Solidus
124-428: Makuria ( Old Nubian : ⲇⲱⲧⲁⲩⲟ , Dotawo ; Greek : Μακουρία , romanized : Makouria ; Arabic : المقرة , romanized : al-Muqurra ) was a medieval Nubian kingdom in what is today northern Sudan and southern Egypt . Its capital was Dongola (Old Nubian: Tungul ) in the fertile Dongola Reach , and the kingdom is sometimes known by the name of its capital. Coming into being after
248-651: A giraffe and declaring its good relationship with the Byzantines. Unlike Nobatia in the north (with which Makuria seemed to have been in enmity) and Alodia in the south Makuria embraced the Chalcedonian doctrine. The early ecclesiastical architecture at Dongola confirms the close relations maintained with the empire, trade between the two states was flourishing. In the 7th century, Makuria annexed its northern neighbour Nobatia. While there are several contradicting theories, it seems likely that this occurred soon after
372-723: A Makurian army pillaged Aswan and advanced even further north. It is not clear if this campaign was intended to aid the Fatimids or was merely a raid exploiting the unstable situation in Egypt, although the latter seems more likely, as the Makurians apparently soon withdrew. To deal with the Nubians, Saladin sent his brother Turan-Shah . The latter conquered Qasr Ibrim in January 1173, reportedly sacking it, taking many prisoners, pillaging
496-465: A backwater, because their graves were small and lacking the grave goods of previous eras. Modern scholars understand that this was due to cultural differences, and that the Makurians actually had rich and vibrant arts and culture. Four languages were used in Makuria: Nubian , Coptic , Greek and Arabic . Nubian was represented by two dialects, with Nobiin being said to have been spoken in
620-567: A camel, wielded a sceptre and a golden cross in his hands and that a red umbrella was carried over his head. He was accompanied by a bishop, horsemen and slaves, and to his left and right were young men wielding crosses. A few months after Georgios arrived in Baghdad he, described as educated and well-mannered, managed to convince the caliph of remitting the Nubian debts and reducing the Baqt payments to
744-528: A common sight in Nubian domestic buildings. In Dongola all houses had ceramic toilets. Some houses in Cerra Matto (Serra East) featured privies with ceramic toilets, which were connected to a small chamber with a stone-lined clean out window to the outside and a brick ventilation flue. Biconical pieces of clay served as the equivalent of toilet paper. One house in Dongola featured a vaulted bathroom, fed by
868-578: A continuation of terms already existing between the Nubians and Byzantines. Probably in Umayyad times the treaty was expanded by regulating the safety of Nubians in Egypt and Muslims in Makuria. While some modern scholars view the Baqt as a submission of Makuria to the Muslims it is clear that it was not: the exchanged goods were of equal value and Makuria was recognized as an independent state, being one of
992-609: A detachment of Kurdish troops in Qasr Ibrim, which would raid Lower Nubia for the next two years. Archaeological evidence links them with the destruction of the cathedral of Faras, Abdallah Nirqi and Debeira West. In 1175 a Nubian army finally arrived to confront the invaders at Adindan. Before battle, however, the Kurdish commander drowned while crossing the Nile, resulting in the retreat of Saladin's troops out of Nubia. Afterwards there
1116-501: A few roots, e.g. Old Nubian has several sets of pronouns and subject clitics are the following, of which the following are the main ones: There are two demonstrative pronouns : Interrogative words include ⳟⲁⲉⲓ "who?"; ⲙⲛ̄ "what?"; and a series of question words based on the root ⲥ̄ . The Old Nubian verbal system is by far the most complex part of its grammar, allowing for valency , tense , mood , aspect , person and pluractionality to be expressed on it through
1240-496: A heavily sheep and goat based economy has been found, along with large numbers of juvenile cattle. These cattle remains suggest a meat- and milk-based economy. The cattle could also have been used for religious ceremonies at the Meroitic Temple. The ritually-deposited remains of a domesticated chicken were also found below a house floor, and date to the post-Meroitic period (late 5th to early 6th centuries AD). Qasr Ibrim
1364-589: A king of Dongola, most likely independent from the influence of the Egyptian sultans. Friday prayers held in Dongola failed to mention them as well. These new kings of Dongola were probably confronted with waves of Arab migrations and thus were too weak to conquer the Makurian splinter state of Lower Nubia. It is possible that some petty kingdoms that continued the Christian Nubian culture developed in
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#17327732325061488-475: A major production facility at Faras . In this middle era, which lasted until around 1100, the pottery was painted with floral and zoomorphic scenes and showed distinct Umayyad and even Sassanian influences. The late period during Makuria's decline saw domestic production again fall in favour of imports from Egypt. Pottery produced in Makuria became less ornate, but better control of firing temperatures allowed different colours of clay. The Christian Nubian society
1612-444: A supralinear stroke, which could indicate: Modern Nobiin is a tonal language; if Old Nubian was tonal as well, the tones were not marked. Punctuation marks included a high dot •, sometimes substituted by a double backslash \\ ( ⳹ ), which was used roughly like an English period or colon ; a slash / ( ⳺ ), which was used like a question mark ; and a double slash // ( ⳼ ), which was sometimes used to separate verses. In 2021,
1736-470: A system of pipes attached to a water tank. A furnace heated up both the water and the air, which was circulated into the richly decorated bathroom via flues in the walls. The monastic complex of Hambukol is thought to have had a room serving as a steam bath. The Ghazali monastery in Wadi Abu Dom also might have featured several bathrooms. Makuria was a monarchy ruled by a king based in Dongola. The king
1860-600: A team from Poland; the British work at Qasr Ibrim ; and the University of Ghana 's work at the town of Debeira West, which gave important information on daily life in medieval Nubia. All of these sites are in what was Nobatia; the only major archaeological site in Makuria itself is the partial exploration of the capital at Old Dongola . By the early 4th century, if not before, the Kingdom of Kush with its capital Meroe
1984-562: A three-year rhythm. In 836 or early 837 Georgios returned to Nubia. After his return a new church was built in Dongola, the Cruciform Church, which had an approximate height of 28 metres (92 ft) and came to be the largest building in the entire kingdom. A new palace, the so-called Throne Hall of Dongola , was also built, showing strong Byzantine influences. In 831 a punitive campaign of the Abbasid caliph al-Mu'tasim defeated
2108-450: A use as determiner. Old Nubian has a nominative-accusative case system with four structural cases determining the core arguments in the sentence, as well as a number of lexical cases for adverbial phrases . The most common plural marker is -ⲅⲟⲩ , which always precedes case marking. There are a few irregular plurals, such as: Furthermore, there are traces of separate animate plural forms in -ⲣⲓ , which are textually limited to
2232-440: A variety of suffixes. The main distinction between nominal and verbal predicates in a main clause versus a subordinate clause is indicated by the presence of the predicate marker -ⲁ . The major categories, listing from the root of the verb to the right, are as follows: This can be indicated by a series of subject clitics, which are obligatory only in certain grammatical contexts. They are generally absent when an overt subject
2356-565: A well-equipped army setting off from Cairo in early 1276, accompanied by a cousin of king David named Mashkouda or Shekanda. The Mamluks defeated the Nubians in three battles at Gebel Adda, Meinarti and finally at the Battle of Dongola . David fled upstream the Nile, eventually entering al-Abwab in the south, which, previously being Alodia's northernmost province, had by this period become a kingdom of its own. The king of al-Abwab, however, handed David over to Baybars, who had him executed. Thanks to
2480-572: Is an archaeological site in Lower Nubia , located in the modern country of Egypt . The site has a long history of occupation, ranging from as early as the eighth century BC to AD 1813, and was an economic, political, and religious center. Originally it was a major city perched on a cliff above the Nile , but the flooding of Lake Nasser after the construction of the Aswan High Dam – with
2604-451: Is an extinct Nubian language, attested in writing from the 8th to the 15th century AD. It is ancestral to modern-day Nobiin and closely related to Dongolawi and Kenzi . It was used throughout the kingdom of Makuria , including the eparchy of Nobatia . The language is preserved in more than a hundred pages of documents and inscriptions , both of a religious nature (homilies, prayers, hagiographies, psalms, lectionaries), and related to
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#17327732325062728-553: Is evidence that, like in Byzantine Egypt, female scribes existed. Private land tenure was open to both men and women, meaning that both could own, buy and sell land. Transfers of land from mother to daughter were common. They could also be the patrons of churches and wall paintings. Inscriptions from the cathedral of Faras indicate that around every second wall painting had a female sponsor. An inscription from Faras suggests that women could also serve as deacons . Latrines were
2852-486: Is known about government below the king. A wide array of officials, generally using Byzantine titles, are mentioned, but their roles are never explained. One figure who is well-known, thanks to the documents found at Qasr Ibrim , is the Eparch of Nobatia , who seems to have been the viceroy in that region after it was annexed to Makuria. The Eparch's records make clear that he was also responsible for trade and diplomacy with
2976-586: Is known not only for its organic remains but also for the textiles that have also been found at the site. During the Roman occupation of the site, sandals, textiles, and leather fragments were left behind. Woolen fabrics are believed to have been brought to Qasr Ibrim in 23 BC by the Romans . Cotton fabrics were not introduced until the first century AD by the Meroitic peoples. The un-dyed Meroitic fabrics differ from
3100-476: Is over the religion of Makuria. Up to the 5th century the old faith of Meroe seems to have remained strong, even while ancient Egyptian religion , its counterpart in Egypt, disappeared. In the 5th century the Nubians went so far as to launch an invasion of Egypt when the Christians there tried to turn some of the main temples into churches. A portion of the Nubian population seemingly remained pagan as late as
3224-705: Is present in the clause, unless the subject has the topic marker -ⲉⲓⲟⲛ. ⲕⲧ̅ⲕⲁ kit-ka stone- ACC ⲅⲉⲗⲅⲉⲗⲟ̅ⲥⲟⲩⲁⲛⲛⲟⲛ gelgel-os-ou-an-non roll- PFV - PST1 - 3PL - TOP ⲓ̈ⲏ̅ⲥⲟⲩⲥⲓ iēsousi Jesus ⲙⲁⳡⲁⲛ mañan eye. DU ⲧⲣⲓⲕⲁ· tri-ka both- ACC ⲇⲟⲗⲗⲉ dolle high ⲡⲟⲗⲅⲁⲣⲁ polgar-a raise. CAUS - PRED [ⲡⲉⲥⲥⲛⲁ·] pes-s-n-a speak- PST2 - 2 / 3 / SG - PRED ⲡⲁⲡⲟ pap-o father- VOC ⲥ̅ⲕⲉⲗⲙ̅ⲙⲉ iskel-im-m-e thank- AFF - PRS - 1SG . PRED ⲉⲕ̅[ⲕⲁ] Qasr Ibrim Qasr Ibrim ( Arabic : قصر ابريم ; Meroitic : Pedeme ; Old Nubian : Silimi ; Coptic : ⲡⲣⲓⲙ Prim ; Latin : Primis )
3348-515: Is unknown where he resided and if he was Christian or Muslim. However, in 2023 Adam Simmons pointed to the existence in the 1520s of Christian Nubian Queen Gaua. There were no traces of an independent Christian kingdom when the Ottomans occupied Lower Nubia in the 1560s, while the Funj had come into possession of Upper Nubia south of the third cataract. By the early 15th century, there is mention of
3472-407: The Aswan High Dam in 1964 threatened to flood what had once been the northern half of Makuria. In 1960, UNESCO launched a massive effort to do as much archaeological work as possible before the flooding occurred. Thousands of experts were brought from around the world over the next few years. Some of the more important Makurian sites looked at were the city of Faras and its cathedral, excavated by
3596-664: The Awlad Kenz took control of Nubia and part of Egypt above the Thebaid . The Nubians upstream of Al Dabbah started to assume an Arabic identity and the Arabic language, eventually becoming the Ja'alin , claimed descendants of Abbas , uncle of Muhammad . The Ja'alin were already mentioned by David Reubeni , who travelled through Nubia in the early 16th century. They are now divided into several sub-tribes, which are, from Al Dabbah to
3720-873: The Beja east of Nubia. As a result, they had to submit to the Caliph, thus expanding nominal Muslim authority over much of the Sudanese Eastern Desert . In 834 al-Mu'tasim ordered that the Egyptian Arab Bedouins, who had been declining as a military force since the rise of the Abbasids, were not to receive any more payments. Discontented and dispossessed, they pushed southwards. The road into Nubia was, however, blocked by Makuria: while there existed communities of Arab settlers in Lower Nubia
3844-616: The Middle Ages , when the area was the home of the Eparch of Nobatia . Qasr Ibrim is the source of the largest collection of Old Nubian documents ever found, including the records of the Eparch. The site was occupied until 1813, when the last occupants were driven out by artillery fire. Today the island is closed to all but archaeologists. Egypt's influence in Nubia began around 2,000 BC, when Egyptian invaded and claimed sovereignty over
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3968-592: The Sasanian occupation of Egypt , presumably during the 620s, but before 642. Before the Sasanian invasion, Nobatia used to have strong ties with Egypt and was thus hit hard by its fall. Perhaps it was also invaded by the Sasanians itself: some local churches from that period show traces of destruction and subsequent rebuilding. Thus weakened, Nobatia fell to Makuria, making Makuria extend as far north as Philae near
4092-613: The White Monastery in Sohag . The alphabet included three additional letters ⳡ /ɲ/ and ⳣ /w/ , and ⳟ /ŋ/ , the first two deriving from the Meroitic alphabet . The presence of these characters suggest that although the first written evidence of Old Nubian dates to the 8th century, the script must have already been developed in the 6th century, following the collapse of the Meroitic state. Additionally, Old Nubian used
4216-537: The crusades , western Europe grew increasingly aware of the existence of Christian Nubia during the 12th and 13th centuries until in the early 14th century, there were even proposals to ally with the Nubians for another crusade against the Mamluks. Nubian characters also start to be featured in crusader songs , first displayed as Muslims and later, after the 12th century and with increasing knowledge of Nubia, as Christians. Contacts between crusaders and western pilgrims on
4340-613: The fall of the Umayyad Calipate , the sons of Marwan II , the last Umayyad Caliph, fled to Nubia and asked Kyriakos for asylum, although without success. In around 760 Makuria was probably visited by the Chinese traveller Du Huan . The kingdom was at its peak between the 9th and 11th centuries. During the reign of king Ioannes in the early 9th century, relations with Egypt were cut and the Baqt ceased to be paid. Upon Ioannes' death in 835 an Abbasid emissary arrived, demanding
4464-460: The plague . Archaeology confirms a rapid decline of the Christian Nubian civilization since then. Due to their small population the plague might have cleansed entire landscapes from its Nubian inhabitants. In 1365, there occurred yet another short, but disastrous civil war. The current king was killed in battle by his rebelling nephew, who had allied himself with the Banu Ja'd tribe. The brother of
4588-620: The 10th century, for el-Aswani reported that " [s]ome of them do not know the Creator and adore the Sun and the Day; some others adore whatever they like; trees or animals. " Archaeological evidence in this period finds a number of Christian ornaments in Nubia, and some scholars feel that this implies that conversion from below was already taking place. Others argue that it is more likely that these reflected
4712-467: The 10th–11th century as the main language for the civil and religious administration of Makuria. Besides Old Nubian, Koine Greek was widely used, especially in religious contexts, while Coptic mainly predominates in funerary inscriptions. Over time, more and more Old Nubian began to appear in both secular and religious documents ( including the Bible ), while several grammatical aspects of Greek, including
4836-467: The 11th century when Nobiin had established itself as language of administrative, economic and religious documents. The rise of Nobiin overlapped with the decline of the Coptic language in both Makuria and Egypt. It has been suggested that before the rise of Nobiin as a literary language, Coptic served as official administrative language, but this seems doubtful; Coptic literary remains are virtually absent in
4960-464: The 1330s, and Paper (king) [ de ] , who is dated to the mid 14th century. The attestations of Siti's reign, all Nubian in nature, show that he still exercised control/influence over a vast territory from Lower Nubia to Kordofan, suggesting that his kingdom entered the second half of the 14th century centralized, powerful and Christian. It was also in the mid 14th century, more particularly after 1347, when Nubia would have been devastated by
5084-555: The 13th and 14th century. In the 1310s and 1320s it was briefly ruled by Muslim kings. Due to a civil war in 1365, the kingdom was reduced to a rump state that lost much of its southern territories, including Dongola. The last recorded king, probably residing in Gebel Adda , lived in the late 15th century. Makuria had finally disappeared by the 1560s, when the Ottomans occupied Lower Nubia . The former Makurian territories south of
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5208-516: The 16th century, when a unit of Bosnian soldiers, part of the Ottoman army, occupied the site. The Bosnian soldiers stayed on and eventually married into the local Nubian community, using part of the cathedral as a mosque. Two churches remain on the site. The Taharqa Church was most likely built between 542 and 580, which would make it one of Nubia's earliest churches. Like many of the earliest churches in Nubia, it would have been constructed within
5332-497: The 3rd cataract, including Dongola, had been annexed by the Islamic Funj Sultanate by the early 16th century. Makuria is much better known than its neighbor Alodia to the south, but there are still many gaps in our knowledge. The most important source for the history of the area is various Arab travelers and historians who passed through Nubia during this period. These accounts are often problematic as many of
5456-565: The 8th century. Meanwhile, evidence for contact with Christian Ethiopia is surprisingly scarce. An exceptional case was the mediation of Georgios III between Patriarch Philotheos and some Ethiopian monarch, perhaps the late Aksumite emperor Anbessa Wudem or his successor Dil Ne’ad. Ethiopian monks travelled through Nubia to reach Jerusalem , a graffito from the church of Sonqi Tino testifies its visit by an Ethiopian abuna . Such travellers also transmitted knowledge of Nubian architecture, which influenced several medieval Ethiopian churches. During
5580-456: The Arab writers were biased against their Christian neighbors. These works generally focus on only the military conflicts between Egypt and Nubia. One exception is Ibn Selim el-Aswani , an Egyptian diplomat who traveled to Dongola when Makuria was at the height of its power in the 10th century and left a detailed account. The Nubians were a literate society, and a fair body of writing survives from
5704-493: The Arabs and rebelled against the crown himself. King Georgios then sent his oldest son, presumably the later Georgios II , but he was abandoned by his army and was forced to flee to Alodia. The Makurian king then sent another son, Zacharias, who worked together with al-Umari to kill Nyuti before eventually defeating al-Umari himself and pushing him into the desert. Afterward, al-Umari attempted to establish himself in Lower Nubia, but
5828-664: The Byzantine state religion. The imperial court, however, was divided in two sects, believing in two different natures of Jesus Christ : Justinian belonged to the Chalcedonians , the official denomination of the empire , while his wife Theodora was a Miaphysite , who were the strongest in Egypt . John of Ephesus described how two competing missions were sent to Nubia, with the Miaphysite arriving first in, and converting,
5952-541: The Coptic Nobatia, historians have long wondered why the conquering state adopted the religion of its rival. It is fairly clear that Egyptian Coptic influence was far stronger in the region, and that Byzantine power was fading, and this might have played a role. Historians are also divided on whether this was the end of the Melkite/Coptic split as there is some evidence that a Melkite minority persisted until
6076-742: The Deacon claims, the Umayyad governor of Egypt imprisoned the Coptic Patriarch, resulting in a Makurian invasion and siege of Fustat, the Egyptian capital, after which the Patriarch was released. This episode has been referred to as “Christian Egyptian propaganda”, although it is still likely that Upper Egypt was subject to a Makurian campaign, perhaps a raid. Nubian influence in Upper Egypt would remain strong. Three years later, in 750, after
6200-584: The Egyptian historian Shihab al-Umari claim that the contemporary Makurian kings were Muslims belonging to the Banu Khanz, while the general population remained Christian. Al-Umari also points out that Makuria was still dependent on the Mamluk Sultan. On the other hand, he also remarks that the Makurian throne was seized in turns by Muslims and Christians. Indeed, an Ethiopian monk who travelled through Nubia in around 1330, Gadla Ewostatewos, states that
6324-511: The Egyptians. Early records make it seem like the Eparch was appointed by the king, but later ones indicate that the position had become hereditary. The elite of Makuria was drawn from noblemen who the Islamic sources called "princes". It was them who constituted the courtiers, military commanders and bishops. They were apparently powerful enough to openly exlaim their discontent and even depose
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#17327732325066448-547: The Fatimids sent the emissary Ibn Salim al-Aswani to the Makurian king Georgios III. Georgios accepted the first request of the emissary, the resumption of the Baqt, but declined the second one, the conversion to Islam, after a lengthy discussion with his bishops and learned men, and instead invited the Fatimid governor of Egypt to embrace Christianity. Afterwards, he granted al-Aswani permission to celebrate Eid al-Adha outside of Dongola with drums and trumpets, though not without
6572-593: The Makurian heartland. In Nobadia, however, Coptic was fairly widespread, probably even serving as a lingua franca . Coptic also served as the language of communication with Egypt and the Coptic Church. Coptic refugees escaping Islamic persecution settled in Makuria, while Nubian priests and bishops would have studied in Egyptian monasteries. Greek, the third language, was of great prestige and used in religious context, but does not seem to have been actually spoken (similar to Latin in medieval Europe). Lastly, Arabic
6696-556: The Makurian payment of the missing 14 annual payments and threatening with war if the demands are not met. Thus confronted with a demand for more than 5000 slaves, Zakharias III "Augustus" , the new king, had his son Georgios I crowned king, probably to increase his prestige, and sent him to the caliph in Baghdad to negotiate. His travel drew much attention at the time. The 12th-century Syriac Patriarch Michael described Georgios and his retinue in some detail, writing that Georgios rode
6820-457: The Makurian royal family, led a rebellion against Shekanda to restore Makurian independence. He eventually defeated the Mamluk garrison and took the throne in 1286 after separating from Egypt and betraying the peace deal. He offered the Egyptians an increase in the annual Baqt payments in return for scrapping the obligations to which Shekanda had agreed. The Mamluk armies were occupied elsewhere, and
6944-495: The Mamluks left the kingdom alone. In the sources this kingdom appears as Dotawo . Until recently it was commonly assumed that Dotawo was, before the Makurian court shifted its seat to Gebel Adda, just a vasal kingdom of Makuria, but it is now accepted that it was merely the Old Nubian self-designation for Makuria. The last known king is Joel , who is mentioned in a 1463 document and in an inscription from 1484. Perhaps it
7068-523: The Mamluks were dealing with. Other factors for the decline of Nubia might have been the change of African trade routes and a severe dry period between 1150 and 1500. Matters would change with the rise of the Mamluks and Sultan Baybars in 1260. In 1265 a Mamluk army allegedly raided Makuria as far south as Dongola while also expanding southwards along the African Red Sea coast, thus threatening
7192-458: The Muslim king Abdallah Barshambu and his transformation of the throne hall into a mosque has often been interpreted as the end of Christian Makuria. This conclusion is erroneous, since Christianity evidently remained vital in Nubia. While not much is known about the following decades, it seems that there were both Muslim and Christian kings on the Makurian throne. Both the traveller Ibn Battuta and
7316-455: The Napatan occupation, the Roman occupation, and the Meroitic periods. Listed below are the main crops that have been identified in each phase: Napatan (mid 8th - mid 7th century BC): Roman (25 BC - mid 1st century AD): Meroitic (AD 100–300): The site has also revealed many archaeozoological remains, though they have not been as heavily studied as the botanical remains. Evidence of
7440-411: The Nile Valley in the 4th century AD. Thus, a new Makurian society and state emerged by the 5th century. In the late 5th century one of the first Makurian kings moved the power base of the still-developing kingdom from Napata to further downstream, where the fortress of Dongola, the new seat of the royal court, was founded and which soon developed a vast urban district. Many more fortresses were built along
7564-399: The Nobadia province in the north and Dongolawi in the Makurian heartland, although in the Islamic period Nobiin is also attested to have been employed by the Shaigiya tribe in the southeastern Dongola Reach . The royal court employed Nobiin despite being located in Dongolawi-speaking territory. By the eight century Nobiin had been codified based on the Coptic alphabet, but it was not until
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#17327732325067688-470: The Nubian king, who he claims to have met in person, was Christian. In the Book of Knowledge of All Kingdoms , which relies on an anonymous traveller from the mid-14th century, it is claimed that the "Kingdom of Dongola" was inhabited by Christians and that its royal banner was a cross on white background (see flag). Epigraphical evidence reveals the names of three Makurian kings: Siti (king) [ de ] and Abdallah Kanz ad-Dawla, both ruling during
7812-401: The Nubians due to conflicts with the Beja . In 641 or 642 the Arabs sent a first expedition into Makuria. While it is not clear how far south it penetrated, it was eventually defeated. A second invasion led by Abd Allah ibn Sa'd ibn Abi al-Sarh followed in 651/652, when the attackers pushed as far south as Dongola. Dongola was besieged and bombarded by catapults . While they damaged parts of
7936-505: The Nubians had sympathies for the Latins and hence the Mamluk Sultan did not allow Latins to travel to Nubia as he was afraid that they might convince the Nubians to start a war, although in the contemporary Book of Knowledge of All Kingdoms it was written that Genoese traders were present in Dongola. A text was found in Qasr Ibrim apparently mixing Nubian with Italian as well as a Catalan playing card and in Banganarti there has been noted an inscription written in Provencal dating to
8060-431: The Nubians. In 1272 king David marched east and attacked the port town of Aidhab , located on an important pilgrimage route to Mecca . The Nubian army destroyed the town, causing “a blow to the very heart of Islam”. A punitive Mamluk expedition was sent in response, but did not pass beyond the second cataract. Three years later the Makurians attacked and destroyed Aswan, but this time Mamluk Sultan Baybars responded with
8184-437: The Sultan of Egypt agreed to this new arrangement. After a period of peace, King Karanbas defaulted on these payments, and the Mamluks again occupied the kingdom in 1312. This time, a Muslim member of the Makurian dynasty was placed on the throne. Sayf al-Din Abdullah Barshambu began converting the nation to Islam and in 1317 the throne hall of Dongola was turned into a mosque . This was not accepted by other Makurian leaders and
8308-409: The area. Many Egyptian artifacts and evidence of Egyptian architecture have been found at Qasr Ibrim. The earliest inscription at the site is a stela , a stone or wooden slab, from the reign of Amenhotep I . The stela was found in a now-ruined Christian Byzantine cathedral at Qasr Ibrim where it had been reused in one of the church's crypts. The stela is now located in the British Museum. The site
8432-408: The banks of the Nile, probably not intended to serve a military purpose, but to foster urbanization. Already at the time of the foundation of Dongola contacts were maintained with the Byzantine Empire . In the 530s, the Byzantines under Emperor Justinian mounted a policy of expansion. The Nubians were part of his plan to win allies against the Sasanian Persians by converting them to Christianity,
8556-436: The case, agreement, gender, and tense morphology underwent significant erosion. The consecration documents found with the remains of archbishop Timotheos suggest, however, that Greek and Coptic continued to be used into the late 14th century, by which time Arabic was also in widespread use. The script in which nearly all Old Nubian texts have been written is a slanted uncial variant of the Coptic alphabet , originating from
8680-407: The church and converting it into a mosque. Afterward, he sent an emissary to the Makurian king, Moses Georgios, intending to answer a previously requested peace treaty with a pair of arrows. Probably ruling over both Makuria and Alodia, Moses Georgios was a man confident in his ability to resist the Egyptians, stamping with hot iron a cross on the emissary's hand. Turan Shah withdrew from Nubia but left
8804-465: The collapse of the Kingdom of Kush in the 4th century, it originally covered the Nile Valley from the 3rd cataract to somewhere south of Abu Hamed at Mograt Island . The capital of Dongola was founded around 500 and soon after, in the mid-6th century, Makuria converted to Christianity. Probably in the early 7th century Makuria annexed its northern neighbour Nobatia , now sharing a border with Byzantine Egypt . In 651 an Arab army invaded, but it
8928-678: The conjunction of the Blue and White Nile: Shaiqiya , Rubatab , Manasir , Mirafab and the "Ja'alin proper". Among them, Nubian remained a spoken language until the 19th century. North of the Al Dabbah developed three Nubian sub-groups: The Kenzi, who, before the completion of the Aswan Dam , lived between Aswan and Maharraqa , the Mahasi, who settled between Maharraqa and Kerma and the Danagla ,
9052-404: The deceased king and his retinue fled to a town called Daw in the Arabic sources, most likely identical with Gebel Adda in Lower Nubia. The usurper then killed the nobility of the Banu Ja'd, probably because he could not trust them anymore, and destroyed and pillaged Dongola, then traveled to Gebel Adda to ask his uncle for forgiveness. Thus Dongola was left to the Banu Ja'd and Gebel Adda became
9176-589: The discontent of some of his subjects. Relations between Makuria and Fatimid Egypt were to remain peaceful, as the Fatimids needed the Nubians as allies against their Sunni enemies. The kingdom of Makuria was, at least temporarily, exercising influence over the Nubian-speaking populations of Kordofan , the region between the Nile Valley and Darfur , as is suggested by an account of the 10th century traveller Ibn Hawqal as well as oral traditions. With
9300-516: The end of the kingdom. The Makurian church was divided into seven bishoprics: Kalabsha , Qupta, Qasr Ibrim , Faras , Sai, Dongola , and Suenkur. Unlike Ethiopia , it appears that no national church was established and all seven bishops reported directly to the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria. The bishops were appointed by the patriarch, not the king, though they seem to have largely been local Nubians rather than Egyptians. Old Nubian Old Nubian (also called Middle Nubian or Old Nobiin )
9424-399: The entire noun phrase , which may also comprise adjectives , possessors , and relative clauses . Old Nubian has one definite determiner -(ⲓ)ⲗ . The precise function of this morpheme has been a matter of controversy, with some scholars proposing it as nominative case or subjective marker. Both the distribution of the morpheme and comparative evidence from Meroitic, however, point to
9548-498: The faith of the manufacturers in Egypt rather than the buyers in Nubia. Certain conversion came with a series of 6th-century missions. The Byzantine Empire dispatched an official party to try to convert the kingdoms to Chalcedonian Christianity, but Empress Theodora reportedly conspired to delay the party to allow a group of Miaphysites to arrive first. John of Ephesus reports that the Monophysites successfully converted
9672-477: The few to beat back the Arabs during the early Islamic expansion . The Baqt would remain in force for more than six centuries, although at times interrupted by mutual raids. The 8th century was a period of consolidation. Under king Merkurios , who lived in the late 7th and early 8th century and whom the Coptic biograph John the Deacon approvingly refers to as “the new Constantine ”, the state seems to have been reorganized and Miaphysite Christianity to have become
9796-592: The first cataract. A new bishopric was founded in Faras in around 630 and two new cathedrals styled after the basilica of Dongola were built in Faras and Qasr Ibrim. It is not known what happened to the royal Nobatian family after the unification, but it is recorded that Nobatia remained a separate entity within the unified kingdom governed by an Eparch . Between 639 and 641 the Muslim Arabs overran Byzantine Egypt . A Byzantine request for help remained unanswered by
9920-401: The first modern Nubian typeface based on the style of text written in old Nubian manuscripts called Sawarda was released designed by Hatim-Arbaab Eujayl for a series of educational books teaching Nobiin. Old Nubian has no gender . The noun consists of a stem to which derivational suffixes may be added. Plural markers, case markers, postpositions , and the determiner are added on
10044-589: The former Makurian territory, for example on Mograt island, north of Abu Hamed . Another small kingdom was the Kingdom of Kokka, probably founded in the 17th century in the no-mans-land between the Ottoman Empire in the north and the Funj in the south. Its organization and rituals bore clear similarities to those of Christian times. Eventually the kings themselves were Christians until the 18th century. In 1412,
10168-519: The fourth cataract and formerly being one of the most important political and sacred places of Kush, served as the center for a new regional elite buried in large tumuli like those at el Zuma or Tanqasi . There was a significant population growth accompanied by social transformations, resulting in the absorption of the Kushites into the Nubians , a people originally from Kordofan that had settled in
10292-511: The great mass of the Arab nomads was forced to settle among the Beja, driven also by the motivation to exploit the local gold mines. In the mid-9th century the Arab adventurer al-Umari hired a private army and settled at a mine near Abu Hamad in eastern Makuria. After a confrontation between both parties, al-Umari occupied Makurian territories along the Nile. King Georgios I sent an elite force commanded by his son in law, Nyuti, but he failed to defeat
10416-438: The kingdoms of Nobatia and Alodia , but that Makuria remained hostile. John of Biclarum states that Makuria then embraced the rival Byzantine Christianity. Archaeological evidence seems to point to a rapid conversion brought about by an official adoption of the new faith. Millennia-old traditions such as the building of elaborate tombs, and the burying of expensive grave goods with the dead were abandoned, and temples throughout
10540-467: The locals were predominantly Nubian-speaking until the 19th century, with a language closely related to the Nile-Nubian dialects. Today, the Nubian language is in the process of being replaced by Arabic. Furthermore, the Nubians have increasingly started to claim to be Arabs descending from Abbas, disregarding their Christian Nubian past. Christian Nubia was historicaly considered to be something of
10664-456: The most important discoveries of the rushed work prior to the flooding of Lower Nubia was the Cathedral of Faras . This large building had been completely filled with sand preserving a series of paintings. Similar, but less well preserved, paintings have been found at several other sites in Makuria, including palaces and private homes, giving an impression of Makurian art. The style and content
10788-438: The nation fell into civil war and anarchy later that year. Barshambu was eventually killed and succeeded by Kanz ad-Dawla . While ruling, his tribe, the Banu Khanz, acted a puppet dynasty of the Mamluks. King Karanbas tried to wrestle control from Kanz ad-Dwala in 1323 and eventually seized Dongola, but was ousted just one year later. He retreated to Aswan for another chance to seize the throne, but it never came. The ascension of
10912-480: The new capital. Both the usurper and the rightful heir, and most likely even the king that was killed during the usurpation, were Christian. Now residing in Gebel Adda, the Makurian kings continued their Christian traditions. They ruled over a reduced rump state with a confirmed north–south extension of around 100 km, albeit it might have been larger in reality. Located in a strategically irrelevant periphery,
11036-520: The northern kingdom of Nobatia in 543. While the Nobatian king refused Justinian's mission to travel further south archaeological records might suggest that Makuria converted still in the first half of the 6th century. The chronicler John of Biclar recorded that in around 568 Makuria had “received the faith of Christ”. In 573 a Makurian delegation arrived in Constantinople, offering ivory and
11160-477: The official creed. He probably also founded the monumental Ghazali monastery (around 5000 m) in Wadi Abu Dom . Zacharias, Merkurios' son and successor, renounced his claim to the throne and went into a monastery, but maintained the right to proclaim a successor. Within a few years there were three different kings and several Muslim raids until before 747, the throne was seized by Kyriakos . In that year, John
11284-494: The one side and Nubians on the other occurred in Jerusalem, where European accounts from the 12th–14th centuries attest the existence of a Nubian community, and also, if not primarily in Egypt, where many Nubians were living and where European merchants were highly active. Perhaps there also existed a Nubian community in crusader-controlled Famagusta , Cyprus . In the mid-14th century pilgrim Niccolò da Poggibonsi claimed that
11408-602: The period. These documents were written in the Old Nubian language in an uncial variety of the Greek alphabet extended with some Coptic symbols and some symbols unique to Nubian. Written in a language that is closely related to the modern Nobiin tongue , these documents have long been deciphered. However, the vast majority of them are works dealing with religion or legal records that are of little use to historians. The largest known collection, found at Qasr Ibrim , does contain some valuable governmental records. The construction of
11532-435: The pottery into three eras. The early period, from 550 to 650 according to Adams, or to 750 according to Shinnie, saw fairly simple pottery similar to that of the late Roman Empire . It also saw much of Nubian pottery imported from Egypt rather than produced domestically. Adams feels this trade ended with the invasion of 652; Shinnie links it to the collapse of Umayyad rule in 750. After this domestic production increased, with
11656-475: The prevalent written language. Other written languages were Coptic , Greek and Arabic . Makuria also maintained close dynastic ties with the kingdom of Alodia to the south and exerted some influence in Upper Egypt and northern Kordofan . Increased aggression from Mamluk Egypt , internal discord, Bedouin incursions and possibly the plague and the shift of trade routes led to the state's decline in
11780-561: The region seem to have been converted to churches. Churches eventually were built in virtually every town and village. After this point the exact course of Makurian Christianity is much disputed. It is clear that by c. 710 Makuria had become officially Coptic and loyal to the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria ; the king of Makuria became the defender of the patriarch of Alexandria, occasionally intervening militarily to protect him, as Kyriakos did in 722. This same period saw Melkite Makuria absorb
11904-626: The related International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia – transformed it into an island and flooded its outskirts. Qasr Ibrim is the only major archaeological site in Lower Nubia to have survived the Aswan Dam floods. Both prior to and after the floods, it has remained a major site for archaeological investigations. Human habitation at the site dates from the Late Period of ancient Egypt , but it reached its greatest prominence in
12028-494: The rest of Egypt. It then became one of the main Christian centers in Lower Nubia. Christianity first came to Qasr Ibrim in the 6th century, but had little effect. It wasn't until the city became part of the kingdom of Makuria , in the early 8th century, that Qasr Ibrim became a center for Christianity. This continued even through the fifteenth century when the Makurian kingdom became Islamic. The city held out against Islam until
12152-432: The river, were destroyed in floods caused by the Aswan Dam. The almost rainless conditions of the area have created excellent preservation of organic materials. Pottery dated to the post-Meroitic period (AD 350–600) shows evidence of both date palm and doum palm residues. Various samples of sorghum dating from between 800 BC to AD 1800 have also been found at Qasr Ibrim. There are four forms of sorghum that are found on
12276-400: The ruler if they were unhappy with him, despite claims in Islamic sources that the power of the Makurian king was absolute. A selected few of them, the elders, constituted a council that assisted the king in his decision making. The elders aside it was also the queenmother who bore a key role in advising the king. In 1292 an unnamed Makurian king is even reported to have claimed that "it was only
12400-487: The second half of the 11th century, Makuria saw great cultural and religious reforms, referred to as "Nubization". The main initiator has been suggested to have been Georgios, the archbishop of Dongola and hence the head of the Makurian church. He seems to have popularized the Nubian language as written language to counter the growing influence of Arabic in the Coptic Church and introduced the cult of dead rulers and bishops as well as indigenous Nubian saints. A new, unique church
12524-524: The second half of the 13th century/14th century. Internal difficulties seem to have also hurt the kingdom. King David's cousin Shekanda claimed the throne and traveled to Cairo to seek the support of the Mamluks. They agreed and took over Nubia in 1276, and placed Shekanda on the throne. The Christian Shekanda then signed an agreement making Makuria a vassal of Egypt, and a Mamluk garrison was stationed in Dongola. A few years later, Shamamun, another member of
12648-454: The site. From when the site was settled until around AD 100 only wild sorghum can be found. From AD 100 until around 1500 an early form of cultivated sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor , ssp. bicolor , race Bicolor) is found. Around 1200 an advanced form of sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor , ssp. bicolor , race Durra) appears. Between the 5th and 7th centuries a transitional race is also present. There are believed to be three phases of agricultural history,
12772-581: The situation and incorrectly described Makurian succession as similar to what they were used to. A Coptic source from the mid 8th century refers to king Cyriacos as "orthodox Abyssinian king of Makuria" as well as "Greek king", with "Abyssinian" probably reflecting the Miaphysite Coptic church and "Greek" the Byzantine Orthodox one. In 1186 king Moses Georgios called himself "king of Alodia, Makuria, Nobadia, Dalmatia and Axioma." Little
12896-462: The southern Nubian kingdom of Alodia, with which Makuria shared its border somewhere between Abu Hamad and the Nile- Atbara confluence, Makuria seemed to have maintained a dynastic union, as according to the accounts of Arab geographers from the 10th century and Nubian sources from the 12th century. Archaeological evidence shows an increased Makurian influence on Alodian art and architecture from
13020-531: The southernmost of the remaining Nile Valley Nubians. Some count the Danagla to the Ja'alin, since the Danagla also claim to belong to that Arab tribe, but they in fact still speak a Nubian language, Dongolawi . North Kordofan , which was still a part of Makuria as late as the 1330s, also underwent a linguistic Arabization similar to the Nile Valley upstream of Al Dabbah. Historical and linguistic evidence confirms that
13144-429: The state and private life (legal documents, letters), written using adaptation of the Coptic alphabet . Old Nubian, according to historical linguists, was the spoken language of the oldest inhabitants of the Nile valley. Adams, Berhens, Griffith and Bechhause-Gerst agree that Nile Nubian has its origins in the Nile valley. Old Nubian is one of the oldest written African languages and appears to have been adopted from
13268-515: The town they could not penetrate the walls of the citadel. Muslim sources highlight the skill of the Nubian archers in repelling the invasion. With both sides being unable to decide the battle in their favour, abi Sarh and the Makurian king Qalidurut eventually met and drew up a treaty known as Baqt . Initially it was a ceasefire also containing an annual exchange of goods (Makurian slaves for Egyptian wheat , textiles etc.), an exchange typical for historical North East African states and perhaps being
13392-476: The variant ⳝ for the Coptic letter ϭ . The characters ⲍ, ⲝ/ϩ ⲭ, ⲯ only appear in Greek loanwords. Gemination was indicated by writing double consonants; long vowels were usually not distinguished from short ones. Old Nubian featured two digraphs : ⲟⲩ /u, uː/ and ⲉⲓ /i, iː/ . A diaeresis over ⲓ ( ⲓ̈ ) was used to indicate the semivowel /j/ . In addition, Old Nubian featured
13516-413: The walls of the already present temples. Qasr Ibrim's cathedral was built later, though the date of construction in unclear. Archaeologists currently believe it was constructed in the first half of the eighth century. The last known Nubian bishop of Faras , Timothy , actually resided at Qasr Ibrim. He was buried in the cathedral there (c. 1375) and two scrolls were discovered in his tomb. The site
13640-433: The women who direct the kings [...]" The bishops might have played a role in the governance of the state. Ibn Selim el-Aswani noted that before the king responded to his mission he met with a council of bishops. El-Aswani described a highly centralized state, but other writers state that Makuria was a federation of thirteen kingdoms presided over by the great king at Dongola. One of the most debated issues among scholars
13764-466: The wool of the Romans, which has been found in blues and other bright colors. The conditions at Qasr Ibrim have also preserved a large number of documents in nine different languages or scripts. This includes hieroglyphics, Demotic, Meroitic, Greek, Latin, Coptic, Old Nubian, Arabic, and Turkish. Earlier documents were written on papyrus, though parchment was the preferred material for sacred texts. Paper
13888-436: Was matrilineal and women enjoyed a high social standing. The matrilineal succession gave the queen mother and the sister of the current king as forthcoming queen mother great political relevance. This importance is attested by the fact that she constantly appears in legal documents. Another female political title was the asta ("daughter"), perhaps some type of provincial representative. Women had access to education and there
14012-467: Was also considered a priest and could perform mass . How succession was decided is not clear. Early writers indicate it was from father to son. After the 11th century, however, it seems clear that Makuria was using the uncle-to-sister's-son system favoured for millennia in Kush . Shinnie speculates that the later form may have actually been used throughout, and that the early Arab writers merely misunderstood
14136-488: Was answered by another Egyptian retaliation, this time capturing Qasr Ibrim. This did not put a hold on Makurian aggression and between 962–964 they again attacked, this time pushing as far north as Akhmim . Parts of Upper Egypt apparently remained occupied by Makuria for several years. Ikhshidid Egypt eventually fell in 969, when it was conquered by the Shiite Fatimid Caliphate . Immediately afterward
14260-491: Was built in Banganarti , probably becoming one of the most important ones in the entire kingdom. In the same period Makuria also began to adopt a new royal dress and regalia and perhaps also Nubian terminology in administration and titles, all suggested to have initially come from Alodia in the south. In 1171 Saladin overthrew the Fatimid dynasty, which signaled new hostilities between Egypt and Nubia. The following year,
14384-402: Was collapsing. The region which would later constitute Makuria, i.e. the Nile Valley between the third Nile cataract and the great Nile bend of the fourth/fifth cataract, has been proposed to have seceded from Kush already in the 3rd century. Here, a homogenous and relatively isolated culture dubbed as "pre-Makuria" developed. During the 4th and 5th centuries, the region of Napata , located near
14508-614: Was first excavated by David Randall-MacIver and C. Leonard Woolley for the Eckley B. Coxe Expedition for the University of Pennsylvania in 1911. In 1963, excavations were started by the Egyptian Exploration Society and have continued periodically to the present day. Cemeteries found east and west of the main settlement were excavated in 1932 and 1961. There are still areas around the complex that have yet to be excavated, although some sites, including those near
14632-544: Was heavily influenced by Byzantine art , and also showed influence from Egyptian Coptic art and from Palestine. Mainly religious in nature, it depicts many of the standard Christian scenes . Also illustrated are a number of Makurian kings and bishops, with noticeably darker skin than the Biblical figures . Shinnie refers to Nubian pottery as the "richest indigenous pottery tradition on the African continent." Scholars divide
14756-547: Was partly rebuilt "under the prefecture of Gaius Petronius during Augustus' reign." Qasr Ibrim played a key role in Rome's defense of the Aswan region, and was likely held until AD 100 or later. The fortress, constructed by Roman military engineers, was the strongest in the Nile Valley at this time. During Roman times the town was one of the last bastions of paganism, its six temples converting to Christianity two centuries later than
14880-408: Was peace for another 100 years. There are no records from travelers to Makuria from 1172 to 1268, and the events of this period have long been a mystery, although modern discoveries have shed some light on this era. During this period Makuria seems to have entered a steep decline. The best source on this is Ibn Khaldun , writing in the 14th century, who blamed it on Bedouin invasions similar to what
15004-693: Was repulsed and a treaty known as the Baqt was signed to prevent further Arab invasions in exchange for 360 slaves each year that lasted until the 13th century. The period from the 9th to 11th century saw the peak of Makuria's cultural development: a brisk construction activity resulted in the construction of buildings like the Throne Hall , the great cruciform church (both in Dongola) or the Banganarti monastery , arts like wall paintings and finely crafted and decorated pottery flourished and Nubian grew to become
15128-569: Was soon pushed out again before finally being murdered during the reign of the Tulunid Sultan Ahmad ibn Tulun (868-884). During the rule of the autonomous Ikhshidid dynasty in Egypt, relations between Makuria and Egypt worsened: in 951 a Makurian army marched against Egypt's Kharga Oasis , killing and enslaving many people. Five years later the Makurians attacked Aswan, but were subsequently chased as far south as Qasr Ibrim. A new Makurian attack on Aswan followed immediately, which
15252-404: Was under Joel when the kingdom witnessed a last, brief renaissance. After the death or deposition of king Joel the kingdom might have collapsed. The cathedral of Faras came out of use after the 15th century, just as Qasr Ibrim was abandoned by the late 15th century. The palace of Gebel Adda came out of use after the 15th century as well. In 1518, there is one last mention of a Nubian ruler, albeit it
15376-432: Was used from the 11th and 12th centuries, superseding Coptic as language of commerce and diplomatic correspondences with Egypt. Furthermore, Arab traders and settlers were present in northern Nubia, although the spoken language of the latter appears to have gradually shifted from Arabic to Nubian. As of 2019, around 650 murals distributed over 25 sites have been recorded, with more paintings still awaiting publication. One of
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