga. Between 2013 and 2014, further epidemics occurred in French Polynesia , Easter Island ,
12360-468: The similarly sized West Nile virus, the RNA genome encodes seven nonstructural proteins and three structural proteins in the form of a single polyprotein ( Q32ZE1 ). One of the structural proteins encapsulates the virus. This protein is the flavivirus envelope glycoprotein, that binds to the endosomal membrane of the host cell to initiate endocytosis. The RNA genome forms a nucleocapsid along with copies of
12480-490: The symptoms. Admission to a hospital is rarely necessary. It is advised, for an affected person with the zika virus, to drink a lot of water to stay hydrated, to lie down, and to treat the fever and agony with liquid solutions; taking drugs like acetaminophen or paracetamol helps to relieve fever and pain. Referring to the US CDC it is not recommended to take anti-inflammatory and non-steroid drugs like aspirin for example. If
12600-645: The symptoms. As of April 2019, no vaccines have been approved for clinical use, however a number of vaccines are currently in clinical trials. Zika can spread from a pregnant woman to her baby. This can result in microcephaly , severe brain malformations , and other birth defects. Zika infections in adults may result rarely in Guillain–Barré syndrome . In January 2016, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued travel guidance on affected countries, including
12720-534: The three competing genes ( gab D, ybg C, and tes B) that affect the biosynthesis pathway of 1,4-butanediol. Consequently, the yield of 1,4-butanediol significantly increased from 0.9 to 1.8 g/L. Environmental biotechnology includes various disciplines that play an essential role in reducing environmental waste and providing environmentally safe processes, such as biofiltration and biodegradation . The environment can be affected by biotechnologies, both positively and adversely. Vallero and others have argued that
12840-542: The time, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders. The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing or passing on a genetic disorder . As of 2011 several hundred genetic tests were in use. Since genetic testing may open up ethical or psychological problems, genetic testing is often accompanied by genetic counseling . Genetically modified crops ("GM crops", or "biotech crops") are plants used in agriculture ,
12960-570: The total company value of pharmaceutical biotech companies worldwide were active in Oncology with Neurology and Rare Diseases being the other two big applications. Pharmacogenomics (a combination of pharmacology and genomics ) is the technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's response to drugs. Researchers in the field investigate the influence of genetic variation on drug responses in patients by correlating gene expression or single-nucleotide polymorphisms with
13080-432: The unborn child. Severe progressions of infection have been linked to the development of microcephaly in the unborn child, while mild infections potentially can lead to neurocognitive disorders later in life. Congenital brain abnormalities other than microcephaly have also been reported after a Zika outbreak. Studies in mice have suggested that maternal immunity to dengue virus may enhance fetal infection with Zika, worsen
13200-471: The use of DEET or picaridin - based insect repellent , covering much of the body with clothing, mosquito nets , and getting rid of standing water where mosquitoes reproduce. There is no vaccine . Health officials recommended that women in areas affected by the 2015–2016 Zika outbreak consider putting off pregnancy and that pregnant women not travel to these areas. While no specific treatment exists, paracetamol (acetaminophen) and rest may help with
13320-493: The use of enhanced precautions, and guidelines for pregnant women including considering postponing travel. Other governments or health agencies also issued similar travel warnings, while Colombia , the Dominican Republic , Puerto Rico , Ecuador , El Salvador , and Jamaica advised women to postpone getting pregnant until more is known about the risks. Zika virus belongs to the family Flaviviridae and
13440-408: The vacuoles and mitochondria in the cells begin to swell. This swelling becomes so severe, it results in cell death, also known as paraptosis. This form of programmed cell death requires gene expression. IFITM3 is a trans-membrane protein in a cell that is able to protect it from viral infection by blocking virus attachment. Cells are most susceptible to Zika infection when levels of IFITM3 are low. Once
13560-605: The virus can be found in the mosquito's saliva. If the mosquito's saliva is inoculated into human skin, the virus can infect epidermal keratinocytes, skin fibroblasts in the skin and the Langerhans cells . The pathogenesis of the virus is hypothesized to continue with a spread to lymph nodes and the bloodstream. Flaviviruses replicate in the cytoplasm , but Zika antigens have been found in infected cell nuclei. The viral protein numbered NS4A can lead to small head size ( microcephaly ) because it disrupts brain growth by hijacking
13680-411: The virus from a patient, but the pathogen was later shown to be the closely related Spondweni virus . Spondweni was also determined to be the cause of a self-inflicted infection in a researcher reported in 1956. Subsequent serological studies in several African and Asian countries indicated the virus had been widespread within human populations in these regions. The first true case of human infection
13800-488: The virus. Some researchers speculated that only one or two tourists might be infected during the three-week period, or approximately 3.2 infections per 100,000 tourists. In November 2016, the World Health Organization declared that Zika virus was no longer a global emergency while noting that the virus still represents "a highly significant and a long-term problem". As of August 2017
13920-507: The world's crop lands were planted with GM crops in 2010. As of 2011, 11 different transgenic crops were grown commercially on 395 million acres (160 million hectares) in 29 countries such as the US, Brazil , Argentina , India , Canada, China, Paraguay, Pakistan, South Africa, Uruguay, Bolivia, Australia, Philippines, Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Mexico and Spain. Genetically modified foods are foods produced from organisms that have had specific changes introduced into their DNA with
14040-451: Was first used by Károly Ereky in 1919 to refer to the production of products from raw materials with the aid of living organisms. The core principle of biotechnology involves harnessing biological systems and organisms, such as bacteria, yeast , and plants, to perform specific tasks or produce valuable substances. Biotechnology had a significant impact on many areas of society, from medicine to agriculture to environmental science . One of
14160-522: Was identified by Simpson in 1964, who was himself infected while isolating the virus from mosquitoes. From then until 2007, there were only 13 further confirmed human cases of Zika infection from Africa and Southeast Asia. A study published in 2017 showed that the Zika virus, despite only a few cases were reported, has been silently circulated in West Africa for the last two decades when blood samples collected between 1992 and 2016 were tested for
14280-552: Was in 2019. In 2023, Moderna acquired OriCiro Genomics, a Japanese manufacturer of genetic engineering tools, in its first acquisition. In early 2023, the company in collaboration with Merck won breakthrough status from the FDA for its mRNA-4157/V940 drug candidate, a cancer vaccine . In July 2023, the company entered into an agreement with the Chinese government to develop mRNA drugs for exclusive use in China . In May 2024,
14400-448: Was to develop an mRNA vaccine with the capability to suppress a global pandemic within 60 days. In January 2014, the company entered an agreement with Alexion Pharmaceuticals to develop treatments against ten diseases. On January 14, 2014, Moderna announced the creation of its first venture, Onkaido Therapeutics, to focus "exclusively on developing mRNA-based oncology treatments." It launched its second venture, Valera, in January 2015, with
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