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64-525: Moorland habitats mostly occur in tropical Africa , northern and western Europe , and South America . Most of the world's moorlands are diverse ecosystems . In the extensive moorlands of the tropics, biodiversity can be extremely high. Moorland also bears a relationship to tundra (where the subsoil is permafrost or permanently frozen soil), appearing as the tundra and the natural tree zone. The boundary between tundra and moorland constantly shifts with climatic change . Heathland and moorland are

128-511: A break in rainfall during mid-season when the Intertropical Convergence Zone or monsoon trough moves poleward of their location during the middle of the warm season; Typical vegetation in these areas ranges from moist seasonal tropical forests to savannahs . When the wet season occurs during the warm season, or summer , precipitation falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening hours. The wet season

192-580: A considerable part of upland moorland. Once valued and gathered for use in animal bedding, tanning, soap and glass making, and as a fertiliser, bracken is now seen as a pernicious, invasive, and opportunistic plant, taking over from the plants traditionally associated with open moorland and reducing easy access by humans. It is toxic to cattle, dogs, sheep, pigs, and horses, and is also linked to cancers in humans. It can harbour high levels of sheep ticks, which can pass on Lyme disease . Grazing provided some control by stock trampling, but this has almost ceased since

256-545: A problem in invading pasturelands that at one time the British government had an eradication programme. Special filters have even been used on some British water supplies to filter out the bracken spores. Bracken is a characteristic moorland plant in Ireland which over the last decades has increasingly out-competed characteristic ground-cover plants such as moor grasses , cowberry , bilberry , and heathers , and now covers

320-471: A sensitivity to nature and one's physical surroundings grew with the rise of interest in landscape painting , and particularly the works of artists that favoured wide and deep prospects, and rugged scenery. To the English Romantic imagination, moorlands fitted this image perfectly, enhancing the emotional impact of the story by placing it within a heightened and evocative landscape. Moorland forms

384-410: A staple food, and are known as aruhe . They were eaten by exploring or hunting groups away from permanent settlements. The plant was widely distributed across New Zealand as a result of prehistoric deforestation, and planting on rich soils, which produced the best rhizomes. The rhizomes were dried, and could be heated and softened with a pounder ( patu aruhe ), after which the starch could be sucked from

448-540: A warm microclimate for development of the immature stages. Climbing corydalis , wild gladiolus , and chickweed wintergreen also seem to benefit from the conditions found under bracken stands. The high humidity in the stands helps mosses survive underneath, including Campylopus flexuosus , Hypnum cupressiforme , Polytrichum commune , Pseudoscelopodium purum and Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus . Bracken fiddleheads have been eaten by many cultures throughout history, either fresh, cooked, or pickled. Pteridium aquilinum

512-425: Is moorland . The genus probably has the widest distribution of any fern in the world. The word bracken is of Old Norse origin, related to Swedish bräken and Danish bregne , both meaning fern. In the past, the genus was commonly treated as having only one species, Pteridium aquilinum , but the recent trend is to subdivide it into about ten species. Like other ferns, brackens do not have seeds or fruits, but

576-451: Is overgrazed , woody vegetation is often lost, being replaced by coarse, unpalatable grasses and bracken , with a greatly reduced fauna. Some hill sheep breeds, such as Scottish Blackface and the Lonk , thrive on the austere conditions of heather moors. Burning of moorland has been practised for a number of reasons, for example, when grazing is insufficient to control growth. This

640-423: Is a genus of large, coarse ferns in the family Dennstaedtiaceae . Ferns (Pteridophyta) are vascular plants that have alternating generations, large plants that produce spores and small plants that produce sex cells (eggs and sperm). Brackens are noted for their large, highly divided leaves. They are found on all continents except Antarctica and in all environments except deserts, though their typical habitat

704-416: Is a popular traditional dessert, although commercial variants are often made with cheaper potato starch instead. The fiddleheads are also preserved in salt, sake , or miso . In China, bracken is known as juecai (蕨菜), and is eaten like vegetables or preserved by drying. Also called "fernbrake", it is used as a vegetable in soups and stews. Bracken rhizomes can be ground into flour to make bread. In

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768-500: Is a time when air quality improves, freshwater quality improves and vegetation grows significantly due to the wet season supplementing flora, leading to crop yields late in the season. Floods and rains cause rivers to overflow their banks, and some animals to retreat to higher ground. Soil nutrients are washed away and erosion increases. The incidence of malaria increases in areas where the rainy season coincides with high temperatures. Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for

832-652: Is especially common in East Asian cuisine. In Korea, bracken (sometimes referred to as 'fernbrake' in Korean recipes) is known as gosari (고사리), and is a typical ingredient in bibimbap , a popular mixed rice dish. Stir-fried bracken ( gosari namul ) is also a common side dish ( banchan ) in Korea. In Japan, bracken is known as warabi (わらび), and is steamed, boiled, or cooked in soups. Warabimochi bracken jelly, named after its resemblance to mochi rice cakes,

896-947: Is home to an estimated 10–15% of the world's moors. Notable areas of upland moorland in Britain include the Lake District , the Pennines (including the Dark Peak and Forest of Bowland ), Mid Wales , the Southern Uplands of Scotland, the Scottish Highlands , and a few pockets in the West Country . Moorlands are called páramos in Spanish. They are particularly common in Northern Spain and

960-409: Is important for the material to be removed to avoid smothering regrowth. If heather and other vegetation are left for too long, a large volume of dry and combustible material builds up. This may result in a wildfire burning out a large area, although it has been found that heather seeds germinate better if subject to the brief heat of controlled burning. In terms of managing moorlands for wildlife, in

1024-472: Is often eaten, but it is unclear whether bracken plays a role. Consumption of ptaquiloside-contaminated milk is thought to contribute to human gastric cancer in the Andean states of Venezuela . The spores have also been implicated as carcinogens. However, ptaquiloside is water-soluble and destroyed in heat (by cooking) and alkaline conditions (by soaking). Korean and Japanese cooks have traditionally soaked

1088-494: Is recorded in Britain in the fourteenth century. Uncontrolled burning frequently caused (and causes) problems and was forbidden by statute in 1609. With the rise of sheep and grouse management in the nineteenth century, it again became common practice. Heather is burnt at about 10 or 12 years old when it will regenerate easily. Left longer, the woodier stems will burn more aggressively and will hinder regrowth. Burning of moorland vegetation needs to be very carefully controlled, as

1152-421: Is released by the young fronds of bracken when eaten by mammals or insects. Two major insect moulting hormones, alpha ecdysone and 20-hydroxyecdysone, are found in bracken. These cause uncontrollable, repeated moulting in insects ingesting the fronds, leading to rapid death. Bracken is currently under investigation as a possible source of new insecticides . Many sites have archaeological remains dating from

1216-542: Is slow to colonise healthy, well managed heather stands. Bracken presents a threat to biodiversity. Many plant species occur only on upland moorland, tied to unique features in the habitat. The loss and degradation of such areas due to the dominance of bracken has caused many species to become rare and isolated. Evolutionarily, bracken may be considered one of the most successful ferns. It is considered highly invasive , and can survive in acid soils . Woodland fungi such as Mycena epipterygia can be found growing under

1280-502: Is still used this way in Wales . It is also used as a winter mulch, which has been shown to reduce the loss of potassium and nitrogen in the soil, and to lower soil pH . Bracken contains the carcinogenic compound ptaquiloside , which causes damage to DNA, thus leading to cancers of the digestive tract. High stomach cancer rates are found in Japan and North Wales , where bracken

1344-585: Is that the tropics represent a ' Garden of Eden ', a heaven on Earth, a land of rich biodiversity or a tropical paradise. The alternative is that the tropics consist of wild, unconquerable nature. The latter view was often discussed in old Western literature more so than the first. Evidence suggests over time that the view of the tropics as such in popular literature has been supplanted by more well-rounded and sophisticated interpretations. Western scholars tried to theorise why tropical areas were relatively more inhospitable to human civilisations than colder regions of

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1408-524: The 2001 foot-and-mouth disease outbreak reduced commercial livestock production. Global climatic changes have also suited bracken well and contributed to its rapid increase in land coverage. Bracken is a well-adapted pioneer plant which can colonise land quickly, with the potential to extend its area by as much as 1%–3% per year. This ability to expand rapidly at the expense of other plants and wildlife can cause major problems for land users and managers. It colonises ground with an open vegetation structure, but

1472-605: The Andes as far south as the northernmost parts of Chile and Perú . The climate is changing in the tropics, as it is in the rest of the world. The effects of steadily rising concentrations of greenhouse gases on the climate may be less obvious to tropical residents, however, because they are overlain by considerable natural variability. Much of this variability is driven by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) . The Tropics has warmed by 0.7–0.8 °C over

1536-650: The Canary Islands , the rhizome was historically used to make a porridge called gofio . Both fronds and rhizomes have been used to produce beer in Siberia, and among indigenous peoples of North America. Bracken leaves are used in the Mediterranean region to filter sheep's milk, and to store freshly made ricotta cheese. P. esculentum rhizomes were traditionally used by the Māori people of New Zealand as

1600-528: The Meseta Central . Two similar habitats, although more arid, found in western North America: Colombia is one of only three countries in the world to be home to páramo (tropical moorland) and more than 60% of the paramo regions are found on its soil. Tropics The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator , where the sun may shine directly overhead . This contrasts with

1664-569: The Neolithic and Bronze Ages through to the Industrial Revolution . The root systems of established bracken stands degrade archaeological sites by disrupting the strata and other physical evidence. These rhizomes may travel a metre or more underground between fronds and form 90% of the plant, with only the remainder being visible. Some small level of scattered cover can provide beneficial habitats for some wildlife, at least in

1728-732: The Pantropic . The system of biogeographic realms differs somewhat; the Neotropical realm includes both the Neotropics and temperate South America, and the Paleotropics correspond to the Afrotropical , Indomalayan , Oceanian , and tropical Australasian realms . Flora are plants found in a specific region at a specific time. Some well-known plants that are exclusively found in, originate from, or are often associated with

1792-579: The Waterberg Biosphere of South Africa , and eastern Madagascar rainforests. Often the soils of tropical forests are low in nutrient content, making them quite vulnerable to slash-and-burn deforestation techniques, which are sometimes an element of shifting cultivation agricultural systems. In biogeography , the tropics are divided into Paleotropics (Africa, Asia and Australia) and Neotropics (Caribbean, Central America, and South America). Together, they are sometimes referred to as

1856-719: The axial tilt of the Earth . The Tropic of Cancer is the Northernmost latitude from which the Sun can ever be seen directly overhead , and the Tropic of Capricorn is the Southernmost. This means that the tropical zone includes everywhere on Earth which is a subsolar point at least once during the solar year . Thus the maximum latitudes of the tropics have equal distances from the equator on either side. Likewise, they approximate

1920-465: The temperate or polar regions of Earth, where the Sun can never be directly overhead. This is because of Earth's axial tilt ; the width of the tropics (in latitude) is twice the tilt. The tropics are also referred to as the tropical zone and the torrid zone (see geographical zone ). Due to the overhead sun, the tropics receive the most solar energy over the course of the year, and consequently have

1984-490: The 10th century AD, with numerous references in European texts, typically in relation to its use for soap and glass making. The turn to mined sources of potash in the industrial age ended significant use of bracken as a source of potash, contributing to its status as a troublesome weed. Bracken has traditionally been used for animal bedding, which later breaks down into a rich mulch that could be used as fertilizer. It

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2048-552: The Northern Hemisphere. A popular explanation focused on the differences in climate. Tropical jungles and rainforests have much more humid and hotter weather than colder and drier temperaments of the Northern Hemisphere, giving to a more diverse biosphere. This theme led some scholars to suggest that humid hot climates correlate to human populations lacking control over nature e.g. 'the wild Amazonian rainforests'. Bracken See text Bracken ( Pteridium )

2112-520: The UK (as given above). However, on balance, removing bracken encourages primary habitats to re-establish, which are of greater importance for wildlife. Control is a complex question with complex answers, which need to form part of a wider approach. Management can be difficult and expensive; plans may need to be about cost-effective, practical limitation and control rather than give an expectation for eradication. All methods need follow-up over time, starting with

2176-413: The UK, vegetation characteristics are important for passerine abundance, whilst predator control benefits red grouse, golden plover, and curlew abundances. To benefit multiple species, many management options are required. However, management needs to be carried out in locations that are also suitable for species in terms of physical characteristics such as topography, climate and soil. The development of

2240-450: The advancing areas first. Given the decades elapsed to arrive at the current levels of coverage on many sites, slowing or reversing the process will be also of necessity long-term, with consistency and persistence from all parties being key. Various techniques are recommended by Natural England and the RSPB to control bracken either individually or in combination RSPB Bracken management in

2304-399: The angle of the Earth's axial tilt. This angle is not perfectly fixed, mainly due to the influence of the moon, but the limits of the tropics are a geographic convention, and their variance from the true latitudes is very small. Many tropical areas have both a dry and a wet season. The wet season , rainy season or green season is the time of year, ranging from one or more months when most of

2368-491: The associated fauna consists of bird species such as red grouse , hen harrier , merlin , golden plover , curlew , skylark , meadow pipit , whinchat , ring ouzel , and twite . Other species dominate in moorlands elsewhere. Reptiles are few due to the cooler conditions. In Europe, only the common viper is frequent, though in other regions moorlands are commonly home to dozens of reptile species. Amphibians such as frogs are well represented in moorlands. When moorland

2432-459: The average annual rainfall in a region falls. Areas with wet seasons are disseminated across portions of the tropics and subtropics , some even in temperate regions. Under the Köppen climate classification , for tropical climates , a wet-season month is defined as one or more months where average precipitation is 60 mm (2.4 in) or more. Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons see

2496-422: The bracken canopy. Both Camarographium stephensii and Typhula quisquiliaris grow primarily from dead bracken stems. Bracken is known to produce and release allelopathic chemicals, which is an important factor in its ability to dominate other vegetation, particularly in regrowth after fire. Its chemical emissions, shady canopy, and thick litter inhibit other plant species from establishing themselves – with

2560-516: The center of the leaf. Pteridium aquilinum (bracken or common bracken) is the most common species with a cosmopolitan distribution , occurring in temperate and subtropical regions throughout much of the world. It is a prolific and abundant plant in the moorlands of Ireland, where it is limited to altitudes of below 600 metres. It does not like poorly drained marshes or fen. It has been observed growing in soils from pH 2.8 to 8.6. Exposure to cold or high pH inhibits its growth. It causes such

2624-538: The continued availability of Asulam for bracken control, following the decision not to register the product under new regulations in the EU. Registration has been re-applied for but this will not be available until 2017 at the earliest. Until re-registration is approved the Group will aim to keep Asulam available under the emergency provisions. Bracken Control Group website Bracken is commonly referred to by local populations in

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2688-564: The deforestation was caused by climatic changes and how much by human activity is uncertain. A variety of distinct habitat types are found in different world regions of moorland. The wildlife and vegetation forms often lead to high endemism because of the severe soil and microclimate characteristics. An example of this is the Exmoor Pony , a rare horse breed which has adapted to the harsh conditions in England's Exmoor . In Europe,

2752-431: The fibers. Patu aruhe were important ritual items, and several distinct styles were developed. Green bracken ferns average 25% potash and can contain as much as 55%. It has advantages over other sources of plant ash, such as hardwood, due to its high potash yield as a percentage of both dry and fresh mass, abundance, growth rate, and ease of harvesting. Bracken has been recognized as a source of potash since at least

2816-460: The geographic region; these usages ought not be confused. The Earth's axial tilt is currently around 23.4° , and therefore so are the latitudes of the tropical circles , marking the boundary of the tropics: specifically, ±23°26′09.8″ (or 23.43605°). The northern one is called the Tropic of Cancer , and the southern is the Tropic of Capricorn . As the Earth's axial tilt changes, so too do

2880-606: The highest temperatures on the planet. Even when not directly overhead, the sun is still close to overhead throughout the year, therefore the tropics also have the lowest seasonal variation on the planet; "winter" and "summer" lose their contrast. Instead, seasons are more commonly divided by precipitation variations than by temperature variations. The tropics maintain wide diversity of local climates, such as rain forests , monsoons , savannahs , deserts , and high altitude snow-capped mountains . The word "tropical" can specifically refer to certain kinds of weather , rather than to

2944-510: The immature fronds, known as fiddleheads , are sometimes eaten, although some are thought to be carcinogenic. Bracken is one of the oldest ferns, with fossil records over 55 million years old having been found. The plant sends up large, triangular fronds from a wide-creeping underground rootstock , and may form dense thickets . This rootstock may travel a meter or more underground between fronds. The fronds may grow up to 2.5 m (8 ft) long or longer with support, but typically are in

3008-961: The last century—only slightly less than the global average—but a strong El Niño made 1998 the warmest year in most areas, with no significant warming since. Climate models predict a further 1–2 °C warming by 2050 and 1–4 °C by 2100. Tropical plants and animals are those species native to the tropics. Tropical ecosystems may consist of tropical rainforests , seasonal tropical forests , dry (often deciduous) forests , spiny forests, deserts , savannahs, grasslands and other habitat types. There are often wide areas of biodiversity , and species endemism present, particularly in rainforests and seasonal forests. Some examples of important biodiversity and high-endemism ecosystems are El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico , Costa Rican and Nicaraguan rainforests, Amazon Rainforest territories of several South American countries, Madagascar dry deciduous forests ,

3072-476: The most extensive areas of semi-natural vegetation in the British Isles . The eastern British moorlands are similar to heaths but are differentiated by having a covering of peat . On western moors, the peat layer may be several metres thick. Scottish "muirs" are generally heather moors, but also have extensive covering of grass , cotton-grass , mosses , bracken and under-shrubs such as crowberry , with

3136-472: The occasional exception of plants which support rare butterflies. Herb and tree seedling growth may be inhibited even after bracken is removed, apparently because active plant toxins remain in the soil. Bracken substitutes the characteristics of a woodland canopy , and is important for giving shade to European plants such as common bluebell and wood anemone where the woodland does not exist. These plants are intolerant to stock trampling. Dead bracken provides

3200-458: The peat itself can catch fire, and this can be difficult if not impossible to extinguish. In addition, uncontrolled burning of heather can promote alternative bracken and rough grass growth, which ultimately produces poorer grazing. As a result, burning is now a controversial practice; Rackham calls it "second-best land management". Mechanical cutting of the heather has been used in Europe, but it

3264-464: The plant when other sources of food are unavailable, such as during droughts or after snowfalls. In cattle, bracken poisoning can occur in acute and chronic forms, acute poisoning being the most common. Milk from cows that have eaten bracken may also contain ptaquiloside, which is especially concentrated in buttermilk . In pigs and horses, bracken poisoning induces vitamin B1 deficiency. Hydrogen cyanide

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3328-432: The range of 0.6–2 m (2– 6 + 1 ⁄ 2  ft) high. In cold environments, bracken is deciduous and, as it requires well-drained soil, is generally found growing on the sides of hills. Fern spores are contained in structures found on the underside of the leaf called sori . The linear, leaf-edge pattern of these in bracken is different from that in most other ferns, where the sori are circular and occur towards

3392-475: The rhizomes store food for winter and hence absorb the poison. On archaeological sites, chemical control is usually required as mechanical methods may cause damage. Any bracken control programme must be completed, or bracken will re-establish. A Bracken Control Group was established in 2012 to provide best-practice guidance for all bracken control techniques. The Group has also been responsible for submitting an application for an Emergency Authorisation to secure

3456-797: The setting of various works of late Romantic English literature, ranging from the Yorkshire moorland in Emily Brontë 's Wuthering Heights and The Secret Garden by Frances Hodgson Burnett to Dartmoor in Arthur Conan Doyle 's Holmesian mystery The Hound of the Baskervilles . They are also featured in Charlotte Bronte 's Jane Eyre representing the heroine's desolation and loneliness after leaving Mr Rochester . Enid Blyton 's Famous Five series featured

3520-470: The shoots in water and ash to detoxify the plant before eating. Ptaquiloside also degenerates at room temperature, and denatures almost completely at boiling temperature. Despite this, moderation of consumption is still recommended to reduce chances of cancer formation. The British Royal Horticultural Society recommends against consumption of bracken altogether, by both humans and livestock. Ptaquiloside has been shown to leach from wild bracken plants into

3584-516: The tropical and polar circles . The tropics constitute 39.8% of Earth's surface area and contain 36% of Earth's landmass . As of 2014 , the region was home also to 40% of the world's population , and this figure was then projected to reach 50% by 2050. Because of global warming , the weather conditions of the tropics are expanding with areas in the subtropics , having more extreme weather events such as heatwaves and more intense storms. These changes in weather conditions may make certain parts of

3648-469: The tropics include: Tropicality refers to the image of the tropics that people from outside the tropics have of the region, ranging from critical to verging on fetishism. Tropicality gained renewed interest in geographical discourse when French geographer Pierre Gourou published Les pays tropicaux ( The Tropical World in English), in the late 1940s. Tropicality encompassed two major images. One,

3712-568: The tropics uninhabitable. The word "tropic" comes via Latin from Ancient Greek τροπή ( tropē ), meaning "to turn" or "change direction". The tropics are defined as the region between the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at 23°26′09.8″ (or 23.43605°) N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at 23°26′09.8″ (or 23.43605°) S; these latitudes correspond to

3776-526: The true story of some of England's most infamous witch trials. In Erin Hunter 's Warriors series, one of the four Clans, WindClan, lives in the moorland alone. Michael Jecks , author of Knights Templar Mysteries, sets his books in and around Dartmoor , England. Paul Kingsnorth ’s Beast is also set on a western English moor, using the barren landscape and fields of heather to communicate themes of timelessness and distance from civilization. Great Britain

3840-460: The uplands . Natural England recommends that only Asulam can be sprayed aerially, Glyphosate requires spot treatment, e.g. using a weedwiper or knapsack spray. The toxicity of Asulam is low and has been generally highly cost-effective but its use is now restricted by the EU after 2012, at least until specific registered uses can be defined. Selective sprays like Starane, Access, Metsulfuron 600WG, etc. work well but only if sprayed in late autumn so

3904-605: The water supply, which has been implicated in high rates of stomach and oesophageal cancers in areas with high bracken growth, such as Wales and South America. Uncooked bracken also contains the enzyme thiaminase , which breaks down thiamine (vitamin B1). Excessive consumption of bracken can lead to vitamin B1 deficiency ( beriberi ), especially in animals with simple stomachs. Ruminants are less vulnerable because they synthesize thiamine. Ptaquiloside from bracken has been shown to be carcinogenic in some animals. Animals may ingest

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3968-516: The wetter moorland having sphagnum moss merging into bog-land . There is uncertainty about how many moors were created by human activity. Oliver Rackham writes that pollen analysis shows that some moorland, such as in the islands and extreme north of Scotland, are clearly natural, never having had trees, whereas much of the Pennine moorland area was forested in Mesolithic times. How much

4032-726: The wetter regime. The previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. However, regions within the tropics may well not have a tropical climate. Under the Köppen climate classification, much of the area within the geographical tropics is classed not as "tropical" but as "dry" ( arid or semi-arid ), including the Sahara Desert , the Atacama Desert and Australian Outback . Also, there are alpine tundra and snow-capped peaks, including Mauna Kea , Mount Kilimanjaro , Puncak Jaya and

4096-509: The young protagonists adventuring across various moorlands where they confronted criminals or other individuals of interest. Such a setting enhanced the plot as the drama unfolded away from the functioning world where the children could solve their own problems and face greater danger. Moorland in the Forest of Bowland in Lancashire is the setting for Walter Bennett's The Pendle Witches ,

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