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114-766: It is located near the town of Węgorzewo and close to the border with the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia . A bunker complex, former headquarters of the Supreme Command of the Land Forces ( OKH ) from World War II , is located in Mamerki. Now it houses a museum. This Węgorzewo County location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Kaliningrad Oblast Kaliningrad Oblast ( Russian : Калининградская область , romanized :  Kaliningradskaya oblastʹ )

228-565: A papal bull forbidding the Teutonic Knights from declaring war on Lithuania. The Teutonic Order was worried by the response. The Kingdom of Poland, situated to the south, sheltered the monastic state and allowed it to grow throughout the unstable 15th century. After the order's annexation of Pomerania in 1309 and the Polish–Teutonic War of 1326–1332, Polish nobility grew hostile to the order. Their rejection compounded with

342-436: A Lithuanian tradition of "submonarchs" with Algirdas leading, rather than the historical belief that the two brothers ruled as equals. Soviet researchers avoided writing about Algirdas. The 1986 theory of Gudavičius's student Alvydas Nikžentaitis , that Gediminas was poisoned, challenged the accepted Soviet view of Lithuanian history. Perception of Lithuanian military strategy has changed as well, as historians discovered that

456-603: A Posener or Prussian by dialect and character? Distinct features hardly exist." While the north of East Prussia was overwhelmingly German, the south was majority Slavic and mostly composed of Poles and Masurians . There was also a slight Lithuanian majority in the north-eastern area of East Prussia, Lithuania Minor . Regional and local identities were particularly strong in East Prussia - local Polish population often identified with Masuria rather than Poland, and Prussian Lithuanians also did not actively identify themselves with

570-517: A breakdown by county. However, the majority of East Prussian Polish and Lithuanian inhabitants were Lutherans , not Catholics like their ethnic kinsmen across the border in the Russian Empire . Only in southern Warmia , Catholic Poles —so called Warmians (not to be confused with predominantly Protestant Masurians )—comprised the majority of population, numbering 26,067 people (~81%) in county Allenstein (Polish: Olsztyn ) in 1837. In

684-552: A climate gradually transitioning from oceanic to humid continental depending on distance from the Baltic Sea moderation. It remains very mild by Russian standards with winters above freezing without the hot summers associated with the Russian interior on similar latitudes. The local climate is slightly wetter than similar latitudes farther west, but infrequent ice days lead to low snow accumulation regardless. Anton Alikhanov

798-634: A decisive, swift coup against the Teutonic Order, which gave the order time to defend their remaining positions. With the Peace of Thorn of 1411, the Teutonic Order agreed to release Samogitia and make reparations for razed fortifications. The order stopped making incursions against the Lithuanians, who had by then mostly converted to Christianity due to Polish influence. But the order succeeded in negotiating for lighter sanctions overall thanks to

912-536: A direct threat until the 1280s. By that time, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was already a centralized state and could mount defenses. For the next century, the order organized annual colonialist reise (raids) into Samogitian and Lithuanian lands, without great success but at immense human cost. Border regions in Samogitia and Suvalkija became sparsely inhabited wilderness due to ethnic cleansing , although

1026-662: A great number of German Catholics, are willing to vote for a Polish party candidate". By the end of the 19th century, East Prussia had a significant Polish minority, and German nationalist circles warned of the prospect of Polonization of East Prussia. The perceived weakness of Germanness of East Prussia was also reinforced by the Ostflucht , as East Prussia suffered from both under-industrialisation and rural overpopulation. After 1876, farm prices in East Prussia fell by 20 percent, which encouraged local landowners to hire foreign workers from Congress Poland , incidentally strengthening

1140-467: A lesser extent also Ukrainians and Belarusians. Some historians speculate that it may have originally been offered to the Lithuanian SSR because the resolution from the conference specifies that Kaliningrad's border would be at the (pre-war) Lithuanian frontier. According to some historians , Joseph Stalin created it as an oblast separate from the Lithuanian SSR because it further separated

1254-658: A monument to Stalin stood on Victory Square. In 1973, the town hall was turned into the House of Soviets. In 1975, the trolleybus was launched again. In 1980, a concert hall was opened in the building of the former Lutheran Church of the Holy Family. In 1986, the Kreuzkirche building was transferred to the Russian Orthodox Church. In 1957, an agreement was signed and later came into force which delimited

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1368-482: A power-sharing treaty with the federal government, granting them autonomy. However, this agreement was abolished on 31 May 2002. After 1991, some ethnic Germans emigrated to the area, such as Volga Germans from other parts of Russia and Kazakhstan . These Germans are overwhelmingly Russian-speaking and as such were rejected for resettlement within Germany under Germany's new rules. A similar migration by Poles from

1482-712: Is adjacent to the Baltic Sea should pass from a point on the eastern shore of the Bay of Danzig to the east, north of Braunsberg  – Goldep , to the meeting point of the frontiers of Lithuania , the Polish Republic and East Prussia . The Conference has agreed in principle to the proposal of the Soviet Government concerning the ultimate transfer to the Soviet Union of the city of Koenigsberg and

1596-535: Is divided between German, Lithuanian, and Polish sources and is usually dedicated to recording political events. Primary source material is difficult to interpret because of biased descriptions each side used of the other to petition for foreign support. These propagandistic accounts are exemplified in Peter of Dusburg 's 14th century writings like the Chronicon terrae Prussiae , which confused historical research on

1710-544: Is the 230 m (750 ft) Gora Dozor hill near the tripoint of the Poland–Russia border / Lithuania–Russia border . As a semi-exclave of Russia, it is surrounded by Poland ( Pomeranian and Warmian-Masurian Voivodeships ), Lithuania ( Klaipėda , Marijampolė , and Tauragė Counties ) and the Baltic Sea. The end of the river Neman forms part of the Lithuania–Russia border . Notable geographical features include

1824-546: Is the westernmost federal subject of the Russian Federation , in Central and Eastern Europe . It is a semi-exclave situated on the Baltic Sea . The oblast is surrounded by two European Union and NATO members: Poland to the south and Lithuania to the north and east. The largest city and administrative centre of the province ( oblast ) is the city of Kaliningrad , formerly known as Königsberg . Half of

1938-683: The Battle of Saule near Šiauliai —the Livonian Brothers of the Sword suffered a disastrous defeat. Only 10% of their army survived and more than 48 of their knights were killed. In light of their defeat and outstanding debts, the order was forced to become a branch of the Teutonic Order called the Livonian Order . The military campaigns of the reformed Livonian Order against Lithuanians were still unsuccessful. Even with support from

2052-1082: The Curonian Lagoon (shared with Lithuania) and the Vistula Lagoon (shared with Poland). The oblast's largest river is the Pregolya . The river starts as a confluence of the Instruch and the Angrapa and drains into the Baltic Sea through the Vistula Lagoon. Its length, strictly under the name "Pregolya", is 123 km (76 mi); when including the Angrapa, is it 292 km (181 mi) long. Major cities and towns include: † Pre-1946 (the German-language names were also used in English in this period) Kaliningrad Oblast has

2166-667: The Grand Duchy of Moscow and needed more freedom for military action. Vytautas transferred his rights to Samogitia to the Teutonic Order in the Treaty of Salynas of 1398. The act was also ratified by Jagiełło as king of Poland in 1404. The leaders of the Teutonic Order were skeptical and uncertain about their future in the region after Jogaila accepted the Polish crown and Christianity while maintaining close ties to Lithuania. These doubts created ideological and military problems for

2280-580: The Iberian Peninsula , intent on conquest or reconquest. The Lithuanian rulers vehemently disputed the concept of baptism and regularly carried out raids and conquests on Germanic lands. As a result, the order became focused on suppressing them as a potent, pagan enemy. However, the Teutonic argument for the conversion of Lithuanian pagans became, by the end, mostly a pretext for expansion. Although they had concentrated their efforts toward

2394-542: The Kaunas Castle , which was situated well within the borders of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. That success marked the beginning of a period of mutual devastation that only ended when both adversaries were significantly weakened. Between 1362 and 1370, the crusaders made 20 "punitive expeditions" into Lithuania. (They would complete 52 by 1382.) In response, Kęstutis and Algirdas gathered military contingents from all of Lithuania, from Russian feudal lords faithful to

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2508-453: The Neman in Samogitia and attacked the castle of Pilėnai . Seeing their defeat, the defenders burned the fortress's goods and killed themselves. Once the fortress was conquered, the Teutonic Knights replaced it with a new fortification they baptized Bayernburg ( Raudonpilis ) in honor of Henry XIV. They hoped the fort would serve as a foothold for further campaigns into the region. After

2622-514: The Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War . The order began by invading Greater Poland and seizing many castles. In the fall of 1409, a brief armistice was negotiated with the mediation of Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia . On July 15, 1410, the combatants met in the historic Battle of Grunwald . The Teutonic Order was soundly defeated and entered a period of crisis. Despite his advantage after his victory, Polish king Jagiełło did not pursue

2736-547: The Potsdam Agreement of 1 August 1945, the city became part of the Soviet Union pending the final determination of territorial borders at an anticipated peace settlement. This final determination eventually took place on 12 September 1990 when the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany was signed. The excerpt from the initial agreement pertaining to the partition of East Prussia, including

2850-532: The State of the Teutonic Order exacerbated the conflict, and the conquests of both sides were often short-lived or haphazard. In 1283, chronicler Peter of Dusburg noted that the Teutonic Order finalized its conquest of Prussia and of the Yotvingians . Some Yotvingians retreated to Lithuania, and some the crusaders deported to Sambia. The Lithuanian Crusade began in the winter of 1283. The first target of

2964-567: The Stutthof concentration camp , the Oflag 52, Oflag 60 and Dulag Luft prisoner-of-war camps , and a camp for Romani people in Königsberg (see Romani Holocaust ). On 29 August 1944, Soviet troops reached the border of East Prussia. By January 1945, they had taken all of East Prussia except for the area around Königsberg. Many inhabitants fled west at this time. During the last days of

3078-586: The Teutonic State , as it had with Prussia, but those plans faced strong Lithuanian resistance. The Teutonic Order's principal objective was to conquer the Lithuanian lowland region, Samogitia, and build fortresses there to solidify their control. Like a wedge, Samogitia separated the territories conquered by the Teutonic Order and those conquered by the Livonian Order. By subjecting Samogitia,

3192-580: The 1230s they settled in Chełmno Land , a fief of Poland. They first conquered other neighboring Baltic tribes — Curonians , Semigallians , Latgalians , Selonians , and Old Prussians —in the Livonian Crusade and Prussian Crusade . The first raid against the Lithuanians and Samogitians was in 1208. From then on, the orders played a key role in Lithuanian politics, but they were not

3306-574: The 1264 siege of Vėluva (Wehlau) castle in Sambia during the reign of Treniota and the revenge taken against Poland for the Yotvingians, led by Vaišvilkas and Švarnas . Only in 1283, after the reconquest of the Prussians, did the Teutonic Order focus its campaigns on the fragile, newly formed Kingdom of Lithuania . The Teutonic Order initially planned to incorporate all of Lithuania into

3420-645: The 12th century, St. Bernard of Clairvaux wrote that the killing of pagans was also justified: "The Christian glories in the death of the pagan, because Christ is glorified." Only in the 15th century, with the Council of Constance , would that view be contested and a discussion on the rights of pagans begun. Lithuania itself accepted various religions—during the reign of kings Mindaugas and Gediminas , Franciscan and Dominican monasteries had already been established in Lithuania with Lithuanian monks. In his letters to

3534-765: The 1800s on, the Lithuanian crusade was minimized or recounted in single favorable episodes, such as the Battle of Rudau or the construction of settlements by German colonists. The conflict is represented in the opposite way in Lithuania today. Through the Middle Ages, Lithuanian historians like Jan Długosz based their work on the Lithuanian Chronicles . The chronicles comprise combinations of documents (known as redactions ) that reflect official state interpretations of Lithuanian history. The chronicles made arguments for Lithuanian nationalism by connecting

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3648-536: The 19th century, East Prussia was commonly viewed by German commentators as culturally backwards and a part of the "German mission in the East" rather than a core German territory. Pan-Germanist politician Ernst Hasse criticised the lack of folk identity and imagined community : "It is the case that there is almost no common folk identity [Landsmannschaften] among the Poseners and Prussians at all. [...] Who can recognise

3762-638: The Baltic states from the West. Others think that the reason was that the region was far too strategic for the USSR to leave it in the hands of another SSR other than the Russian one. In the 1950s, Nikita Khrushchev offered the entire Kaliningrad Oblast to the Lithuanian SSR but Antanas Sniečkus refused to accept the territory because it would add at least a million ethnic Russians to Lithuania proper. In

3876-494: The Battle of Aizkraukle. In 1313, the Livonian Order captured Dynaburg Castle, which the Lithuanians had controlled since 1281. To better demarcate and defend its eastern border against the Lithuanian advances, the Teutonic Order took to erecting small fortresses and fortified houses . The garrisons often contained a few knights with more soldiers and squires. The defenders left only to raid Lithuanian lands. The forts were menacing just because of their strategic location. Some of

3990-475: The Council of Constance, the order had to justify its military actions. The situation became so financially precarious for the order that it had to cut military spending, a drastic shift compared to previous centuries. The Lithuanian borders were only stabilized after the brief Gollub War in 1422, with the Treaty of Melno . The demarcations of the treaty would remain unchanged for nearly 500 years and end with

4104-535: The French. The Court of Prussia fled to Königsberg, asking for Russian help. Russia intervened, leading to the bloody Battle of Eylau and Battle of Friedland in 1807. Following a French victory in the latter, both sides signed the Treaties of Tilsit . In 1817, East Prussia had 796,204 Protestants , 120,123 Catholics , 2,389 Jews , and 864 Mennonites . In 1824, shortly before its merger with West Prussia ,

4218-607: The Germans fail. Moreover, both these national minorities in East Prussia are bound to the soil by centuries of tradition: they are not comparative new-comers like the majority of the Germans there. For these reasons, the Poles and Lithuanians in that province hardly ever emigrate from the land of their birth, especially as the emigration in question is not so attractive for them as for the Germans: proceeding to central or western Germany,

4332-510: The Germans to send many troops to their East provinces. Later, Hindenburg and Ludendorff pushed Russia back at the battle of Tannenberg , thereby liberating East Prussia from Russian troops. Yet Russian troops remained in the easternmost part of the region until early 1915. During World War II, the Hohenbruch concentration camp  [ de ] was operated at modern Gromovo mostly for Polish prisoners, as well as several subcamps of

4446-475: The Germans, and rarely emigrated. Discussing the situation in East Prussia, Polish geographer Stanisław Srokowski remarked: The Poles who live in the southern and western parts of East Prussia and the Lithuanians of the north-west have succeeded better than the Germans in reconciling their mode of life with their earnings. This has, of course, led to a lower standard of life, but it has enabled them to adapt themselves to actual conditions and even to prosper where

4560-536: The Holy Land (1095–1291) Later Crusades (1291–1717) Northern (1147–1410) Against Christians (1209–1588) Popular (1096–1320) The Lithuanian Crusade was a series of campaigns by the Teutonic Order and the Livonian Order under the pretext of forcibly Christianizing the pagan Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The Livonian Order occupied Riga in 1202 and in

4674-624: The Kaliningrad Oblast used to be inhabited by the Old Prussians and other Western Balts , prior to the Teutonic conquest in the early Late Middle Ages . Afterwards, it was settled by Germans (especially the western part), Lithuanians (especially Lithuania Minor ) and Poles (especially Königsberg , Polish : Królewiec , and the current southern border strip). The Old Prussians became extinct due to Germanisation in

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4788-614: The Kingdom of Prussia and annex the territory, which was then to be offered to Poland as part of a territorial exchange desired by Russia. The territory was occupied and annexed by Russia in 1758 during the Seven Years' War before being returned to Prussia in 1762 when Russia switched sides in the war . It was then reorganized into the province of East Prussia within the Kingdom of Prussia in 1773. The current oblast also contains

4902-586: The Lithuanian Palemonids dynasty to the rule of Ancient Rome . The historiographic record also includes the personal letters of the Lithuanian rulers Gediminas, Algirdas, and Vytautas, which were often written in Old Church Slavonic, German, or Greek. These political accounts are supplemented by cultural records like those of Michalo Lituanus and Simonas Daukantas . Samogitian writers have exalted local deeds of heroism because

5016-410: The Lithuanian capital, Vilnius , and populous Trakai . The Lithuanians retaliated with sporadic raids. A new phase began in 1377 with the death of Algirdas. In Lithuania, a power struggle erupted between Algirdas's sons, Kęstutis, and Kęstutis's son Vytautas . Alternating alliances were forged with former opponents to the north and west since the question of Christian conversion had lost energy in

5130-661: The Lithuanian military threat. In 1454, following a request by the anti-Teutonic Prussian Confederation , the territory was incorporated to the Kingdom of Poland by King Casimir IV Jagiellon , an event that sparked the Thirteen Years' War (1454–1466) . After Poland's victory in the war with the Second Peace of Thorn , the State of the Teutonic Order became a vassal of Poland, also considered an integral part of "one and indivisible" Kingdom of Poland. During this war,

5244-414: The Lithuanian nation. Moreover, confessional identity often prevailed over the national one - German authorities were concerned about the "Catholic-Polish axis"; German Catholics were alienated from the German nation because of the Kulturkampf legislation, and tended to support the Polish national movement. An East German newspaper Thorner Zeitung reported in 1871 that "not only Polish Catholics, but also

5358-412: The Lithuanian occupation of the Klaipėda region in 1923. The Teutonic Order was eager to install itself in Samogitia, and the Lithuanians sought to dissuade them, but both failed. Not only did both lack long-term planning, but the Lithuanians also lacked support among the other feudal lords of eastern Europe. Only particularly energetic grand princes, such as Vytenis around 1311, succeeded in uniting

5472-450: The Polish element in the region. The increased Slavic immigration to the region generated by the requirement of the Junkers for cheap labour and better economic conditions in West Germany caused many German inhabitants to leave the region. Most Germans moved to work in the industrial heartland of western Germany, while others migrated abroad. Poles and Lithuanians of East Prussia also had much higher birth-rate and natural increase rates than

5586-533: The Prussian revolts of 1283, the Teutonic Order sent military units to Semigallia and Skalvia , then under Lithuanian control. Several years of relative calm followed until the Teutonic Order decided to strike at Samogitia. The Teutonic Knights organized around 20 raids into the region. Vytenis took measures to undermine the influence of local Samogitian nobles, evidenced by an increasing number of traitors and refugees. The Livonian Order consolidated its control over Semigallia, where Lithuanians had garrisons since

5700-433: The Soviet era, the city was completely closed and, with the exception of rare visits of friendship from neighboring Poland, it was practically not visited by foreigners. In 1950, there were 1,165,000 inhabitants, which was only half the number of the pre-war population. The old city was not restored, and the ruins of the Königsberg Castle were demolished in the late 1960s, on Leonid Brezhnev 's personal orders, despite

5814-401: The Teutonic Order , the Teutonic State began a period of quiet growth and avoided disagreements with the Kingdom of Poland. In 1358, Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV expressed a desire for peace if the Lithuanian sovereign would accept Christianity. Algirdas stipulated the complete withdrawal of the Teutonic Order from the Baltic region, which Charles IV rejected because he needed support from

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5928-405: The Teutonic Order due to their dispute over the dominion of Pomerania . As a result, Łokietek stipulated an anti-Teutonic defensive military pact with Gediminas in 1330–1331. In the winter of 1329, King John of Bohemia formed an army to participate in the crusade. Strengthened by this support, the knights of the order were able to capture several important fortresses in Samogitia. Conflicts with

6042-411: The Teutonic Order founded the city of Königsberg (modern Kaliningrad), naming it in honour of Ottokar II of Bohemia . The Northern Crusades , including the Lithuanian Crusade , were partly motivated by colonization . The German colonist peasants, craftsmen, and merchants were predominantly concentrated in the southern part of the Teutonic State and did not move into Nadruvia and Skalvia due to

6156-405: The Teutonic Order's Prussian branch and established himself as ruler of the Duchy of Prussia , the first Protestant state in Europe. Königsberg was the residence of the Duke of Prussia from 1525 until 1701, and was the Duchy of Prussia's capital until 1660, when the capital moved to Berlin . Polish and Lithuanian culture blossomed in Königsberg, with the city being the place of publication of

6270-400: The Teutonic Order, Vytautas considered resuming hostilities. Although the papal bull of 1403 ordered concessions to the feudal lords of Lithuanian regions, the order was not charitable. In order-controlled territories, Lithuanian discontent grew due to the ecclesiastical tithes and the restrictive regime imposed by the merchants of the Teutonic State. When it imposed a new round of tributes on

6384-480: The Teutonic Order, the Christian Livonians suffered major defeats in the battles of Durbe (1260), Karuse (1270), and Aizkraukle (1279). These losses weakened the Teutonic Order, allowing for the Great Prussian Uprising . When the converted king of Lithuania, Mindaugas, was assassinated in 1263, the region entered an era of instability. Lithuanians supported the Prussian uprisings and arranged military raids together with Prussians and Yotvingians. These included

6498-420: The Teutonic disdain for the Lithuanians was famously exemplified by their "gift" of the Grunwald Swords before their disastrous loss at the Battle of Grunwald. Major battles were the exceptions in the conflict. The Teutonic Order undertook around 300 military campaigns between 1305 and 1409. The Lithuanians made only 45 incursions into the Teutonic State. The oldest historiography around the Lithuanian crusades

6612-416: The Teutons was Bisenė on the western Lithuanian border. Teutonic soldiers commanded by Prussian Landmeister Konrad von Thierberg crossed the frozen Neman River and attacked the Lithuanian fortress in the morning. It fell in the afternoon and was burned to the ground. After the burning of Kolainiai in 1291 and Bisenė in 1316, Junigeda (now called Veliuona ) became the westernmost Lithuanian fortress along

6726-444: The USSR Mikhail Kalinin . Kalinin was unrelated to the city, and there were already cities named in honour of Kalinin in the Soviet Union, namely Kalinin (now Tver) and Kaliningrad (now Korolev, Moscow Oblast ). The German language was replaced with the Russian language, and the remaining German population was expelled between 1947 and 1948. The territory was then re-populated with Soviet citizens , mostly ethnic Russians but to

6840-414: The area adjacent to it as described above, subject to expert examination of the actual frontier. U.S. president Harry Truman and British prime minister Clement Attlee supported the proposal of the Conference at the forthcoming peace settlement. In 1946, Königsberg was added as a semi-exclave to the Russian SFSR and renamed Kaliningrad, after the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of

6954-404: The area surrounding Königsberg, is as follows (note that Königsberg is spelt "Koenigsberg" in the original document): VI. CITY OF KOENIGSBERG AND THE ADJACENT AREA The Conference examined a proposal by the Soviet Government that pending the final determination of territorial questions at the peace settlement, the section of the western frontier of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics which

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7068-429: The border between the Polish People's Republic (a Soviet satellite state at the time) and the Soviet Union. In 2010, the German magazine Der Spiegel published a report claiming that Kaliningrad had been offered to Germany in 1990 (against payment). The offer was not seriously considered by the West German government which, at the time, saw reunification with East Germany as a higher priority. However, this story

7182-410: The capital of the Teutonic state was moved from Marienburg (now Malbork ) to Königsberg in 1457. When the rulers of the Prussia were vassals of the King of Poland from 1466 to 1660, there were few German colonists. After the Teutonic Order lost the war of 1519–1521 with Poland , the Teutonic Order remained a vassal of the Kingdom of Poland. In 1525, Grand Master Albert of Brandenburg secularized

7296-415: The change is that Mikhail Kalinin , a member of the Soviet Politburo , was among those responsible for the Katyn massacre , having co-signed the order to murder thousands of Polish prisoners of war. Kaliningrad is the only Russian Baltic Sea port that is ice-free all year and hence plays an important role in the maintenance of the country's Baltic Fleet. The oblast is mainly flat, as the highest point

7410-418: The conflicts were largely forgotten or limited to the dispute between the Teutonic Order and the Kingdom of Poland that ended with the Peace of Thorn. Annalists like Wigand of Marburg often combined facts and oral recounts with folklore and myths. In the 18th century, Prussian scholars questioned the sincerity of Gediminas's diplomatic efforts and implied promises of conversion. In history books printed from

7524-474: The construction of Bayernburg. The Lithuanians tried to create a precise campaign in 1370, but this fell apart after their decisive defeat at Rudau. The wars were marked by small skirmishes, raids, sieges, and ferocious reprisals aimed at slaughtering farmers. Both the Lithuanian light cavalry and the armies of the order preferred to raid unprotected settlements before engaging in large-scale battles. The Lithuanian raiders sometimes tortured their captives, and

7638-424: The crusaders' authority over the region. In 1409, Vytautas argued for a second insurrection. With open support for rebellion in Teutonic Order territory, Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen called for war. On August 6, 1409, von Jungingen's herald brought a formal challenge from the order to the king of Poland. This signaled the beginning of the Grossen Streythe (Great Quarrel), as the Teutonic Knights called

7752-445: The crusades for centuries. For similar reasons, many coeval crusading accounts mistakenly refer to the Lithuanians as " Saracens ". The order itself described the Lithuanians as "heathens", but French- or English-speaking crusaders often used the term even after the Lithuanians had mostly converted to Christianity. This probably contributed to the crusaders' confusion and served as a justification to continue crusades. In Germany,

7866-403: The enduring hostility of the Lithuanians, creating tension on the order's southern and eastern borders. The Golden Horde 's defeat of Vytautas in the 1399 Battle of the Vorskla River completely changed Lithuanian foreign politics. Before then, the Lithuanians focused on eastward expansion. Now they changed their objectives and again concentrated on Samogitia. Given the local discontent against

7980-446: The first Polish and Lithuanian-language cathechisms (by Jan Seklucjan and Martynas Mažvydas ), the first Polish translation of the New Testament , Grammatica Litvanica , the first Lithuanian grammar book, and the Albertina University being the second oldest university of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , after receiving a royal privilege from King Sigismund II Augustus in 1560. Polish printing continued for centuries with

8094-418: The first half of the 18th century. The Lithuanian-inhabited areas of the Teutonic State were known as Lithuania Minor , which encompassed all of modern Kaliningrad Oblast until the 18th century. In the 13th century, the Teutonic Order conquered the region and established the State of the Teutonic Order , a theocracy . In 1255, on the foundations of a destroyed Sambian settlement known as Tvanksta ,

8208-519: The former would really be going to a foreign country, amongst people not speaking their language and having other customs than theirs. The Memel Territory ( Klaipėda region ), formerly part of northeastern East Prussia as well as Prussian Lithuania, was annexed by Lithuania in 1923. In 1938, Nazi Germany radically renamed about a third of the place names of this area, replacing Old Prussian and Lithuanian names with newly invented German names. In September 1914, after hostilities began between Germany on

8322-458: The fragility of the order at that moment, von Sternberg sought peace with Poland. However, when he also refuted Makrai's decision, the Polish invaded Varmia to begin the Hunger War of 1414. Defeated, the order renounced their claim. There was an extended period of truce-making and negotiations, which were extremely costly for a Teutonic Order already weakened by wars and reparations. At

8436-490: The goods being imported into Kaliningrad by rail. Food, medicine, and passenger travel were exempted. Russia protested against the sanctions and announced it would increase shipments by sea. In May 2023, Poland officially adopted a new name for the Kaliningrad region, changing it from "Obwód Kaliningradzki" to "Obwód Królewiecki", Królewiec being the historical Polish name for the city of Kaliningrad. The reason given for

8550-523: The grand duchy, and from the Tatars who were disposed to help because they shared a border with the Teutonic State near Königsberg . By February 1370, conditions were right for the large Battle of Rudau . The Teutonic army seized victory despite their inferior numbers because they were more comfortable in open-field combat. Through these advancements, the still well-manned Teutonic Order raided

8664-624: The intervention of Sigismund of Luxembourg , the Holy Roman Emperor. Some authors consider the Peace of Thorn the conclusion of the Lithuanian crusades. In 1413, the new Teutonic grand master, Heinrich von Plauen , opposed the arbitration of an imperial envoy, Benedikt Makrai, who had assigned the Neman's east riverbank to the Lithuanians. Because of his opposition, he was deposed by Michael Küchmeister von Sternberg . Understanding

8778-458: The king of Poland and limited contributions from John of Bohemia delayed the conquest of further territories. Because the conflict between the Teutonic State and Poland had resumed in 1330, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania experienced a respite. The crusaders prevailed against the Polish in Kuyavia in 1331. In 1336, a large army supported by John of Bohemia and his son-in-law, Henry XIV , crossed

8892-805: The lands of the former Soviet Union to the Kaliningrad Oblast occurred at this time as well. The situation has begun to change, albeit slowly. Germany, Lithuania, and Poland have renewed contact with Kaliningrad Oblast, through town twinning and other projects. This has helped to promote interest in the history and culture of the East Prussian and Lietuvininkai communities. In July 2007, Russian First Deputy Prime Minister Sergei Ivanov declared that if US-controlled missile defense systems were deployed in Poland, then nuclear weapons might be deployed in Kaliningrad. On 5 November 2008, Russian president Dmitry Medvedev said that installing missiles in Kaliningrad

9006-628: The last Polish publication in 1931. In 1577, the Duke of Prussia forbade serfs —who were mostly Old Prussians, Lithuanians, and Masurians —to leave the land that was the property of the German knights who became proprietary nobles. In 1618, the Duchy merged with the Margraviate of Brandenburg to form Brandenburg-Prussia , remaining under Polish suzerainty until 1660. There was strong opposition to

9120-534: The most imposing were in Neman , Sovetsk , and Mayovka . Vytenis reacted to the movements of the order in 1311 by directing his best cavalry toward Masuria and unreinforced areas of the Prussian border. Despite 4,000 Lithuanian cavalry, they were surprised and expelled by forces led by Landmarschall Heinrich von Plötzke. But the Christian population's general fear of the "savage pagans" did not change with

9234-549: The now abandoned village of Narmeln (Polish: Polski ), which was not part of Ducal Prussia, but of the Pomeranian Voivodeship of the Kingdom of Poland until its annexation by the Kingdom of Prussia the Second Partition of Poland in 1793, and is thus part of the historic region of Pomerania . After the defeats of Jena–Auerstedt , the Kingdom of Prussia was invaded and Berlin was occupied by

9348-503: The one hand and France and Russia on the other, the German Army was about to seize Paris, and the French urged Russia to attack East Prussia. Nicholas II launched a major attack, resulting in a Russian victory in the Battle of Gumbinnen . The Russian army arrived at the outskirts of the city of Königsberg but did not take it and settled at Insterburg . This Russian victory and East Prussia's occupation by Russia saved Paris by forcing

9462-410: The order gained very little territory. The resulting wars between the Teutonic Order and Lithuania were one of the longest conflicts in the history of Europe. The grand duchy finally converted to Christianity in 1386 , when Grand Duke Jogaila accepted baptism from Poland before his wedding to reigning Queen Jadwiga and coronation as king of Poland . However, the baptism did not stop the crusade, as

9576-538: The order publicly challenged the sincerity of the conversion at the papal court. Lithuania and its new ally, Poland, defeated the order in the decisive Battle of Grunwald in 1410, which is often cited as the end of the Lithuanian Crusade and the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War . The final peace was reached by the Treaty of Melno (1422), ending 225 years of warfare. Crusaders claimed to wage war to convert non-Christian "infidels" to Christianity by force. In

9690-534: The order would be able to unify its administration of both territories. Starting with the reign of Gediminas, Lithuania also began rapidly expanding eastward, conquering Ruthenian lands and gaining more resources for its long-lasting wars. For the order, the promotion of Christianity had a strong ideological impetus. When the battles around Jerusalem ceased after the Siege of Acre in 1291, Christian religious groups turned their military efforts toward eastern Europe and

9804-484: The order. The war only ended in 1361 when a marshal of the order, Henning Schindekopf , and Louis I of Hungary succeeded in capturing Kęstutis. The poet and herald Peter Suchenwirt wrote a poem to commemorate the capture, when Kęstutis apparently swore an oath to convert to Christianity. Kęstutis successfully escaped from his imprisonment in Malbork Castle in 1362. That April, a Teutonic army destroyed

9918-447: The order. Lithuanian conversion challenged the order's status as fighting against paganism, which it had heralded so much in the preceding decades. The order argued that the Lithuanian baptisms had been only for political goals and that the majority of Lithuanians held on to their traditional beliefs . Denying the possibility of mass baptisms, Vytautas and Jagiełło asked Pope Boniface IX to intervene. The Pope's response arrived in 1403,

10032-408: The pope, Gediminas complained that crusaders destroyed Christian churches to have a pretext for war. The Baltic Crusade started in 1197. The first encounters of militant Christian missionaries with the Lithuanians occurred in 1185, when Saint Meinhard was attacked by the Lithuanians. Lithuanian troops were also supporting the local resistance of Semigallians and Latgalians . The Teutonic Order

10146-444: The population of East Prussia was 1,080,000 people. According to Karl Andree , Germans were slightly more than half of the people, while 280,000 (~26%) were ethnically Polish and 200,000 (~19%) were ethnically Lithuanian . As of 1819, there were also 20,000-strong ethnic Curonian and Latvian minorities as well as 2,400 Jews , according to Georg Hassel. Similar numbers are given by August von Haxthausen in his 1839 book, with

10260-618: The population of the oblast lives in Kaliningrad City proper. The port city of Baltiysk is Russia's only port on the Baltic Sea that remains ice-free in winter. Kaliningrad Oblast had a population of roughly 1 million in the Russian Census of 2021 . The area of Kaliningrad oblast is 15,125 square kilometers (5,840 square miles). The territory was formerly the northern part of the Prussian province of East Prussia ;

10374-470: The populus, the threat of a popular uprising became concrete. Carefully timed letters of protest from the people of Samogitia reached the Roman Curia at the same time as those of numerous European courts and guilds of cities in eastern Europe. Fomented by Grand Duke Vytautas, the first Samogitian uprising seized the region from 1401 to 1404 and ceased when a peace treaty was signed that recognized

10488-435: The preceding century. In 1380, with the secret Treaty of Dovydiškės , the Teutonic Order supported Algirdas's heir, Jogaila , against Kęstutis in exchange for various concessions. While Kęstutis remained a prisoner of Jogaila through 1382, Vytautas escaped and fled to his cousin in the Teutonic State, trusting in their help to depose Jogaila and his allies. There, he converted to Christianity. This power struggle ended in

10602-460: The protests of architects, historians and residents of the city. The reconstruction of the oblast, threatened by hunger in the immediate post-war years, was carried out through an ambitious policy of oceanic fishing with the creation of one of the main fishing harbours of the USSR in Kaliningrad city. Fishing not only fed the regional economy but also was a basis for social and scientific development, in particular oceanography. From 1953 to 1962,

10716-582: The region and the rest of Russia now must pass through members of NATO and the EU. Thus far, the EU has rejected Russian proposals for visa-free travel between Kaliningrad and the rest of Russia. Travel arrangements based on the Facilitated Transit Document (FTD) and Facilitated Rail Transit Document (FRTD) have been made. Kaliningrad Oblast's geographic isolation has badly affected its economic situation. Concurrent significant reduction in

10830-409: The region was the central Teutonic aim in the crusades. Poland, present throughout the conflict, is not often mentioned, although Stanisław Sarnicki 's chronicle includes discussion of the crusades. Modern Lithuanian historical research was heavily influenced by Soviet culture and strictures until only recently. A well-regarded Lithuanian study by Edvardas Gudavičius , "Kryžiaus karai Pabaltijyje",

10944-434: The regionally fragmented Lithuanian forces under one banner for attack. Nevertheless, a combined army of regional sub-units remained only nominally united, which made a combined offensive action difficult in the event of a vigorous counterattack. The average number of men fielded by the order ranged from 3,000 to 8,000. Neither party planned campaigns for precise goals, except for the Teutonic campaign of 1336 that ended with

11058-654: The remaining southern part of the province is today part of the Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship in Poland. With the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II , the territory was annexed to the Russian SFSR by the Soviet Union . Following the post-war migration and flight and expulsion of Germans , the territory was populated with Soviet citizens, mostly Russians . The territory of what is now

11172-801: The river. In 1298, Lithuanian leader Vytenis attacked the Livonian crusaders in Courland , a part of the Archdiocese of Riga . After initial successes by the crusaders, the two sides fought in the Battle of Turaida after Vytenis forged an alliance with the citizens of Riga , a city ostensibly under the control of the Livonian Order. The conflicts resumed with the coronation of Grand Duke Vytenis of Lithuania in 1303. Vytenis wanted to confront Lithuania's northern and eastern neighbors. He sent 2,000 armed knights to his borders , while isolated Lithuanian troops raided Prussia. More stable after suppressing

11286-622: The same ceremony they still also pledged allegiance to Poland. In 1724, King Frederick William I of Prussia prohibited Poles , Samogitians and Jews from settling in Lithuania Minor, and initiated German colonization to change the region's ethnic composition. In 1734–1736, Königsberg was the place of stay of Polish King Stanisław Leszczyński during the War of the Polish Succession . In 1756 Russia decided to go to war with

11400-443: The separation of the region from Poland, especially in Königsberg. A confederation was formed in the city to maintain Poland's sovereignty over the city and region. The Brandenburg Elector and his army, however, entered the city and abducted and imprisoned the leader of the city's anti-Elector opposition Hieronymus Roth . In 1663, the city burghers, forced by Elector Frederick William , swore an oath of allegiance to him, however, in

11514-470: The size of the Russian military garrison has hurt as well, since previously the military was a major local employer. Some of the region's cultural heritage, most notably the Königsberg Cathedral , was restored in the 1990s, as citizens started to examine previously ignored German past. On 12 January 1996, Kaliningrad Oblast and Sverdlovsk Oblast became the first oblasts of Russia to sign

11628-528: The summer of 1384, leading to a pause as the Christianization of Lithuania progressed. Jogaila went to the Polish nobility, the szlachta , to ask to marry Queen Jadwiga of Poland . Their conversations about the marriage and Jogaila's converting to Christianity created a more stable relationship between Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The treaty of the agreement, the Union of Krewo , set

11742-463: The territory as a duumvirate : the land to the southeast was controlled by Algirdas and the land to the west (including Samogitia) was administered by Kęstutis. As a result, Kęstutis led most of the fight against the Teutonic Order, with mixed results. In 1349, Teutonic commander Winrich von Kniprode seized a victory against the Lithuanians in the Battle of Strėva , which was held in an open field. In 1352, led by von Kniprode, now grand master of

11856-769: The two countries on a path of increasing closeness, eventually leading to the Polish–Lithuanian union . Jogaila was also forced to enter an understanding with his cousin Vytautas to accept Vytautas's claims and return his possessions. Jogaila (now given the name Władysław II Jagiełło) was elected king of Poland after being baptized and marrying Jadwiga in 1386. Lithuania, the last pagan state in Europe, embraced Christianity. The Lithuanian nobility were skeptical about assimilating into Polish culture, so Jagiełło had to concede more rights to Vytautas, who wanted to expand east into

11970-423: The unstable principalities of Belarus and Ukraine , the Lithuanians could not ignore the aggression of the Christian crusaders. Nor could they reach any peaceful agreement with the Teutonic Order, which demanded mass baptisms as a condition for peace. From then on, the defense of Samogitia and other vulnerable regions became a priority for the Lithuanians. The prospect of loot from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and

12084-586: The veneration of the god Perkūnas . In the 1230s, there were military clashes between the Christians and the Lithuanians near the northern borders of what was then part of Livonia . The Livonian Brothers of the Sword , founded in 1202, began campaigns to expand into the area. Through the Livonian Crusade , they conquered the Terra Mariana that bordered Lithuanian Samogitia , which increased conflicts. Those conflicts reached their apex in 1236 with

12198-516: The victory, especially not among German colonists in rural areas of the order's territory. Vytenis's last great attack came in October 1315, shortly before his death. During Gediminas's rule as grand duke of Lithuania, the war intensified on the northern and western borders with the Teutonic Order. Gediminas allied himself with the king of Poland, Władysław I Łokietek , through a series of marriages in 1325–1328. Poland became more hostile toward

12312-413: The war, over two million people fled, anticipating imminent Red Army conquest, and were evacuated by sea . Initially, at the end of World War II in 1945, the current southern border strip passed under Polish control with Polish administration organized in the towns of Gierdawy and Iławka , however, the area was eventually annexed by the Soviet Union and included within the Kaliningrad Oblast. Under

12426-538: The withdrawal of most of the order's army, Bayernburg was stormed and destroyed by Lithuanian troops led by Gediminas in person. According to local tradition, he was shot by an arrow under an oak tree that still exists outside the fortifications. He more likely died in 1341, a year in which the fighting temporarily subsided. The conflict intensified again in 1345 after two sons of Gediminas, Algirdas and Kęstutis , assumed power by ousting their brother, Jaunutis , who had been Gediminas's heir. The two shared control of

12540-500: Was almost a certainty. These plans were suspended in January 2009, but implemented in October 2016. In 2011, a long-range Voronezh radar was commissioned to monitor missile launches within about 6,000 km (3,700 mi). The radar is situated in the settlement of Pionersky in Kaliningrad Oblast. A few months after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine , Lithuania started implementing EU sanctions , which blocked about 50% of

12654-479: Was given land near Toruń in the 1220s by Konrad I of Masovia , bringing the crusaders closer to Lithuanian lands. With the arrival of the first Teutonic crusaders, led by Hermann Balk , in Chełmno Land in 1230, the religious traditions of modern-day Estonia and Latvia began to slowly turn towards Catholicism. There had already been shared religious beliefs between the Germanic and Lithuanian peoples, like

12768-406: Was governor of Kaliningrad Oblast from 2017 until May 2024, when he was appointed as Minister of Industry and Trade. The region's legislative body is the 40-seat Kaliningrad Oblast Duma. As of the 2021 census , the population of the oblast was 1,027,678. Earlier censuses recorded a population of 955,281 in 2002 and 871,283 in 1989 . Lithuanian Crusade Vassals: Allies: In

12882-508: Was later denied by Mikhail Gorbachev . The independence of Lithuania in 1990 and full dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 isolated Kaliningrad from the rest of Russia, having previously been joined by other Soviet republics. This isolation became more severe when both Poland and Lithuania joined NATO and the European Union and imposed strict border controls on Kaliningrad Oblast. All military and civilian land links between

12996-417: Was written to avoid Soviet censorship , leading Gudavičius to downplay Lithuanian independence and overstate the role of medieval popes in directing the Lithuanian crusades. Similarly, Soviet historians often held that the Lithuanian coat of arms and governmental structure were all borrowed from Russian culture. Gudavičius later proposed that the shared rule of Algirdas and Kęstutis should be seen as part of

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