Annunitum ( 𒀭𒉡𒉌𒌈 ; also romanized as Anunītu ) was a Mesopotamian goddess associated with warfare. She was initially an epithet of Ishtar of Akkad exemplifying her warlike aspect, but by the late third millennium BCE she came to function as a distinct deity. She was the tutelary goddess of the cities of Akkad and Sippar-Amnanum, though she was also worshiped elsewhere in Mesopotamia.
112-437: The Magosian is the name given by archaeologists to an industry found in southern and eastern Africa . It dates to between 10,000 and 6,000 years BC and is distinguished from its predecessors by the use of microliths and small blades . In 1953, J. Desmond Clark found a notable site of Magosian artifacts at Kalambo Falls , on what is now the border between Zambia and Tanzania . This African archaeology article
224-455: A kudurru from the Kassite period indicates that Annunitum was among the deities regarded as capable of inflicting oath-breakers with leprosy, a role shared with deities such as Sin , Shamash , Ishtar, Anu and Enlil . Annunitum could be regarded as a daughter of Sin, though references to this association are entirely limited to Nabonidus' inscriptions. It is presumed that this tradition
336-449: A banquet ( kaš-dé-a ) held in summer, and elūnum , the nature of which is uncertain. A temple dedicated to her is well attested in administrative texts, and might have been originally built by Shu-Sin . In one of his inscriptions presumed to commemorate this event he refers to her as his spouse. Two Ur III texts from Ur of uncertain dating mentions the staff ( gìr-sè-ga ) of the temples of Annunitum, Shuwala and Allatum . Kings from
448-464: A basic level of analysis, artifacts found are cleaned, catalogued and compared to published collections. This comparison process often involves classifying them typologically and identifying other sites with similar artifact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through archaeological science , meaning that artifacts can be dated and their compositions examined. Bones, plants, and pollen collected from
560-563: A big impact throughout Europe. However, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard; the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. In the mid-18th century, the German Johann Joachim Winckelmann lived in Rome and devoted himself to the study of Roman antiquities, gradually acquiring an unrivalled knowledge of ancient art. Then, he visited
672-401: A clear objective as to what the archaeologists are looking to achieve must be agreed upon. This done, a site is surveyed to find out as much as possible about it and the surrounding area. Second, an excavation may take place to uncover any archaeological features buried under the ground. And, third, the information collected during the excavation is studied and evaluated in an attempt to achieve
784-544: A collection of hymns from the Ur III period treats Inanna of Uruk, Inanna of Zabalam and Inanna of Ulmaš (Ishtar of Akkad) as three separate deities, with separate compositions dedicated to each of them. Sharlach suggests that to accommodate this information, the study of "forms" of Ishtar in Mesopotamian sources requires relying on a methodology developed by Gary Beckman for the purpose of study of deities designated by
896-524: A collective. However, her elevation under Nabonidus had no impact on her popularity in theophoric names, with only two examples attested in texts from his reign. Sources from the Achaemenid period indicate that Annunitum retained her position in offering lists established during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II. During the reigns of Cyrus and Darius she received offerings referred to as maḫḫuru , which consisted of sheep, barley or dates. The E-ulmaš
1008-451: A field survey. Regional survey is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. Site survey is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and middens , within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods. Survey was not widely practised in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering
1120-509: A fire and remained uninhabited for around 200 years. The cult of Annunitum was most likely transferred to Sippar-Yahrurum as a result. The Kassite kings Shagarakti-Shuriash and Kurigalzu I according to commemorative inscriptions repaired the E-maš of Annunitum in Sippar-Annunītu. The toponym might be either an alternate name of Sippar-Amnanum, or alternatively the part of the city where
1232-484: A lack of public interest, and opposition to the excavation of human remains. In Ancient Mesopotamia , a foundation deposit of the Akkadian Empire ruler Naram-Sin (ruled c. 2200 BC ) was discovered and analysed by king Nabonidus , c. 550 BC , who is thus known as the first archaeologist. Not only did he lead the first excavations which were to find the foundation deposits of
SECTION 10
#17327661174501344-528: A large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ sampling methods.) As with other forms of non-destructive archaeology, survey avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as settlement patterns and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into maps , which may show surface features and/or artifact distribution. The simplest survey technique
1456-686: A pair of distinct goddesses as opposed to a singular Ishtar-Annunitum. By the end of the third millennium BCE, Annunitum was widely recognized as a separate goddess. In the Ur III period , she was worshiped separately from Ishtar in Nippur , Ur and Uruk , and by the Old Babylonian period both of them had separate temples in Sippar , respectively the E-ulmaš and E-edina. Spencer J. Allen refers to
1568-484: A robe leaving one shoulder and breast exposed, similarly to Ishtar and Aya. It is assumed that this garment was meant to highlight beauty, charm and sex appeal. In Mesopotamian astronomy Annunitum's name was used to refer to a constellation corresponding to part of Pisces , specifically the eastern fish. An ikribu prayer dedicated to her in this role is known. However, she was usually not described as an astral deity , in contrast with Ishtar. A curse formula on
1680-500: A separate house of worship. It continued to function through the first millennium BCE. An Old Babylonian prayer additionally associated Annunitum with the E-turkalamma ("house, cattle pen of the land"), though the main deity of this temple was Bēlet-Bābili (Ishtar of Babylon). In the Ur III period a shrine dedicated to Annunitum existed near Eresh , though it ceased to function in the third decade of Shulgi's reign. Annunitum
1792-578: A site can all be analyzed using the methods of zooarchaeology , paleoethnobotany , palynology and stable isotopes while any texts can usually be deciphered . Annunitum As attested in cuneiform texts from the Old Akkadian period onward, Annunitum's name was typically written as an-nu-ni-tum . Starting with the Old Babylonian period it was prefaced with the "divine determinative " ( dingir ). While an-nu-ni-tum remained
1904-504: A site excavated depends greatly on the country and "method statement" issued. Sampling is even more important in excavation than in survey. Sometimes large mechanical equipment, such as backhoes ( JCBs ), is used in excavation, especially to remove the topsoil ( overburden ), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with trowels or hoes to ensure that all features are apparent. The next task
2016-414: A site reveals its stratigraphy; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct cultures, artifacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures. Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research, in relative terms. Also, as a destructive process, it carries ethical concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. Again the percentage of
2128-589: A situation in which a major deity was superimposed over a preexisting one whose name was only preserved in the name of the temple, this theory lacks evidence other than the presence of names with phrases like Ulmaš seemingly functioning as a theophoric element, which can be explained as the temple name itself being regarded as divine, rather than as proof of the existence of otherwise unattested deity Ulmaš. The temple has not been excavated yet, and its full history remains uncertain. Tonia Sharlach speculatively suggests Sippar already became Annunitum's main cult center in
2240-408: A sole source. The material record may be closer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own biases, such as sampling bias and differential preservation. Often, archaeology provides the only means to learn of the existence and behaviors of people of the past. Across the millennia many thousands of cultures and societies and billions of people have come and gone of which there
2352-527: A stone wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as middens ) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening grain , which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial photographs taken at different times of day will help show the outlines of structures by changes in shadows. Aerial survey also employs ultraviolet , infrared , ground-penetrating radar wavelengths, Lidar and thermography . Geophysical survey can be
SECTION 20
#17327661174502464-487: A systematic guide to the ruins and topography of ancient Rome in the early 15th century, for which he has been called an early founder of archaeology. Antiquarians of the 16th century, including John Leland and William Camden , conducted surveys of the English countryside, drawing, describing and interpreting the monuments that they encountered. The OED first cites "archaeologist" from 1824; this soon took over as
2576-547: A temple in Susa to Annunitum. Texts from the same city contemporary with Old Babylonian sources from Mesopotamia mention priests in her service and preserve a number of theophoric names invoking her. It has been suggested that the theonym Annu known from texts from Mari might be a variant form of Annunitum or otherwise related to her. However, Ichiro Nakata argues that Annu's character should be considered unknown, and that only her gender can be established with certainty. Annuis
2688-468: A temple of Annunitum. In the Old Babylonian period Annunitum was also worshiped in Malgium . The local ruler Takil-ilissu mentioned her alongside Ulmašītum, Anu, Ninshubur , Dan-bītum and Rašub-bītum in a foundation inscription imploring them to punish anyone who would destroy this text. Nathan Wasserman and Ygal Bloch suggest that he might have mentioned her in order to evoke the tradition of rulers of
2800-495: A wide range of influences, including systems theory , neo-evolutionary thought , [35] phenomenology , postmodernism , agency theory , cognitive science , structural functionalism , Marxism , gender-based and feminist archaeology , queer theory , postcolonial thoughts , materiality , and posthumanism . An archaeological investigation usually involves several distinct phases, each of which employs its own variety of methods. Before any practical work can begin, however,
2912-399: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Archaeologist Archaeology or archeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture . The archaeological record consists of artifacts , architecture , biofacts or ecofacts, sites , and cultural landscapes . Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of
3024-497: Is also attested in the god list An = Anum (tablet V, line 185), though there this deity is assigned a similar role in association with Birtum instead. In the Old Akkadian period Ishtar-Annunitum was considered the tutelary goddess of the city of Akkad, and it has been described as the main cult center of Annunitum as a distinct deity as well. A temple dedicated to her existed in this city, but its full ceremonial name
3136-528: Is an extension of presenting Sin as the father of Ishtar. A unique passage from Nabonidus' Eḫulḫul [ de ] cylinder simultaneously referring to Enlil and Sin as Annunitum's fathers is presumed to reflect the so-called "theology of the moon", an idea attested in Neo-Assyrian in Neo-Babylonian texts according to which Sin possessed the powers of Enlil, Anu and Ea while the moon
3248-606: Is distinct from palaeontology , which is the study of fossil remains. Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for which, by definition, there are no written records. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies around the world. Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. Derived from Greek,
3360-408: Is listed after Dīrītum and before Ḫubur as a recipient of six sheep in a text documenting offerings made after Zimri-Lim's ascension, and between Mārat-iltim and Bēlet-biri in another similar source focused on sacrifices to the deities of Terqa . One of the earliest year names of Zimri-Lim commemorates the construction of a statue of Annunitum in the city of Šeḫrum, located close to Mari and Der. In
3472-451: Is little or no written record or existing records are misrepresentative or incomplete. Writing as it is known today did not exist in human civilization until the 4th millennium BC, in a relatively small number of technologically advanced civilizations. In contrast, Homo sapiens has existed for at least 200,000 years, and other species of Homo for millions of years (see Human evolution ). These civilizations are, not coincidentally,
Magosian - Misplaced Pages Continue
3584-426: Is no one approach to archaeological theory that has been adhered to by all archaeologists. When archaeology developed in the late 19th century, the first approach to archaeological theory to be practised was that of cultural-historical archaeology , which held the goal of explaining why cultures changed and adapted rather than just highlighting the fact that they did, therefore emphasizing historical particularism . In
3696-405: Is no unambiguous evidence for the existence of Sippar-Amnanum before the Ur III period, and that later rulers like Nabonidus do not claim the temple of Annunitum was founded during the Old Akkadian period, which makes the early dating implausible. The worship of Annunitum in the Old Babylonian is well documented in the archive of Ur-Utu who served as her chief lamentation priest ( kalamāḫu ). She
3808-610: Is not known. It is mentioned in the Khorsbad temple list, which is known from only one exemplar and focused on houses of worship located in the north of Mesopotamia, including the Diyala basin and Transtigridian regions. Annunitum was adopted as a personal deity by Naram-Sin of Akkad, and apparently after his deification he was considered to be married to her. By the Ur III period Akkad ceased to be considered an important city, but Annunitum's cult spread across Mesopotamia. Through
3920-478: Is one of the only three goddesses attested as divine witnesses in legal texts from Sippar, the other two being Aya and Mamu . A street, a gate and a canal named after her existed in Sippar-Amnanum. The number of theophoric names invoking her increased after the reign of Hammurabi , rising from 1% in early Old Babylonian sources to over 6%. After the reign of Ammi-Saduqa Sippar-Amnanum was destroyed in
4032-443: Is reflected or emitted from the observed scene. Passive instruments sense only radiation emitted by the object being viewed or reflected by the object from a source other than the instrument. Active instruments emit energy and record what is reflected. Satellite imagery is an example of passive remote sensing. Here are two active remote sensing instruments: The archaeological project then continues (or alternatively, begins) with
4144-501: Is related to an identically named demon associated with the steppe ( maškim-edin-na-ke 4 ) who appears in the god list An = Anum (tablet IV, line 270), and with a further figure sharing this name equated in a late esoteric text with Lugaldukuga . In Old Babylonian Mari Nunu appears in twelve types of masculine theophoric names and six types of feminine ones. Attestations from outside Mari are known too, but they are similarly limited to theophoric names. The oldest known examples are
4256-505: Is still mentioned in an administrative text dated to the reign of the latter ruler. Annunitum is first attested in Mari in the Ur III period, though her importance in the local pantheon only grew in the Old Babylonian period. During the reign of Zimri-Lim she was one of the nine deities who received the most offerings during festivals, next to the local god Itūr-Mēr , Dagan , Belet Ekallim, Nergal , Shamash, Ea, Ninhursag and Addu . She
4368-428: Is surface survey. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanized transport, to search for features or artifacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as augers , corers, and shovel test pits. If no materials are found,
4480-596: Is through archaeology. Because archaeology is the study of past human activity, it stretches back to about 2.5 million years ago when the first stone tools are found – The Oldowan Industry . Many important developments in human history occurred during prehistory, such as the evolution of humanity during the Paleolithic period, when the hominins developed from the australopithecines in Africa and eventually into modern Homo sapiens . Archaeology also sheds light on many of humanity's technological advances, for instance
4592-431: Is to form a site plan and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the natural subsoil are normally excavated in portions to produce a visible archaeological section for recording. A feature, for example a pit or a ditch, consists of two parts: the cut and the fill . The cut describes the edge of the feature, where the feature meets the natural soil. It is the feature's boundary. The fill
Magosian - Misplaced Pages Continue
4704-420: Is what the feature is filled with, and will often appear quite distinct from the natural soil. The cut and fill are given consecutive numbers for recording purposes. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and recording sheets are filled in describing the context of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of
4816-469: The Epic of Zimri-Lim , she is said to assist the king during his campaigns. A temple dedicated to Annunitum existed in Mari; it was referred to simply as E-Anunnītim, "Annunitum's house". A qadištu resided in it. One of the letters sent to Zimri-Lim by his wife Shibtu deals with a prophecy of Annunitum delivered by Ili-ḫaznaya, a member of her temple's staff, who explained that the goddess wants to warn
4928-580: The Seleucid period , she might have been one of the deities celebrated during the akītu festival of Ishtar, which focused on her various local manifestations (such as Urkayītu and Bēlet-Eanna of Udannu) and courtiers (such as Kilili ). However, her only possible attestation occurs in a broken passage, and the restoration of the name is uncertain. A mace head dedicated to Ishtar-Anunnitum by Rimush has been discovered during excavations in Assur . One of
5040-530: The humanities . It is usually considered an independent academic discipline , but may also be classified as part of anthropology (in North America – the four-field approach ), history or geography . Archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology
5152-580: The trench method , on several Native American burial mounds in Virginia . His excavations were prompted by the "Moundbuilders" question ; however, his careful methods led him to admit he saw no reason why ancestors of the Native Americans of his time could not have raised those mounds. One of the major achievements of 19th-century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy . The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods
5264-559: The 1870s. These scholars individuated nine different cities that had overlapped with one another, from prehistory to the Hellenistic period . Meanwhile, the work of Sir Arthur Evans at Knossos in Crete revealed the ancient existence of an equally advanced Minoan civilization . The next major figure in the development of archaeology was Sir Mortimer Wheeler , whose highly disciplined approach to excavation and systematic coverage in
5376-642: The 1920s and 1930s brought the science on swiftly. Wheeler developed the grid system of excavation , which was further improved by his student Kathleen Kenyon . Archaeology became a professional activity in the first half of the 20th century, and it became possible to study archaeology as a subject in universities and even schools. By the end of the 20th century nearly all professional archaeologists, at least in developed countries, were graduates. Further adaptation and innovation in archaeology continued in this period, when maritime archaeology and urban archaeology became more prevalent and rescue archaeology
5488-709: The Akkadian Empire. In Nineveh in the Neo-Assyrian period Annunitum might have been worshiped in the temple of Ishtar of Nineveh, without necessarily being identified with her. On the seal of Zardamu, a king of Karaḫar from the Ur III period, Annunitum is addressed as his mother. An inscription of the Elamite king Atta-hušu of the Sukkalmah dynasty written in Akkadian indicates that he dedicated
5600-485: The E-ulmaš in the sixteenth year of his reign. According to one of his inscriptions, he was instructed to do so by Annunitum in a dream. He also states that when the work started, inscriptions of Shagarakti-Shuriash were discovered, and the rebuilding followed guidance found in them. During his reign Annunitum was also the only deity for whom a separate clothing ceremony ( lubuštu ) was held; such celebrations are otherwise only attested for Shamash alongside gods of Sippar as
5712-526: The Neo-Babylonian period and survive in the form of a compilation. Most likely scribes worked with a cache of foundation deposits of both kings. The inscription of Shagarakti-Shuriash refers to him as "the shepherd, favorite of Šamaš and beloved of Annunītum" ( sipa še-ga UTU -ke ki-áĝ an-nu-ni-tu 4 ), which likely influenced Nabonidus' description of him as "the favorite of Shamash and Annunitum" ( mi-gi-ir UTU u a-nu-ni-tu 4 ). Texts from
SECTION 50
#17327661174505824-505: The Old Babylonian period she remained one of the goddesses most commonly invoked in personal letters, and appears in them with comparable frequency to Aya, Gula , Ninsianna and Zarpanitum , though less commonly than Ishtar. She continued to be worshiped across Mesopotamia up to the Neo-Babylonian period . Annunitum was considered an important deity in Sippar. As already attested in the Old Babylonian period, she could be referred to with
5936-505: The Song period, were revived in the 17th century during the Qing dynasty , but were always considered a branch of Chinese historiography rather than a separate discipline of archaeology. In Renaissance Europe , philosophical interest in the remains of Greco - Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Ages , with humanism . Cyriacus of Ancona
6048-676: The Spanish military engineer Roque Joaquín de Alcubierre in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum , both of which had been covered by ash during the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 . These excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, as well the unearthing of frescos , had
6160-533: The Third Dynasty of Ur also introduced Annunitum to Uruk. She was worshiped there as one of the members of the entourage of Inanna, as attested in the archive of Shulgi-simti. However, she later disappears from texts from this city until the first millennium BCE. A letter from the scholar Mār-Ištar to a Neo-Assyrian ruler, most likely Esarhaddon , mentions the repair of statues representing her, Nanaya , Uṣur-amāssu , Kurunnītu and IGI.DU . A text from
6272-767: The UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the Portable Antiquities Scheme . Regional survey in underwater archaeology uses geophysical or remote sensing devices such as marine magnetometer, side-scan sonar , or sub-bottom sonar. Archaeological excavation existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as stratigraphy , three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context. Modern excavation techniques require that
6384-508: The Ur III period. Jennie Myers suggests that Annunitum might have become its tutelary goddess during the reign of the Sargonic dynasty based on the name of her temple. However, she acknowledges that there is no evidence for the existence of this house of worship before the Old Babylonian period and that the oldest reference to Annunitum being worshiped in Sippar is a text from the reign of Sabium . Alexa Bartelmus and Jon Taylor stress there
6496-426: The ability to use fire, the development of stone tools , the discovery of metallurgy , the beginnings of religion and the creation of agriculture . Without archaeology, little or nothing would be known about the use of material culture by humanity that pre-dates writing. However, it is not only prehistoric, pre-literate cultures that can be studied using archaeology but historic, literate cultures as well, through
6608-408: The archaeological excavations being conducted at Pompeii and Herculaneum . He was one of the founders of scientific archaeology and first applied the categories of style on a large, systematic basis to the history of art He was one of the first to separate Greek art into periods and time classifications. Winckelmann has been called both "The prophet and founding hero of modern archaeology " and
6720-434: The area surveyed is deemed sterile . Aerial survey is conducted using cameras attached to airplanes , balloons , UAVs , or even Kites . A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial photographs are used to document the status of the archaeological dig. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. Plants growing above a buried human-made structure, such as
6832-560: The artifacts they had found in chronological order. A major figure in the development of archaeology into a rigorous science was army officer and ethnologist Augustus Pitt Rivers , who began excavations on his land in England in the 1880s. Highly methodical by the standards of the time, he is widely regarded as the first scientific archaeologist. He arranged his artifacts by type or " Typology (archaeology) ", and within types chronologically. This style of arrangement, designed to highlight
SECTION 60
#17327661174506944-563: The best-known; they are open to the inquiry of historians for centuries, while the study of pre-historic cultures has arisen only recently. Within a literate civilization many events and important human practices may not be officially recorded. Any knowledge of the early years of human civilization – the development of agriculture, cult practices of folk religion, the rise of the first cities – must come from archaeology. In addition to their scientific importance, archaeological remains sometimes have political or cultural significance to descendants of
7056-508: The connection between them originally developed in this location. Tonia Sharlach notes that while distinct from each other, they appear in sources from the Ur III period together frequently and compares them to a pair of twins. She also points out in the archive of Shulgi-simti they effectively form a quartet with Belet-Šuḫnir and Belet-Terraban . Wolfgang Heimpel proposes that in Old Babylonian Mari Annunitum
7168-473: The early 20th century, many archaeologists who studied past societies with direct continuing links to existing ones (such as those of Native Americans , Siberians , Mesoamericans etc.) followed the direct historical approach , compared the continuity between the past and contemporary ethnic and cultural groups. In the 1960s, an archaeological movement largely led by American archaeologists like Lewis Binford and Kent Flannery arose that rebelled against
7280-643: The empirical evidence that existed for the understanding of the past, encapsulated in the motto of the 18th century antiquary, Sir Richard Colt Hoare : "We speak from facts, not theory". Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment period in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. In Imperial China during the Song dynasty (960–1279), figures such as Ouyang Xiu and Zhao Mingcheng established
7392-609: The epithet Šarrat-Sipparim, :queen of Sippar", though it was also applied to Ishtar. She was the tutelary goddess of Sippar-Amnanum , modern Tell ed-Der, located next to ancient Sippar-Yahrurum, modern Abu Habbah, which in antiquity was a cult center of Shamash and Aya. She was worshiped in a temple beating the ceremonial name E-ulmaš, similarly as the temple of Ishtar in Akkad. Its meaning remains unknown; Paul-Alain Beaulieu notes that while It has been proposed that this might reflect
7504-644: The established cultural-history archaeology. They proposed a "New Archaeology", which would be more "scientific" and "anthropological", with hypothesis testing and the scientific method very important parts of what became known as processual archaeology . In the 1980s, a new postmodern movement arose led by the British archaeologists Michael Shanks , Christopher Tilley , Daniel Miller , and Ian Hodder , which has become known as post-processual archaeology . It questioned processualism's appeals to scientific positivism and impartiality, and emphasized
7616-633: The evolutionary trends in human artifacts, was of enormous significance for the accurate dating of the objects. His most important methodological innovation was his insistence that all artifacts, not just beautiful or unique ones, be collected and catalogued. William Flinders Petrie is another man who may legitimately be called the Father of Archaeology. His painstaking recording and study of artifacts, both in Egypt and later in Palestine , laid down many of
7728-538: The father of the discipline of art history . The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington (1754–1810). He undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of Neolithic and Bronze Age barrows , and the terms he used to categorize and describe them are still used by archaeologists today. Future U.S. President Thomas Jefferson also did his own excavations in 1784 using
7840-765: The fifteenth century, and the general accuracy of his records entitles him to be called the founding father of modern classical archeology." He traveled throughout Greece and all around the Eastern Mediterranean, to record his findings on ancient buildings, statues and inscriptions, including archaeological remains still unknown to his time: the Parthenon , Delphi , the Egyptian pyramids , the hieroglyphics . He noted down his archaeological discoveries in his diary, Commentaria (in six volumes). Flavio Biondo , an Italian Renaissance humanist historian, created
7952-528: The first history books of India. One of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey (1626–1697) was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other field monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings. He attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out by
8064-475: The ideas behind modern archaeological recording; he remarked that "I believe the true line of research lies in the noting and comparison of the smallest details." Petrie developed the system of dating layers based on pottery and ceramic findings , which revolutionized the chronological basis of Egyptology . Petrie was the first to scientifically investigate the Great Pyramid in Egypt during the 1880s. He
8176-472: The importance of a more self-critical theoretical reflexivity . However, this approach has been criticized by processualists as lacking scientific rigor, and the validity of both processualism and post-processualism is still under debate. Meanwhile, another theory, known as historical processualism , has emerged seeking to incorporate a focus on process and post-processual archaeology's emphasis of reflexivity and history. Archaeological theory now borrows from
8288-423: The king about a rebellion. In another letter a woman named Addu-duri, who addresses herself as a maidservant of Zimri-Lim, informs the king that a female ecstatic ( muḫḫûtum ) conveyed another message of Annunitum meant for him, according to which he should remain in Mari and avoid travel, as it will let the goddess continue to communicate with him. Later on in the kingdom of Khana , centered on Terqa, Annunitum
8400-489: The lady of battle. She originally exemplified the martial side of Ishtar. An inscription of Nabonidus describes her as armed with a bow and arrows. An earlier cylinder seal from Sippar assumed to depict her in the company of another goddess, likely Aya , shows her holding a trident -like weapon. Another possible depiction of Annunitum on a cylinder seal shows her standing on the back of two addorsed lion-griffons. Other seals from Sippar indicate she could be depicted in
8512-444: The lives and interests of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into libraries and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases, assumptions, cultural values and possibly deceptions of a limited range of individuals, usually a small fraction of the larger population. Hence, written records cannot be trusted as
8624-671: The locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible features there. Gordon Willey pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the Viru Valley of coastal Peru , and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later. Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artifacts. (Nevertheless, surveying
8736-514: The logogram IŠTAR in Hittite texts, such as the Hurrian Šauška . As summarized by Beckman, "in some respects (...) Ištar-figures partake of a common essence, while in others they are distinct". He also notes that "any special features of the varieties will become apparent only if each is initially studied in isolation". Annunitum was regarded as a warlike goddess. She could be addressed as
8848-457: The most common spelling in the Kassite period as well, in sources from the first millennium BCE a-nu-ni-tum , already known from a single Old Babylonian text and from a late Kassite inscription of king Meli-Shipak , became standard. An Old Babylonian prayer (CBS 19842) additionally preserves the shortened form a-nu-na , romanized by Wilfred G. Lambert as Anūna. There is no certainty whether
8960-724: The most effective way to see beneath the ground. Magnetometers detect minute deviations in the Earth's magnetic field caused by iron artifacts, kilns , some types of stone structures , and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the electrical resistivity of the soil are also widely used. Archaeological features whose electrical resistivity contrasts with that of surrounding soils can be detected and mapped. Some archaeological features (such as those composed of stone or brick) have higher resistivity than typical soils, while others (such as organic deposits or unfired clay) tend to have lower resistivity. Although some archaeologists consider
9072-443: The now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site. Once artifacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them. This process is known as post-excavation analysis , and is usually the most time-consuming part of an archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for final excavation reports for major sites to take years to be published. At
9184-402: The original pronunciation is better reflected by romanization with a single or double n. It is presumed that Annunitum's name is derived from the root ‘nn , "warlike". It can be translated as " skirmisher " or "the martial one". Etymological connections with phonetically similar theonyms Anu , Antu and Anunna have been ruled out. Annunitum was originally an epithet of Ishtar as
9296-529: The original research objectives of the archaeologists. It is then considered good practice for the information to be published so that it is available to other archaeologists and historians, although this is sometimes neglected. Before actually starting to dig in a location, remote sensing can be used to look where sites are located within a large area or provide more information about sites or regions. There are two types of remote sensing instruments—passive and active. Passive instruments detect natural energy that
9408-413: The past. Since its early development, various specific sub-disciplines of archaeology have developed, including maritime archaeology , feminist archaeology , and archaeoastronomy , and numerous different scientific techniques have been developed to aid archaeological investigation. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology , the looting of artifacts,
9520-698: The people who produced them, monetary value to collectors, or strong aesthetic appeal. Many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic, religious, political, or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies. This view is often espoused in works of popular fiction, such as Raiders of the Lost Ark, The Mummy, and King Solomon's Mines. When unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously, accusations of pseudoscience are invariably levelled at their proponents (see Pseudoarchaeology ) . However, these endeavours, real and fictional, are not representative of modern archaeology. There
9632-491: The phenomenon of epithets of Mesopotamian deities becoming distinct figures as "divine splintering". Other comparable cases of an epithet of Ishtar becoming a distinct deity include Dīrītu , Urkayītu and Arbilītu . Tonia Sharlach in her study of Annunitum and other goddesses worshiped in the court of Shulgi notes that it might be more accurate to refer to the names Ishtar and Inanna as "something of an umbrella term " designating multiple interconnected deities. For example,
9744-550: The precise locations of objects and features, known as their provenance or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see Primary Laws of Archaeology ). Likewise, their association , or relationship with nearby objects and features , needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce which artifacts and features were likely used together and which may be from different phases of activity. For example, excavation of
9856-457: The reign of Nabu-apla-iddina mentions a šangû priest in her service. Paul-Alain Beaulieu suggests she might have been one of the minor goddesses worshiped in the Eanna complex, similarly to Aḫlamayītu , Bēlet-balāṭi , Kurunnītu and Kanisurra , and that members of this group were collectively referred to as "the ladies" ( GAŠAN.MEŠ = bēlētu ), but stresses the evidence is inconclusive. In
9968-441: The reign of Tiglath-pileser I indicate Annunitum remained a major goddess in the local pantheon through the twelfth century, but at an unknown point in time her position started to decline. According to an inscription of Nabonidus, the E-ulmaš was eventually destroyed by Sennacherib . No other sources refer to this event, but it is presumed that the account reflects historical reality. Nabonidus additionally asserts that Annunitum
10080-450: The reign of Nabopolassar she is the last of the deities mentioned, but her position improved during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II. According to Nabonidus' inscriptions she was subsequently returned to Sippar-Amnanum by Neriglissar , who renovated her statue. Nabonidus elevated Annunitum's position in the pantheon of Sippar. It is assumed that he considered her one of the most important deities next to Sin, Shamash and Ishtar. He rebuilt
10192-552: The similar cases of Admu and Kakka . A further possible variant of the name is Nunu. Antoine Cavigneaux and Manfred Krebernik [ de ] suggest that it might be a variant of Annu, and point out that nu-nu , while possible to interpret as Nunu with a determinative designating this word as theonym, can also be read as an-nu-nu . An alternate proposal is that Nunu was a deity associated with fish from sweetwater lagoons, though this remains unconfirmed. Furthermore, it remains uncertain if Nunu attested in theophoric names
10304-443: The single most common theophoric element in names of women, appearing in forty eight different types. Examples include Annu-amriya, Annu-asiya, Annu-damqa, Annu-gāmiltī and Annu-tukultī. Masculine names invoking her have been identified too, but overall feminine ones predominate. Nakata points out that the theonym Annu is largely absent from texts from Mari despite commonly appearing in theophoric names, and compares this phenomenon to
10416-475: The sub-discipline of historical archaeology . For many literate cultures, such as Ancient Greece and Mesopotamia , their surviving records are often incomplete and biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the elite classes, such as the clergy , or the bureaucracy of court or temple. The literacy of aristocrats has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from
10528-491: The temple was located. It is uncertain if the E-maš was an alternate name of the E-ulmaš, the name of a shrine within it, or a different house of worship. Bartelmus and Taylor suggest that the small number of references to it makes the first possibility the most plausible. No exemplars of the aforementioned inscriptions dealing with the reconstruction of Annunitum's temple dated to the Kassite period have been discovered, but like many other royal inscriptions they were copied in
10640-467: The temples of Šamaš the sun god, the warrior goddess Anunitu (both located in Sippar ), and the sanctuary that Naram-Sin built to the moon god, located in Harran , but he also had them restored to their former glory. He was also the first to date an archaeological artifact in his attempt to date Naram-Sin's temple during his search for it. Even though his estimate was inaccurate by about 1,500 years, it
10752-476: The term archaeology means "the study of ancient history". The discipline involves surveying , excavation , and eventually analysis of data collected, to learn more about the past. In broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, and has since become a discipline practiced around the world. Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of
10864-559: The tradition of Chinese epigraphy by investigating, preserving, and analyzing ancient Chinese bronze inscriptions from the Shang and Zhou periods. In his book published in 1088, Shen Kuo criticized contemporary Chinese scholars for attributing ancient bronze vessels as creations of famous sages rather than artisan commoners, and for attempting to revive them for ritual use without discerning their original functionality and purpose of manufacture. Such antiquarian pursuits waned after
10976-404: The tutelary goddess of the city of Akkad . However, later it came to be viewed as a theonym, rather than an epithet, and developed into a distinct deity. It is assumed the process of separation of Annunitum from Ishtar started during the reign of Shar-Kali-Sharri ( c. 2175-2150 BCE), though it is possible a passage from the reign of Naram-Sin ( c. 2284–2275 BCE) already refers to them as
11088-576: The use of metal detectors to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on English Civil War battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a 19th-century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to archaeology where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In
11200-472: The usual term for one major branch of antiquarian activity. "Archaeology", from 1607 onward, initially meant what we would call "ancient history" generally, with the narrower modern sense first seen in 1837. However, it was Jacob Spon who, in 1685, offered one of the earliest definitions of "archaeologia" to describe the study of antiquities in which he was engaged, in the preface of a collection of transcriptions of Roman inscriptions which he had gleaned over
11312-514: The year names of Shar-kali-sharri refers to the construction of temples of Annunitum and Ilaba in Babylon . A later topographical text indicates the former bore the ceremonial name E-saggašarra, "foremost house of the universe". It is presumed that E-mesigakalammašarra, "house of all given me of the land", also attested as the name of a temple of Annunitum in Babylon, is a variant rather than
11424-412: The years of his travels, entitled Miscellanea eruditae antiquitatis. Twelfth-century Indian scholar Kalhana 's writings involved recording of local traditions, examining manuscripts, inscriptions, coins and architectures, which is described as one of the earliest traces of archaeology. One of his notable work is called Rajatarangini which was completed in c. 1150 and is described as one of
11536-525: Was a restlessly itinerant Italian humanist and antiquarian who came from a prominent family of merchants in Ancona , a maritime republic on the Adriatic . He was called by his contemporaries pater antiquitatis ('father of antiquity') and today "father of classical archaeology": "Cyriac of Ancona was the most enterprising and prolific recorder of Greek and Roman antiquities, particularly inscriptions, in
11648-421: Was also responsible for mentoring and training a whole generation of Egyptologists, including Howard Carter who went on to achieve fame with the discovery of the tomb of 14th-century BC pharaoh Tutankhamun . The first stratigraphic excavation to reach wide popularity with public was that of Hissarlik , on the site of ancient Troy , carried out by Heinrich Schliemann , Frank Calvert and Wilhelm Dörpfeld in
11760-622: Was also worshiped in Nippur in the Ur III period. In the Isin-Larsa period she received offerings in the Ekur temple complex, as attested in a list from the reign of Damiq-ilishu of Isin . An inscription of Ishme-Dagan discovered in Isin mentions the appointment of a certain Tarām-pala-migrīša as an amalūtum priestess at the request of Annunitum. Itur-Shamash of Kisurra built
11872-522: Was among deities invoked in oaths, as already attested in texts from the reign of the local ruler Zimri-lim (presumably named in honor of his Mariote forerunner); however she only appears in formulas most likely reflecting Babylonian, rather than local, culture. Annunitum was worshiped in Ur in the Ur III period. Offerings made to her are well documented in the archive of Shulgi-simti. Festivals involving Annunitum documented in it include nabrium , held in fall,
11984-423: Was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith , James Hutton and Charles Lyell . The systematic application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites. In the third and fourth decades of the 19th century, archaeologists like Jacques Boucher de Perthes and Christian Jürgensen Thomsen began to put
12096-513: Was closely associated with Belet Ekallim , possibly due to their shared connection with Ishtar. Additionally, a text from this city refers to a belief that after his annual resurrection Dumuzi entered the temple of Annunitum, though it has been noted he was only occasionally associated with any deities belonging to the Mariote pantheon. A fragmentary omen list refers to Eturammi as the messenger of Annunitum ( SUKKAL a-nu-ni-tum ). This name
12208-421: Was developed as a result of increasing commercial development. The purpose of archaeology is to learn more about past societies and the development of the human race . Over 99% of the development of humanity has occurred within prehistoric cultures, who did not make use of writing , thereby no written records exist for study purposes. Without such written sources, the only way to understand prehistoric societies
12320-464: Was still a very good one considering the lack of accurate dating technology at the time. The science of archaeology (from Greek ἀρχαιολογία , archaiologia from ἀρχαῖος , arkhaios , "ancient" and -λογία , -logia , " -logy ") grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism . Antiquarians studied history with particular attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts, as well as historical sites. Antiquarianism focused on
12432-492: Was subsequently transferred to Arrapḫa and that her cult was disturbed by Gutians , though in this context the term should be understood as a generic reference to barbarians or enemies of Babylonia . During the Neo-Babylonian period, Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar II made offerings to Annunitum and other displaced deities in a structure located near or within the E-babbar [ pl ] . In offering lists from
12544-407: Was waxing. In this context, Enlil was redefined as a designation of the gibbous moon . When regarded as distinct from Ishtar, Annunitum could be regarded as a member of her entourage, as already attested in the Ur III period. Annunitum was closely associated with Ulmašītum , another martial hypostasis of Ishtar, originally associated with the temple E-ulmaš in Akkad. Spencer J. Allen assumes
#449550