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122-615: The degree of Master of Arts traces its origins to the teaching license or Licentia docendi of the University of Paris , designed to produce "masters" who were graduate teachers of their subjects. Like all EU member states, the Czech Republic and Slovakia follow the Bologna Process. The Czech Republic and Slovakia both award two different types of master's degrees; both award a title of Mgr. or Ing. to be used before

244-512: A bachelor's degree . Some programs provide for a joint bachelor's and master's after about five years. Some universities use the Latin degree names, such as Artium Magister (AM) or Scientiæ Magister (SM). For example, Harvard University , Dartmouth College , the University of Chicago , MIT , the University of Pennsylvania , and Brown University use the abbreviations AM and SM for some of their master's degrees. A Master of Arts may be given in

366-503: A "historical anachronism" and argued that "unearned qualifications" should be discontinued to preserve the academic integrity of the taught MA. Further, they warned that the title gave Oxbridge graduates an unfair advantage in the job market. On 21 October 2011, the bill received its second reading, but it failed to complete its passage through Parliament before the end of the session, meaning it fell. A number of different master's degrees may be earned at Oxford and Cambridge. The most common,

488-584: A "very high research" Master of Arts might have to earn credits also at the PhD level, and they may need to complete their program in about three years of full-time candidature, e.g. at Harvard in the United States and McGill in Canada. A thesis must be a distinct contribution to knowledge. It must demonstrate ability to plan and carry out research, organize results, and defend the approach and conclusions in

610-551: A Bull of 1231 to the masters and scholars of Paris. Not only did he settle the dispute, he empowered the university to frame statutes concerning the discipline of the schools, the method of instruction, the defence of theses, the costume of the professors, and the obsequies of masters and students (expanding upon Robert de Courçon's statutes). Most importantly, the pope granted the university the right to suspend its courses, if justice were denied it, until it should receive full satisfaction. The pope authorized Pierre Le Mangeur to collect

732-410: A GPA of minimum 7.5/10 at the end of their studies to graduate with Honours . In Scotland, all undergraduate degrees with honours must be of four-year duration. Students can choose to do the honours degree or the general (or pass/ordinary) degree. The first two years of both types of degrees are the same; however, after that, students who pursue the honours route will complete more advanced subjects and

854-420: A cGPA between 1.5 and 1.84. Some other universities, such as McGill University , University of Ottawa , University of Western Ontario , University of British Columbia , Concordia University and Dalhousie University , require students to undertake an honours project in order to graduate with honours ( Latin : cum honore , French : spécialisé ). In those universities, honours programmes also require

976-661: A century, people recognized that the new system was less favourable to study. The defeat of 1870 at the hands of Prussia was partially blamed on the growth of the superiority of the German university system of the 19th century, and led to another serious reform of the French university. In the 1880s, the "licence" (bachelor) degree is divided into, for the Faculty of Letters: Letters, Philosophy, History, Modern Languages, with French, Latin and Greek being requirements for all of them; and for

1098-404: A chair in theology, the candidate had to be thirty years of age, with eight years of theological studies, of which the last three years were devoted to special courses of lectures in preparation for the mastership. These studies had to be made in the local schools under the direction of a master. In Paris, one was regarded as a scholar only by studies with particular masters. Lastly, purity of morals

1220-465: A dissertation based on independent research. Taught master's programs involve one or two years of full-time study. Many can be done part-time as well. Until recently, both the undergraduate and postgraduate master's degrees were awarded without grade or class (like the class of an honours degree ). Nowadays, however, master's degrees are normally classified into the categories of Fail, Pass, Pass with Merit, or Pass with Distinction. This education pattern in

1342-499: A dissertation in their last year, while students who choose to do the general degree will complete their third year at a lower level of specialisation. Entry into the honours year in Scotland is generally not restricted and students are encouraged to take the honours year as the general/ordinary/pass degree does not provide the same level of depth and specialisation. Students enrolling in the honours programme but failing to achieve

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1464-441: A higher degree of specialization than non-honours " major " degrees, including a supervised research project or thesis, and students are required to maintain a high academic standard. Thesis-based honours degrees prepare students for research-based postgraduate study, and may sometimes allow direct entry into doctoral programmes. A four-year bachelor's degree is required for entry to most postgraduate courses in Canada. In

1586-476: A higher level of achievement than a non-honours degree. In some countries (e.g. Australia), an honours degree may also involve a longer period of study than a non-honours degree. Students who complete all the requirements for a non-honours bachelor's degree but do not receive sufficient merit to be awarded an honours degree would normally be awarded a non-honours degree (sometimes known as a "pass", "general" or "ordinary" degree), although students who do not complete

1708-472: A long, high-quality research thesis . This is usually accompanied by a seminar or presentation of the findings to an academic board for marking. In the case of a quality thesis being produced, its findings may be published in a peer-reviewed academic journal or similar publication. Students receiving high marks in their honours programme have the option of continuing to candidature of a doctoral programme, such as Doctor of Philosophy , without having to complete

1830-489: A mandate from an ecclesiastical authority. His action followed a violent incident between students and officers outside the city walls at a pub. In 1215, the Apostolic legate, Robert de Courçon , issued new rules governing who could become a professor. To teach the arts, a candidate had to be at least twenty-one, to have studied these arts at least six years, and to take an engagement as professor for at least two years. For

1952-410: A master's degree. Honours can be awarded at up to five levels, depending on the awarding institution, and may be indicated in post-nominals in general as "(Hons)": At the master's level, Monash University has a Master of Business with Honours programme in which students can be awarded an honours classification upon completion. Macquarie University has phased out the honours degree in favour of

2074-418: A moderate fee for the conferring of the license of professorship. Also, for the first time, the scholars had to pay tuition fees for their education: two sous weekly, to be deposited in the common fund. The university was organized as follows: at the head of the teaching body was a rector . The office was elective and of short duration; at first it was limited to four or six weeks. Simon de Brion , legate of

2196-571: A new University of Paris was re-founded as a grouping of the Paris faculties of science, literature , law , medicine, Protestant theology and the École supérieure de pharmacie de Paris. It was inaugurated on November 19, 1896, by French President Félix Faure . In 1970, after the civil unrest of May 1968 , the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities, which today are the Sorbonne University , Panthéon-Sorbonne University ,

2318-515: A result of being forced to pursue their studies in such shabby conditions. In 1966, after a student revolt in Paris, Christian Fouchet , minister of education, proposed "the reorganisation of university studies into separate two- and four-year degrees, alongside the introduction of selective admission criteria" as a response to overcrowding in lecture halls. Dissatisfied with these educational reforms, students began protesting in November 1967, at

2440-552: A scholarly manner. The research presented must meet current standards of the discipline. Finally, the thesis must clearly demonstrate how the research advances knowledge in the field. University of Paris The University of Paris (French: Université de Paris ), known metonymically as the Sorbonne ( French: [sɔʁbɔn] ), was the leading university in Paris , France, from 1150 to 1970, except for 1793–1806 during

2562-442: A scientific discipline, common at Ivy League universities . Many universities offer Master of Arts programs, which are differentiated either as Thesis or Non-Thesis programs. Usually, the duration for a Non-Thesis option is one to two years of full-time study. The period for a Thesis option may last longer, depending also on the required level of courses and complexity of the thesis . Sometimes, qualified students who are admitted to

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2684-485: A scientific thesis after completing the bachelor's degree. This fourth year typically constitutes the first half of a master's programme. If not, it may be supplemented by a fifth year and a master's thesis to obtain a master's degree in the field of study. Except at Aberdeen, Cambridge, Dublin, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews (see below), the MA is typically a "taught" postgraduate degree, involving lectures, examination, and

2806-495: A similar differentiation between three- and four-year degrees, additionally imposing a higher cGPA minimum of 1.85 for the honours option instead of the 1.5 required for ordinary. Beginning with the Summer 2001 session, the three-year option was discontinued and is unavailable to new students. As of the 2022-23 academic year, students taking a four-year degree may still elect to receive an ordinary B.A. or B.Sc. if they graduate with

2928-430: A single-year (120 credit) course following on from a bachelor's degree, and it prepares students for postgraduate study. Bachelor's degrees issued are abbreviated as B.Com. (Hons), B.Sc. (Hons), etc. The award of honours recognises outstanding achievement, meritorious achievement or a pass; these may be termed first class honours, second class honours: first or second divisions, and third class honours. In South Africa ,

3050-643: A specialisation within a three-year programme. In the Netherlands , the honours programme is an addition of 30 ECTS to the regular bachelor's programme, and must be completed within two to three years of undergraduate studies. In most universities, this programme offers an interdisciplinary approach, blending teachings from social and medical sciences, as well as knowledge from the fields of business and economics, art and law to all honours students. To gain access to this programme, prospective students must demonstrate outstanding academic performance, and average

3172-421: A third class degree or better to have "achieved honours status". In France , the honours degree may correspond to the double licence diploma. It lasts the same length of time as the general bachelor's degree, but requires a higher level of study. It is generally offered in faculties with post-graduate degrees, whereas the double licence degree is mainly offered in undergraduate schools or colleges. However,

3294-475: A variety of four-year undergraduate integrated master's degrees such as MEng or MMath . In Canada and the United States, the Master of Arts ( Magister Artium ) and Master of Science ( Magister Scientiæ ) are the basic graduate-level degrees in most subjects and may be course-based, research-based, or, more typically, a combination of the two. Admission to a master's program is normally contingent upon holding

3416-545: Is a research degree at the University of Cambridge , where the Master of Philosophy (MPhil) is the name given to the standard one-year taught degree with a unique research element, in contrast to the use of MPhil at other institutions for a research degree. Research in 2000 by the universities watchdog, the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education , showed that two-thirds of employers were unaware that

3538-479: Is awarded in the arts (visual arts, literature, foreign languages, filmmaking, theatre etc.), natural sciences, mathematics, computer science fields, and economics. The completion of a research thesis is required. All master's degrees in Poland qualify for a doctorate program. In Finland, Denmark and Norway, the master's degree is a combined taught/research degree, awarded after two years of studies after completing

3660-689: Is generally awarded for master's studies in social sciences or the humanities while an MgA. (Magister of Arts) is awarded for studies in the arts. In Germany, the Master of Arts degree was called in Latin Magister Artium . This degree, which usually required five years of studies, existed in the Holy Roman Empire and its successors, including the German Empire and the Federal Republic of Germany , but not in

3782-462: Is generally considered a postgraduate year because a bachelor's degree can be completed without it. Entry to an honours degree generally requires proven abilities and a distinction (75% or greater average) in the relevant area or the final-year units, and even then is quite competitive. In the regular (standalone) honours, the student will complete selected courses within a supervised programme of research (field, laboratory, or secondary), and produce

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3904-542: Is mentioned as early as 1345, the Scots college or Collegium scoticum was founded in 1325. The Lombard college or Collegium lombardicum was founded in the 1330s. The Collegium constantinopolitanum was, according to a tradition, founded in the 13th century to facilitate a merging of the eastern and western churches. It was later reorganized as a French institution, the Collège de la Marche-Winville . The Collège de Montaigu

4026-460: Is mostly the case that the final exams cover the main study areas of the whole study program, i.e. a student is required to prove their knowledge in the subjects they attended during the two resp. three years of their study. Exams also include the defence of a thesis before an academic board. Ing. (Engineer) degrees are usually awarded for master's degrees achieved in the natural sciences or mathematics-heavy study programmes, whereas an Mgr. (Magister)

4148-694: Is normally taken following an honours degree as a conversion course. Ordinary (non-honours) bachelor's degrees are at level 7 of the framework and take three years (180 EFTS credits) to complete. In Canada there are two type of honours degree. Some universities, especially in Ontario , award an honours degree after four years of undergraduate study, instead of the three years of an ordinary bachelor's degree. Examples of universities awarding this degree include Queen's University and York University . In those universities, honours degree students may undertake an honours thesis. University of Toronto previously had

4270-413: Is placed before one's name, like the title Dr). At the technical universities, a student is awarded with inżynier (engineer) after three years and then with "magister" after completing another two years of study and graduating. Such persons use titles "mgr inż". In the 1990s, the MA programs usually lasting five years were replaced by separate three-year bachelor's and two-year master's programs. The degree

4392-408: Is required for an honours degree, e.g. only passing 300 credits rather than the 360 usually required for an honours degree. In addition to bachelor's degrees, four-year integrated master's degrees, which combine study at the bachelor's and master's levels, are also awarded with honours. The University of Oxford does not award honours with its standard BA degree, but considers students who gain

4514-444: Is shown by a Bull of Innocent III. Consequently, the schools of Saint-Victor might well have contributed to its formation. Secondly, Denifle excludes the schools of Ste-Geneviève because there had been no interruption in the teaching of the liberal arts. This is debatable and through the period, theology was taught. The chancellor of Ste-Geneviève continued to give degrees in arts, something he would have ceased if his abbey had no part in

4636-539: The Decretum Gratiani brought about a division of the theology department. Hitherto the discipline of the Church had not been separate from so-called theology; they were studied together under the same professor. But this vast collection necessitated a special course, which was undertaken first at Bologna, where Roman law was taught. In France, first Orléans and then Paris erected chairs of canon law. Before

4758-457: The Abbey of Fontevrault etc. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux , Abélard , and Peter Lombard . Humanistic instruction comprised grammar , rhetoric , dialectics , arithmetic , geometry , music, and astronomy ( trivium and quadrivium ). To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology , whose source

4880-1052: The Assas University , the Sorbonne Nouvelle University , the Paris Cité University , the PSL University , the Saclay University , the Nanterre University , the Sorbonne Paris North University , the Paris-East Créteil University and the Paris 8 University . The Chancellerie des Universités de Paris inherited the heritage assets of the University of Paris, including the Sorbonne building,

5002-596: The French Revolution . Emerging around 1150 as a corporation associated with the cathedral school of Paris, it was considered the second-oldest university in Europe . Officially chartered in 1200 by King Philip II and recognised in 1215 by Pope Innocent III , it was nicknamed after its theological College of Sorbonne , founded by Robert de Sorbon and chartered by King Louis IX around 1257. Highly reputed internationally for its academic performance in

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5124-587: The Holy See in France, realizing that such frequent changes caused serious inconvenience, decided that the rectorate should last three months, and this rule was observed for three years. Then the term was lengthened to one, two, and sometimes three years. The right of election belonged to the procurators of the four nations . Henry of Unna was proctor of the University of Paris in the 14th century, beginning his term on January 13, 1340. The "nations" appeared in

5246-559: The Master of Research degree for most fields, although it still offers honours degrees in psychology and engineering as honours degrees are required for accreditation in these fields. The bachelor honours degree is a separate level on the New Zealand Qualifications Framework from the bachelor's degree without honours, as in Australia and Scotland. It may either be a 4-year (480 credit) course or

5368-474: The Sorbonne the next day, and many students were arrested in the following week. Barricades were erected throughout the Latin Quarter , and a massive demonstration took place on 13 May, gathering students and workers on strike. The number of workers on strike reached about nine million by 22 May. As explained by Bill Readings: De Gaulle responded on May 24 by calling for a referendum, and [...]

5490-711: The United Kingdom , the Netherlands , Bangladesh , Hong Kong , and India ; the honours bachelor's degree in Ireland ; the bachelor with honours and bachelor honours degree in New Zealand ; the bachelor with honours and honours bachelor's degree in Canada ; and the bachelor honours degree in Australia . In South Africa the bachelor honours degree is a postgraduate degree that follows on from

5612-546: The United States , many honours degrees (or honors degrees in US spelling) require a thesis or project work beyond that needed for the normal bachelor's programme. Honours programmes in the US are taken alongside the rest of the degree and often have a minimum GPA requirement for entry or college-entrance exam score, which can vary between institutions. In rare cases, a student may petition to write one even if they do not meet

5734-517: The University of Bologna ) became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure , to signify they were under the protection of the church. Students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the king's laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, and its official had to appeal to Church courts for justice. Students were often very young, entering

5856-472: The University of Dublin , the title of Master of Arts is conferred after a certain number of years , without further examination, to those who have graduated as Bachelor of Arts and who have the requisite years' standing as members of the university or as graduates. This happens, in England, only at the universities of Oxford , four years after completing a bachelor's degree, and Cambridge , six years after

5978-411: The doctorandus degree, which gave the title "Doctorandus" before their name, abbreviated to 'drs.'; in the case of ingenieur, this would be 'ir.'), or else opt for a master's degree as postnominals behind their name, in accordance with the new standard ('MA' or 'MSc'). A master's degree can take one or two years to complete. The Polish equivalent of Master of Arts is "magister" (its abbreviation "mgr"

6100-400: The faculty of arts or letters . The territories covered by the four nations were: To classify professors' knowledge, the schools of Paris gradually divided into faculties. Professors of the same science were brought into closer contact until the community of rights and interests cemented the union and made them distinct groups. The faculty of medicine seems to have been the last to form. But

6222-828: The humanities ever since the Middle Ages – particularly in theology and philosophy – it introduced academic standards and traditions that have endured and spread, such as doctoral degrees and student nations . Notable popes , royalty , scientists, and intellectuals were educated at the University of Paris. A few of the colleges of the time are still visible close to the Panthéon and Jardin du Luxembourg : Collège des Bernardins (18 rue de Poissy, 5th arr. ), Hôtel de Cluny (6 Place Paul Painlevé, 5th arr.), Collège Sainte-Barbe (4 rue Valette, 5th arr.), Collège d'Harcourt (44 Boulevard Saint-Michel, 6th arr. ), and Cordeliers (21 rue École de Médecine, 6th arr.). In 1793, during

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6344-520: The " La Sorbonne " brand, control of the inter-university libraries, and management of the staff of the Paris universities (until 2007). In 1150, the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the cathedral school of Paris . The earliest historical reference to it is found in Matthew Paris 's reference to the studies of his own teacher (an abbot of St Albans ) and his acceptance into "the fellowship of

6466-663: The "Island" and on the "Mount". "Whoever", says Crevier "had the right to teach might open a school where he pleased, provided it was not in the vicinity of a principal school." Thus a certain Adam , who was of English origin, kept his "near the Petit Pont "; another Adam, Parisian by birth, "taught at the Grand Pont which is called the Pont-au-Change " ( Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris, I, 272). The number of students in

6588-403: The 13th, including Collège d'Harcourt (1280) and the Collège de Sorbonne (1257). Thus the University of Paris assumed its basic form. It was composed of seven groups, the four nations of the faculty of arts, and the three superior faculties of theology, law, and medicine. Men who had studied at Paris became an increasing presence in the high ranks of the Church hierarchy; eventually, students at

6710-598: The 1962–63 academic year to 500,000 in 1967–68, but at the start of the decade, there were only 16 public universities in the entire country. To accommodate this rapid growth, the government hastily developed bare-bones off-site faculties as annexes of existing universities (roughly equivalent to American satellite campuses ). These faculties did not have university status of their own and lacked academic traditions and amenities to support student life or resident professors. One-third of all French university students ended up in these new faculties, and were ripe for radicalization as

6832-556: The Collège de Navarre; in 1677 it was awarded possession of the Collège des Lombards. A new Irish College was built in 1769 in rue du Cheval Vert (now rue des Irlandais), which exists today as the Irish Chaplaincy and Cultural centre. In the fifteenth century, Guillaume d'Estouteville , a cardinal and Apostolic legate , reformed the university, correcting its perceived abuses and introducing various modifications. This reform

6954-575: The Dominican Republic, Gabon, Guinea, Iraq, Jordan, Kosovo, Tunisia, and Niger among others. Honours degree Honours degree has various meanings in the context of different degrees and education systems . Most commonly it refers to a variant of the undergraduate bachelor's degree containing a larger volume of material or a higher standard of study, or both, rather than an "ordinary", "general" or "pass" bachelor's degree. Honours degrees are sometimes indicated by " Hons " after

7076-594: The Faculty of Science, into: Mathematics, Physical Sciences and Natural Sciences; the Faculty of Theology is abolished by the Republic. At this time, the building of the Sorbonne was fully renovated. The student revolts of the late 1960s were caused in part by the French government's failure to plan for a sudden explosion in the number of university students as a result of the postwar baby boom . The number of French university students skyrocketed from only 280,000 during

7198-645: The French Revolution, the university was closed and, by Item 27 of the Revolutionary Convention, the college endowments and buildings were sold. A new University of France replaced it in 1806 with four independent faculties: the Faculty of Humanities ( French : Faculté des Lettres ), the Faculty of Law (later including Economics), the Faculty of Science, the Faculty of Medicine and the Faculty of Theology (closed in 1885). In 1896,

7320-489: The Hong Kong Polytechnic University follow a GPA scale of 4.3, and The Chinese University of Hong Kong follows a GPA scale of 4.0. The consecutive Australian with-honours degree is usually a one to two-year research programme, after the completion of a bachelor's degree in the same field. It can also be started as a concurrent programme in the fourth year of a four-year bachelor's degree. It

7442-750: The Honours Degree is a one-year program, typically specialising in a single subject; the degree title may correspond - e.g. BSc. Honours in mathematics , B.A. Hons. ( English ). Entering students will be graduates of the corresponding 3-year bachelor's degree ; intake into the Honours degree is often highly selective. The degree is at level 8 on the National Qualifications Framework of the South African Qualifications Authority ; Honours

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7564-411: The Master of Arts and the Master of Science degrees were introduced in 2002. Until that time, a single program that led to the doctorandus degree (or the ingenieur degree in the case of technical subjects) was in effect, which comprised the same course-load as the bachelor's and master's programs put together. Those who had already started the doctorandus program could, upon completing it, opt for

7686-454: The Master of Philosophy degree (MPhil), is a two-year research degree. To prepare to graduate as a Master of Science (MSc) or a Master of Studies (MSt) takes only one year, both courses often combining some coursework with research. A Master of Letters (MLitt) is the holder of a pure research master's degree. In comparison to the LLM at Cambridge, Oxford offers two master's degrees in law depending on

7808-583: The Oxford and Cambridge MA did not represent any kind of post-graduate achievement. In February 2011, the Labour Member of Parliament Chris Leslie sponsored a private member's bill in Parliament, the master's degrees (Minimum Standards) Bill, to "prohibit universities awarding master's degrees unless certain standards of study and assessment are met". The bill's supporters described the practice as

7930-409: The Republic three progressive degrees of instruction; the first for the knowledge indispensable to artisans and workmen of all kinds; the second for further knowledge necessary to those intending to embrace the other professions of society; and the third for those branches of instruction the study of which is not within the reach of all men". Measures were to be taken immediately: "For means of execution

8052-575: The United Kingdom is followed in India and many Commonwealth Nations . The Master of Laws (LLM) is the standard degree taught for law, but certain courses may lead to MA, MLitt, Master of Studies (MSt), and the Bachelor of Civil Law (BCL) at Oxford . All of these degrees are considered substitutes to one another and are thus generally equivalent. In the ancient universities of Scotland ,

8174-433: The University of Paris saw it as a right that they would be eligible to benefices. Church officials such as St. Louis and Clement IV lavishly praised the university. Besides the famous Collège de Sorbonne, other collegia provided housing and meals to students, sometimes for those of the same geographical origin in a more restricted sense than that represented by the nations. There were 8 or 9 collegia for foreign students:

8296-450: The applicant deserved it. The school of Saint-Victor, under the abbey, conferred the licence in its own right; the school of Notre-Dame depended on the diocese, that of Ste-Geneviève on the abbey or chapter. The diocese and the abbey or chapter, through their chancellor , gave professorial investiture in their respective territories where they had jurisdiction. Besides Notre-Dame, Ste-Geneviève, and Saint-Victor, there were several schools on

8418-560: The army (Jourdain, Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris au XVIIe et XVIIIe siècle , 132–34; Archiv. du ministère de l'instruction publique ). The ancient university disappeared with the ancien régime in the French Revolution . On 15 September 1793, petitioned by the Department of Paris and several departmental groups, the National Convention decided that independently of the primary schools, "there should be established in

8540-475: The assurance of military support, announced [general] elections [within] forty days. [...] Over the next two months, the strikes were broken (or broke up) while the election was won by the Gaullists with an increased majority. Following the disruption, de Gaulle appointed Edgar Faure as minister of education; Faure was assigned to prepare a legislative proposal for reform of the French university system, with

8662-520: The bachelor's degree. The student is required to write a scientific thesis. In Finland, this master's degree is called a filosofian maisteri (in Finnish) or filosofie magister (in Swedish), and it is abbreviated as FM or "fil.mag.". In Sweden, there is still an intermediate degree between the bachelor's ( kandidat ) and master's called magister which only requires one year of studies, including

8784-520: The campus of the University of Paris in Nanterre ; indeed, according to James Marshall, these reforms were seen "as the manifestations of the technocratic-capitalist state by some, and by others as attempts to destroy the liberal university". After student activists protested against the Vietnam War , the campus was closed by authorities on 22 March and again on 2 May 1968. Agitation spread to

8906-624: The case of the Flagellants . Its patriotism was especially manifested on two occasions. During the captivity of King John, when Paris was given over to factions, the university sought to restore peace; and under Louis   XIV, when the Spaniards crossed the Somme and threatened the capital, it placed two hundred men at the king's disposal and offered the Master of Arts degree gratuitously to scholars who should present certificates of service in

9028-658: The completion of a bachelor's degree. The undergraduate master of arts degree awarded by the ancient universities of Scotland in place of the bachelor of arts may be awarded as an honours or non-honours degree; these are at the same level as equivalent bachelor's degrees. At master's level, the integrated master's degrees in British universities, which students enter at the same level as bachelor's degrees, are also honours degrees. Many universities and colleges offer both honours and non-honours bachelor's degrees. In most countries where honours degrees are granted, they imply

9150-492: The corporation to operate under ecclesiastic law which would be governed by the elders of the Notre-Dame Cathedral school , and assured all those completing courses there that they would be granted a diploma. The university had four faculties : Arts , Medicine, Law, and Theology. The Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of

9272-415: The degree abbreviation, with various punctuation according to local custom, e.g. "BA (Hons)", "B.A., Hons", etc. In Canada, honours degrees may be indicated with an "H" preceding the degree abbreviation, e.g. "HBA" for Honours Bachelor of Arts or Honours Business Administration. Examples of honours degree include the honors bachelor's degree in the United States ; the bachelor's degree with honours in

9394-438: The degree of Master of Arts is awarded in universities as a four-year undergraduate degree, see Master of Arts (Scotland) . The degree of Master of Arts is the first degree awarded in arts , humanities , theology , and social sciences . However, some universities in Scotland award the degree of Master of Letters (MLitt) to students in the arts , humanities , divinity , and social sciences . At Oxford , Cambridge and

9516-534: The department and the municipality of Paris are authorized to consult with the Committee of Public Instruction of the National Convention, in order that these establishments shall be put in action by 1 November next, and consequently colleges now in operation and the faculties of theology, medicine, arts, and law are suppressed throughout the Republic". This was the death-sentence of the university. It

9638-496: The elect Masters" there in about 1170, and it is known that Lotario dei Conti di Segni, the future Pope Innocent III , completed his studies there in 1182 at the age of 21. Its first college was the Collège des Dix-Huit , established in 1180 by an Englishman named Josse and endowed for 18 poor scholars. The corporation was formally recognised as an " Universitas " in an edict by King Philippe-Auguste in 1200: in it, among other accommodations granted to future students, he allowed

9760-585: The end of the twelfth century, the Decretals of Gerard La Pucelle , Mathieu d'Angers , and Anselm (or Anselle) of Paris , were added to the Decretum Gratiani. However, civil law was not included at Paris. In the twelfth century, medicine began to be publicly taught at Paris: the first professor of medicine in Paris records is Hugo, physicus excellens qui quadrivium docuit . Professors were required to have measurable knowledge and be appointed by

9882-427: The first term of study. It is also the case at the University of Dublin. The abbreviated name of the university (Oxon, Cantab or Dubl) is therefore almost always appended in parentheses to the initials "MA" in the same way that it is to higher degrees, e.g. "John Smith, MA (Cantab), PhD (Lond)", principally so that it is clear (to those who are aware of the system) that these are nominal and unexamined degrees. The MLitt

10004-517: The former East Germany , where all degree courses led to a Diplom . Traditional Magister degrees are granted in social sciences and most of the humanities ( international business , European studies and economics included), with the exception of visual and performing arts such as music and theatre. The Magister Artium held either a double major degree or a combination of one major and two minors. German postgraduate Master of Arts and Master of Science degrees were introduced in 2001. Therefore,

10126-433: The four faculties were already formally established by 1254, when the university described in a letter "theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and rational, natural, and moral philosophy". The masters of theology often set the example for the other faculties—e.g., they were the first to adopt an official seal. The faculties of theology, canon law, and medicine, were called "superior faculties". The title of " Dean " as designating

10248-455: The head of a faculty, came into use by 1268 in the faculties of law and medicine, and by 1296 in the faculty of theology. It seems that at first the deans were the oldest masters. The faculty of arts continued to have four procurators of its four nations and its head was the rector. As the faculties became more fully organized, the division into four nations partially disappeared for theology, law and medicine, though it continued in arts. Eventually

10370-403: The help of academics. Their proposal was adopted on 12 November 1968; in accordance with the new law, the faculties of the University of Paris were to reorganize themselves. This led to the division of the University of Paris into 13 universities. In 2017, Paris 4 and Paris 6 universities merged to form the Sorbonne University . In 2019, Paris 5 and Paris 7 universities merged to form

10492-555: The higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin: France, Normandy, Picardy, and England. The last came to be known as the Alemannian (German) nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply: the English–German nation included students from Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. The faculty and nation system of the University of Paris (along with that of

10614-522: The honours degree, with its additional year after the bachelor's degree, corresponds more closely to the maîtrise diploma, a one-year master's degree in France. It corresponds to the first year (M1) of the french French master's degree . A number of honours degrees are offered by the University of Malta , and the Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology (MCAST), usually indicating an extra year of study with an undergraduate dissertation or

10736-541: The injury. Besides its teaching, the University of Paris played an important part in several disputes: in the Church, during the Great Schism ; in the councils, in dealing with heresies and divisions; in the State, during national crises. Under the domination of England it played a role in the trial of Joan of Arc . Proud of its rights and privileges, the University of Paris fought energetically to maintain them, hence

10858-463: The jurisdictional background of the student. The degree of Bachelor of Civil Law (BCL) is for those from a common law background, whilst the more recent Magister Juris is for those from civil law jurisdictions. More recently, Oxford and Cambridge offer the degree of Master of Business Administration. Master's degrees are generally offered without classification, although the top five percent may be deemed worthy of Distinction. Both universities also offer

10980-615: The links between the crowns of France and Navarre, it quickly accepted students from other nations. The establishment of the College of Navarre was a turning point in the university's history: Navarra was the first college to offer teaching to its students, which at the time set it apart from all previous colleges, founded as charitable institutions that provided lodging, but no tuition. Navarre's model combining lodging and tuition would be reproduced by other colleges, both in Paris and other universities . The German College, Collegium alemanicum

11102-483: The long struggle against the mendicant orders on academic as well as on religious grounds. Hence also the shorter conflict against the Jesuits , who claimed by word and action a share in its teaching. It made extensive use of its right to decide administratively according to occasion and necessity. In some instances it openly endorsed the censures of the faculty of theology and pronounced condemnation in its own name, as in

11224-433: The name University . Henry Denifle and some others hold that this honour is exclusive to the school of Notre-Dame (Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis), but the reasons do not seem convincing. He excludes Saint-Victor because, at the request of the abbot and the religious of Saint-Victor, Gregory IX in 1237 authorized them to resume the interrupted teaching of theology. But the university was largely founded about 1208, as

11346-456: The name. Prior to reforms for compliance with the Bologna process, a master's degree could only be obtained after five years of uninterrupted study. Under the new system, it takes only two years but requires a previously completed three-year bachelor's program (a Bc. title). Writing a thesis (in both master's and bachelor's programs) and passing final exams are necessary to obtain the degree. It

11468-625: The new Paris Cité University , leaving the number of successor universities at 11. The successor universities to the University of Paris are now split over of the Île-de-France region. Most of these successor universities have joined several groups of universities and higher education institutions in the Paris region, created in the 2010s. The Sorbonne has educated 11 French presidents , almost 50 French heads of government, three Popes ( Innocent III , Celestine II , and Adrian IV ), and many other political and social figures. The Sorbonne has also educated leaders of Albania, Canada,

11590-464: The new Master of Arts and the old Magister Artium degrees have existed side by side, since 2010; Magister Artium degrees are still awarded by some universities, as of 2020. The new Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts degrees together also require five years of studies, which is the reason the new Master of Arts and the old Magister Artium degrees are considered equivalent. In the Netherlands,

11712-764: The normal requirements. Some institutions do not have a separate honours programme, but instead refer to bachelor's degrees awarded with Latin honours , which may be based either on GPA or class position, as honours degrees. Universities in Hong Kong have four degree classifications: first class, second class upper division (or second class division one/I), second class lower division (or second class division two/II), and third class. Bachelor's degrees issued in Hong Kong are honour degrees and are abbreviated as BSc (Hons), BEng (Hons), BBA (Hons), etc. The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, and

11834-852: The oldest one was the Danish college, the Collegium danicum or dacicum , founded in 1257. Swedish students could, during the 13th and 14th centuries, live in one of three Swedish colleges, the Collegium Upsaliense , the Collegium Scarense or the Collegium Lincopense , named after the Swedish dioceses of Uppsala , Skara and Linköping . The Collège de Navarre was founded in 1305, originally aimed at students from Navarre , but due to its size, wealth, and

11956-410: The owners nor the dangers of the world. Thus were founded the colleges (colligere, to assemble); meaning not centers of instruction, but simple student boarding-houses. Each had a special goal, being established for students of the same nationality or the same science. Often, masters lived in each college and oversaw its activities. Four colleges appeared in the 12th century; they became more numerous in

12078-633: The queen led to suspension of the courses. The pope intervened with a bull that began with lavish praise of the university: "Paris", said Gregory IX , "mother of the sciences, is another Cariath-Sepher, city of letters". He commissioned the Bishops of Le Mans and Senlis and the Archdeacon of Châlons to negotiate with the French Court for the restoration of the university, but by the end of 1230 they had accomplished nothing. Gregory IX then addressed

12200-475: The required academic merit for honours are awarded a pass/ordinary/general degree. In Ireland, honours bachelor's degrees are at level 8 of the National Framework of Qualifications and are Bologna first cycle degrees. They normally follow a three or four year (180-240 ECTS credits ) course. The higher diploma may be awarded at the same level following a single year of study (60 ECTS credits) and

12322-680: The requirements for a higher education qualification at level 6 of the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications in full, and is a first-cycle, end-of-cycle award on the Qualifications Framework of the European Higher Education Area established by the Bologna process . Students can be awarded an "ordinary" degree if they achieve the required learning outcomes over a smaller volume of studies than

12444-425: The requirements for an integrated master's honours degree may receive a bachelor's honours degree. In England , Northern Ireland and Wales , almost all bachelor's degrees are awarded as honours degrees; in contrast, honours degrees are rarely awarded in the United States. The current British undergraduate degree classification system, with its division into first, upper and lower second, and third class honours,

12566-557: The revolutionaries, led by informal action committees, attacked and burned the Paris Stock Exchange in response. The Gaullist government then held talks with union leaders, who agreed to a package of wage-rises and increases in union rights. The strikers, however, simply refused the plan. With the French state tottering, de Gaulle fled France on May 29 for a French military base in Germany. He later returned and, with

12688-468: The school at 13 or 14 years of age and staying for six to 12 years. Three schools were especially famous in Paris: the palatine or palace school , the school of Notre-Dame , and that of Sainte-Geneviève Abbey . The latter two, although ancient, were initially eclipsed by the palatine school, until the decline of royalty brought about its decline. The first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève

12810-596: The school of the capital grew constantly, so that lodgings were insufficient. French students included princes of the blood , sons of the nobility, and ranking gentry. The courses at Paris were considered so necessary as a completion of studies that many foreigners flocked to them. Popes Celestine II , Adrian IV and Innocent III studied at Paris, and Alexander III sent his nephews there. Noted German and English students included Otto of Freisingen , Cardinal Conrad, Archbishop of Mainz , St. Thomas of Canterbury , and John of Salisbury ; while Ste-Geneviève became practically

12932-653: The second half of the twelfth century. They were mentioned in the Bull of Honorius III in 1222. Later, they formed a distinct body. By 1249, the four nations existed with their procurators, their rights (more or less well-defined), and their keen rivalries: the nations were the French, English, Normans, and Picards. After the Hundred Years' War, the English nation was replaced by the Germanic. The four nations constituted

13054-435: The seminary for Denmark . The chroniclers of the time called Paris the city of letters par excellence, placing it above Athens , Alexandria , Rome, and other cities: "At that time, there flourished at Paris philosophy and all branches of learning, and there the seven arts were studied and held in such esteem as they never were at Athens, Egypt, Rome, or elsewhere in the world." ("Les gestes de Philippe-Auguste"). Poets extolled

13176-401: The students demanded lower. This tension between scholars and citizens would have developed into a sort of civil war if Robert de Courçon had not found the remedy of taxation. It was upheld in the Bull of Gregory IX of 1231, but with an important modification: its exercise was to be shared with the citizens. The aim was to offer the students a shelter where they would fear neither annoyance from

13298-503: The superior faculties included only doctors, leaving the bachelors to the faculty of arts. At this period, therefore, the university had two principal degrees , the baccalaureate and the doctorate. It was not until much later that the licentiate and the DEA became intermediate degrees. The scattered condition of the scholars in Paris often made lodging difficult. Some students rented rooms from townspeople, who often exacted high rates while

13420-528: The university in their verses, comparing it to all that was greatest, noblest, and most valuable in the world. To allow poor students to study the first college des dix-Huit was founded by a knight returning from Jerusalem called Josse of London for 18 scholars who received lodgings and 12 pence or denarii a month. As the university developed, it became more institutionalized. First, the professors formed an association, for according to Matthew Paris , John of Celles , twenty-first Abbot of St Albans , England,

13542-402: The university organization. In 1200, King Philip II issued a diploma "for the security of the scholars of Paris," which affirmed that students were subject only to ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The provost and other officers were forbidden to arrest a student for any offence, unless to transfer him to ecclesiastical authority. The king's officers could not intervene with any member unless having

13664-403: The university. Applicants had to be assessed by examination ; if successful, the examiner, who was the head of the school, and known as scholasticus , capiscol , and chancellor, appointed an individual to teach. This was called the licence or faculty to teach. The licence had to be granted freely. No one could teach without it; on the other hand, the examiner could not refuse to award it when

13786-685: Was Hubold , who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège , he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the eleventh century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres ; Drogo of Paris ; Manegold of Germany ; and Anselm of Laon . These two schools attracted scholars from every country and produced many illustrious men, among whom were: St. Stanislaus of Szczepanów , Bishop of Kraków; Gebbard, Archbishop of Salzburg ; St. Stephen, third Abbot of Cîteaux ; Robert d'Arbrissel , founder of

13908-460: Was admitted as a member of the teaching corps of Paris after he had followed the courses ( Vita Joannis I, XXI, abbat. S. Alban ). The masters, as well as the students, were divided according to national origin,. Alban wrote that Henry II, King of England , in his difficulties with St. Thomas of Canterbury, wanted to submit his cause to a tribunal composed of professors of Paris, chosen from various provinces (Hist. major, Henry II, to end of 1169). This

14030-404: Was as important as reading. The licence was granted, according to custom, gratuitously, without oath or condition. Masters and students were permitted to unite, even by oath, in defence of their rights, when they could not otherwise obtain justice in serious matters. No mention is made either of law or of medicine, probably because these sciences were less prominent. In 1229, a denial of justice by

14152-722: Was developed in 1918 to distinguish between students on the basis of their academic achievement. The concept of an "honours" degree goes back much further than this, however, as there were examinations for honours in the original regulations of the University of London in 1839, and Nevil Maskelyne being recorded as taking a bachelor's degree with honours at Cambridge in 1754. Other countries and territories influenced by this system include Australia, Brunei, Canada, New Zealand, Malta, Singapore, South Africa, The Netherlands and Hong Kong. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, bachelor's degrees are normally awarded "with honours" after three years of study. The bachelor's degree with honours meets

14274-672: Was founded by the Archbishop of Rouen in the 14th century, and reformed in the 15th century by the humanist Jan Standonck , when it attracted reformers from within the Roman Catholic Church (such as Erasmus and Ignatius of Loyola ) and those who subsequently became Protestants ( John Calvin and John Knox ). At this time, the university also went the controversy of the condemnations of 1210–1277 . The Irish College in Paris originated in 1578 with students dispersed between Collège Montaigu, Collège de Boncourt, and

14396-446: Was less an innovation than a recall to observance of the old rules, as was the reform of 1600, undertaken by the royal government with regard to the three higher faculties. Nonetheless, and as to the faculty of arts, the reform of 1600 introduced the study of Greek, of French poets and orators, and of additional classical figures like Hesiod , Plato , Demosthenes , Cicero , Virgil , and Sallust . The prohibition from teaching civil law

14518-507: Was likely the start of the division according to "nations," which was later to play an important part in the university. Celestine III ruled that both professors and students had the privilege of being subject only to the ecclesiastical courts, not to civil courts. The three schools: Notre-Dame, Sainte-Geneviève, and Saint-Victor, may be regarded as the triple cradle of the Universitas scholarium , which included masters and students; hence

14640-421: Was never well observed at Paris, but in 1679 Louis XIV officially authorized the teaching of civil law in the faculty of decretals . The "faculty of law" hence replaced the "faculty of decretals". The colleges meantime had multiplied; those of Cardinal Le-Moine and Navarre were founded in the fourteenth century. The Hundred Years' War was fatal to these establishments, but the university set about remedying

14762-520: Was not to be restored after the Revolution had subsided, no more than those of the provinces. The university was re-established by Napoleon on 1 May 1806. All the faculties were replaced by a single centre, the University of France . The decree of 17 March 1808 created five distinct faculties: Law, Medicine, Letters/Humanities, Sciences, and Theology; traditionally, Letters and Sciences had been grouped together into one faculty, that of "Arts". After

14884-640: Was the Scriptures and the Patristic Fathers. It was completed by the study of Canon law . The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève. It was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor. Its most famous professors are Hugh of St. Victor and Richard of St. Victor . The plan of studies expanded in the schools of Paris, as it did elsewhere. A Bolognese compendium of canon law called

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