143-509: The Mansabdar was a military unit within the administrative system of the Mughal Empire introduced by Akbar later used in all over in early modern India . The word mansab is of Arabic origin meaning rank or position. The system determined the rank and status of a government official and military generals. Every civil and military officer was given a mansab, which determined their salaries & allowances. The term manasabadar means
286-458: A faqir . In 1645, he was barred from the court for seven months. It is reported that he mentioned his grief about this to fellow Mughal commanders. Thereafter, Shah Jahan appointed him governor of Gujarat . His rule in Gujarat was marked with religious disputes but he was rewarded for bringing stability. In 1647, Shah Jahan moved Aurangzeb from Gujarat to be governor of Balkh , replacing
429-604: A sarkar could turn into a subah , and Parganas were often transferred between sarkars . The hierarchy of division was ambiguous sometimes, as a territory could fall under multiple overlapping jurisdictions. Administrative divisions were also vague in their geography – the Mughal state did not have enough resources or authority to undertake detailed land surveys, and hence the geographical limits of these divisions were not formalised and maps were not created. The Mughals instead recorded detailed statistics about each division, to assess
572-705: A central reference for the Mughal state that dealt with the specifics of the South Asian context. The Mughal Empire also drew on Persian notions of kingship. Particularly, this meant that the Mughal emperor was considered the supreme authority on legal affairs. Various kinds of courts existed in the Mughal Empire. One such court was that of the qadi . The Mughal qadi was responsible for dispensing justice; this included settling disputes, judging people for crimes, and dealing with inheritances and orphans. The qadi also had additional importance in documents, as
715-402: A century of growth and prosperity. A succession of short-lived incompetent and weak rulers, and civil wars over the succession, created political instability at the centre. The Mughals appeared virtually unassailable during the 17th century but, once gone, their imperial overstretch became clear, and the situation could not be recovered. The seemingly innocuous European trading companies, such as
858-469: A companion to Dara Shukoh. In the same year, 1637, Aurangzeb was placed in charge of annexing the small Rajput kingdom of Baglana , which he did with ease. In 1638, Aurangzeb married Nawab Bai , later known as Rahmat al-Nisa. That same year, Aurangzeb dispatched an army to subdue the Portuguese coastal fortress of Daman , however his forces met stubborn resistance and were eventually repulsed at
1001-457: A complete ban on music. He sought to codify Hanafi law by the work of several hundred jurists, called Fatawa 'Alamgiri . It is possible the War of Succession and continued incursions combined with Shah Jahan's spending made cultural expenditure impossible. He learnt that at Multan , Thatta , and particularly at Varanasi , the teachings of Hindu Brahmins attracted numerous Muslims. He ordered
1144-438: A consequence of his return. The Deccan was a relatively impoverished area, this caused him to lose out financially. The area required grants were required from Malwa and Gujarat in order to maintain the administration. The situation caused ill-feeling between him and his father Shah Jahan who insisted that things could be improved if Aurangzeb made efforts to develop cultivation. Aurangzeb appointed Murshid Quli Khan to extend to
1287-471: A gurudwara at Dehradun, Balaji temple of Chitrakoot , Umananda Temple of Guwahati and the Shatrunjaya Jain temples, among others. Numerous new temples were built, as well. Contemporary court-chronicles mention hundreds of temple which were demolished by Aurangzab or his chieftains, upon his order. In September 1669, he ordered the destruction of Vishvanath Temple at Varanasi, which
1430-544: A higher tax burden on Hindu merchants at the rate of 5% (as against 2.5% on Muslim merchants), which led to considerable dislike of Aurangzeb's economic policies; a sharp turn from Akbar's uniform tax code. According to Marc Jason Gilbert, Aurangzeb ordered the jizya fees to be paid in person, in front of a tax collector, where the non Muslims were to recite a verse in the Quran which referred to their inferior status as non Muslims. This decision led to protests and lamentations among
1573-472: A highly centralised, bureaucratic government, most of which was instituted during the rule of the third Mughal emperor Akbar. The central government was headed by the Mughal emperor; immediately beneath him were four ministries. The finance/revenue ministry, headed by an official called a diwan , was responsible for controlling revenues from the empire's territories, calculating tax revenues, and using this information to distribute assignments. The ministry of
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#17327762754891716-426: A kind of mobile, "de facto" administrative capital. From the time of Akbar, Mughal camps were huge in scale, accompanied by numerous personages associated with the royal court, as well as soldiers and labourers. All administration and governance were carried out within them. The Mughal Emperors spent a significant portion of their ruling period within these camps. After Aurangzeb, the Mughal capital definitively became
1859-469: A late stage, a vast sum of money had been expended for little gain. Further unsuccessful military involvements followed, as Aurangzeb was appointed governor of Multan and Sindh . His efforts in 1649 and 1652 to dislodge the Safavids at Kandahar which they had recently retaken after a decade of Mughal control, both ended in failure as winter approached. The logistical problems of supplying an army at
2002-464: A mansab of 10,000. 4. Sometimes a mansabdar was paid his salary in cash also. Other source of income of mansabdar was grant of jagirs. 5. The salary due to the soldiers was added to the personal salary of the mansabdar. At times, for paying salaries to soldiers, a jagir was given to him. But the revenue was realised by officers and necessary adjustments made. 6. The mansabdari system was not hereditary. 7. In addition to meeting his personal expenses,
2145-424: A mansabdar. Now each mansabdar was required to keep one-third of the original number. Sometimes, it was even reduced to one-fourth or one-fifth. 3. Difference in the categories of mansabdars: During the time of Jahangir and Shah Jahan, the number of categories"of mansabdars was reduced to 11 as against 33 mentioned by Grand Vizier Abul Fazl in his book Akbarnama . 4. Relaxation in control: With Akbar's death,
2288-414: A military tax on non-Muslim subjects in lieu of military service, after an abatement for a span of hundred years, in what was critiqued by many Hindu rulers, family-members of Aurangzeb, and Mughal court-officials. The specific amount varied with the socioeconomic status of a subject and tax-collection were often waived for regions hit by calamities; also, Brahmins, women, children, elders, the handicapped,
2431-509: A new religion, Din-i-Ilahi , with strong characteristics of a ruler cult. He left his son an internally stable state, which was in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would emerge. Jahangir (born Salim, reigned 1605–1627) was born to Akbar and his wife Mariam-uz-Zamani , an Indian Rajput princess. Salim was named after the Indian Sufi saint, Salim Chishti . He "was addicted to opium, neglected
2574-440: A person having a mansab. (which means a role) In the mansabdari system founded by Akbar, the mansabdars were military commanders, high civil and military officers, and provincial governors. Those mansabdars whose rank was one thousand or below were called Amir , while those above 1,000 were called Amir-al Kabir (Great Amir). Some great Amirs whose ranks were above 5,000 were also given the title of Amir-al Umara (Amir of Amirs). It
2717-638: A reference to their descent from the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur , who took the title Gūrkān 'son-in-law' after his marriage to a Chinggisid princess. The word Mughal (also spelled Mogul or Moghul in English) is the Indo-Persian form of Mongol . The Mughal dynasty's early followers were Chagatai Turks and not Mongols. The term Mughal was applied to them in India by association with
2860-460: A series of battles, defeats and retreats, Dara was betrayed by one of his generals, who arrested and bound him. In 1658, Aurangzeb arranged his formal coronation in Delhi. On 10 August 1659, Dara was executed on grounds of apostasy and his head was sent to Shah Jahan. This was the first prominent execution of Aurangzeb based on accusations of being influenced by Hinduism, however some sources argue it
3003-712: A severe decline in governance, while stability and economic output in the Mughal Deccan plummeted. Aurangzeb is considered the most controversial Mughal emperor, with some historians arguing his religious conservatism and intolerance undermined the stability of Mughal society, while other historians question this, noting that he built Hindu temples , employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors did, opposed bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims . Despite these allegations, it has been acknowledged that Emperor Aurangzeb enacted repressive policies towards non-Muslims. A major rebellion by
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#17327762754893146-458: A syncretistic Hindu-Muslim culture, emulating his great-grandfather Akbar. With the support of the Islamic orthodoxy, however, a younger son of Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb ( r. 1658–1707 ), seized the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed. Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb kept Shah Jahan imprisoned until he died in 1666. Aurangzeb brought
3289-473: A system where wealth was hoarded by elites, wages were depressed for manual labour . While slavery also existed, it was limited largely to household servants. Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire. A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley , and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo and opium . By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators began to extensively grow two new crops from
3432-421: A troop ranking. All servants of the empire, whether in the civil or military departments, were graded in this system. There were thirty-three grades of mansabdars ranging from 'commanders of 10' to 'commanders of 10,000'. Till the middle of Akbar's reign, the highest rank an ordinary officer could hold was that of a commander of 5,000. The more exalted grades between commanders of 7,000 and 10,000 were reserved for
3575-531: A younger son, Murad Baksh , who had proved ineffective there. The area was under attack from Uzbek and Turkmen tribes. The Mughal artillery and muskets were matched by the skirmishing skills of their opponents which led to a stalemate. Aurangzeb discovered that his army could not live off the land, which was devastated by war. It is recorded that during the battle against the Uzbeks during this campaign, Aurangzeb dismounted from his elephant ride to recite prayer to
3718-518: Is described as "the jewel of Muslim art in India, and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage." The closest to an official name for the empire was Hindustan , which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari . Mughal administrative records also refer to the empire as "dominion of Hindustan" ( Wilāyat-i-Hindustān ), "country of Hind" ( Bilād-i-Hind ), "Sultanate of Al-Hind" ( Salṭanat(i) al-Hindīyyah ) as observed in
3861-553: Is sometimes dated to 1600, to the rule of Babur's grandson, Akbar . This imperial structure lasted until 1720, shortly after the death of the last major emperor, Aurangzeb , during whose reign the empire also achieved its maximum geographical extent. Reduced subsequently to the region in and around Old Delhi by 1760, the empire was formally dissolved by the British Raj after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . Although
4004-523: The kotwal (local police), the faujdar (an officer controlling multiple districts and troops of soldiers), and the most powerful, the subahdar (provincial governor). In some cases, the emperor dispensed justice directly. Jahangir was known to have installed a "chain of justice" in the Agra Fort that any aggrieved subject could shake to get the attention of the emperor and bypass the inefficacy of officials. Self-regulating tribunals operating at
4147-711: The Battle of Samugarh in May 1658 cemented his sovereignty and his suzerainty was acknowledged throughout the Empire. After Shah Jahan recovered from illness in July 1658, Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and imprisoned his father in the Agra Fort . Aurangzeb's reign is characterized by a period of rapid military expansion, with several dynasties and states being overthrown by the Mughals. The Mughals also surpassed Qing China as
4290-479: The British East Indies Company , played no real part in the initial decline; they were still racing to get permission from the Mughal rulers to establish trades and factories in India. In fiscal terms, the throne lost the revenues needed to pay its chief officers, the emirs (nobles) and their entourages. The emperor lost authority, as the widely scattered imperial officers lost confidence in
4433-643: The Deccan Plateau in South India . The Mughal Empire is conventionally said to have been founded in 1526 by Babur , a Timurid chieftain from Transoxiana , who employed aid from the neighbouring Safavid and Ottoman Empires to defeat the Sultan of Delhi , Ibrahim Lodi , in the First Battle of Panipat , and to sweep down the plains of North India . The Mughal imperial structure, however,
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4576-649: The First Battle of Panipat in 1526. Through his use of firearms and cannons, he was able to shatter Ibrahim's armies despite being at a numerical disadvantage, expanding his dominion up to the mid Indo-Gangetic Plain . After the battle, the centre of Mughal power shifted to Agra . In the decisive Battle of Khanwa , fought near Agra a year later, the Timurid forces of Babur defeated the combined Rajput armies of Rana Sanga of Mewar , with his native cavalry employing traditional flanking tactics. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow
4719-504: The Godavari River . He created a new ruling elite loyal to him, implemented a modern administration, and encouraged cultural developments. He increased trade with European trading companies. India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and economic development. Akbar allowed freedom of religion at his court and attempted to resolve socio-political and cultural differences in his empire by establishing
4862-481: The Industrial Revolution . Modern historians and researchers generally agree that the character of the Mughal Empire's economic policy resembles the laissez-faire system in dealing with trade and billions to achieve the economic ends. The Mughals were responsible for building an extensive road system and creating a uniform currency. The empire had an extensive road network, which was vital to
5005-519: The Marathas took place following this change, precipitated by the unmitigated state-building of its leader Shivaji in the Deccan. Aurangzeb's son, Bahadur Shah I , repealed the religious policies of his father and attempted to reform the administration. "However, after he died in 1712, the Mughal dynasty began to sink into chaos and violent feuds. In 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended
5148-687: The Second Anglo-Maratha War . Thereafter, the British East India Company became the protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi. The British East India Company took control of the former Mughal province of Bengal-Bihar in 1793 after it abolished local rule (Nizamat) that lasted until 1858, marking the beginning of the British colonial era over the Indian subcontinent. By 1857 a considerable part of former Mughal India
5291-593: The Sikh guru Arjan , whose execution was the first of many conflicts between the Mughal Empire and the Sikh community. Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–1658) was born to Jahangir and his wife Jagat Gosain , a Rajput princess. His reign ushered in the golden age of Mughal architecture . During the reign of Shah Jahan, the splendour of the Mughal court reached its peak, as exemplified by the Taj Mahal . The cost of maintaining
5434-775: The Third Battle of Panipat was fought between the Maratha Empire and the Afghans (led by Ahmad Shah Durrani ) in 1761, in which the Afghans were victorious, the emperor had ignominiously taken temporary refuge with the British to the east. In 1771, the Marathas recaptured Delhi from the Rohillas , and in 1784 the Marathas officially became the protectors of the emperor in Delhi, a state of affairs that continued until
5577-763: The Timurid Empire ) on his father's side, and from Genghis Khan on his mother's side. Paternally, Babur belonged to the Turkicized Barlas tribe of Mongol origin. Ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass . Babur's forces defeated Ibrahim Lodi , Sultan of Delhi , in
5720-449: The mir saman . Of these ministers, the diwan held the most importance, and typically acted as the wazir (prime minister) of the empire. The empire was divided into Subah (provinces), each of which was headed by a provincial governor called a subadar . The structure of the central government was mirrored at the provincial level; each suba had its own bakhshi , sadr as-sudr , and finance minister that reported directly to
5863-498: The subahdars of these provinces to demolish the schools and the temples of non-Muslims. Aurangzeb also ordered subahdars to punish Muslims who dressed like non-Muslims. The executions of the antinomian Sufi mystic Sarmad Kashani and the ninth Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur bear testimony to Aurangzeb's religious policy; the former was beheaded on multiple accounts of heresy, the latter, according to Sikhs, because he objected to Aurangzeb's forced conversions . Aurangzeb had also banned
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6006-458: The zabt system, the Mughals also conducted extensive cadastral surveying to assess the area of land under plough cultivation, with the Mughal state encouraging greater land cultivation by offering tax-free periods to those who brought new land under cultivation. The expansion of agriculture and cultivation continued under later Mughal emperors including Aurangzeb. Mughal agriculture was in some ways advanced compared to European agriculture at
6149-419: The 1720s. Despite India having its stocks of gold and silver, the Mughals produced minimal gold of their own but mostly minted coins from imported bullion , as a result of the empire's strong export-driven economy, with global demand for Indian agricultural and industrial products drawing a steady stream of precious metals into India. The historian Shireen Moosvi estimates that in terms of contributions to
6292-508: The Americas, maize and tobacco. The Mughal administration emphasised the agrarian reform that began under the non-Mughal emperor Sher Shah Suri, which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organised hierarchically based on merit, with promotions based on performance. The Mughal government funded the building of irrigation systems across the empire, which produced much higher crop yields and increased
6435-698: The Deccan the zabt revenue system used in northern India. Murshid Quli Khan organised a survey of agricultural land and a tax assessment on what it produced. To increase revenue, Murshid Quli Khan granted loans for seed, livestock, and irrigation infrastructure. This led the Deccan region to return to prosperity. Aurangzeb proposed to resolve financial difficulties by attacking the dynastic occupants of Golconda (the Qutb Shahis ) and Bijapur (the Adil Shahis ). This proposal would also extend Mughal influence by accruing more lands. Aurangzeb advanced against
6578-484: The Deccan. After regaining some of his health, Shah Jahan moved to Agra and Dara urged him to send forces to challenge Shah Shuja and Murad, who had declared themselves rulers in their respective territories. While Shah Shuja was defeated at Banares in February 1658, the army sent to deal with Murad discovered to their surprise that he and Aurangzeb had combined their forces, the two brothers having agreed to partition
6721-657: The Mongols and to distinguish them from the Afghan elite which ruled the Delhi Sultanate. The term remains disputed by Indologists . In Marshall Hodgson's view, the dynasty should be called Timurid / Timuri or Indo-Timurid . The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur (reigned 1526–1530), a Central Asian ruler who was descended from the Persianized Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur (the founder of
6864-471: The Mughal Empire was created and sustained by military warfare, it did not vigorously suppress the cultures and peoples it came to rule; rather it equalized and placated them through new administrative practices, and diverse ruling elites, leading to more efficient, centralised, and standardized rule. The base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar. These taxes, which amounted to well over half
7007-441: The Mughal Empire. However, the dispensation of justice also depended on other factors, such as administrative rules, local customs, and political convenience. This was due to Persianate influences on Mughal ideology, and that the Mughal Empire governed a non-Muslim majority. Scholar Mouez Khalfaoui notes that legal institutions in the Mughal Empire systemically suffered from the corruption of local judges. The Mughal Empire followed
7150-559: The Mughal court. There was more conspicuous consumption among the Mughal elite, resulting in greater patronage of painting , literary forms, textiles, and architecture , especially during the reign of Shah Jahan . Among the Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites in South Asia are: Agra Fort , Fatehpur Sikri , Red Fort , Humayun's Tomb , Lahore Fort , Shalamar Gardens , and the Taj Mahal , which
7293-427: The Mughal economy, in the late 16th century, the primary sector contributed 52%, the secondary sector 18% and the tertiary sector 29%; the secondary sector contributed a higher percentage than in early 20th-century British India , where the secondary sector only contributed 11% to the economy. In terms of the urban-rural divide, 18% of Mughal India's labour force were urban and 82% were rural, contributing 52% and 48% to
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#17327762754897436-540: The Nizam Shahi dynasty to an end. In 1637, Aurangzeb married the Safavid princess Dilras Banu , posthumously known as Rabia-ud-Daurani. She was his first wife and chief consort as well as his favourite. He also had an infatuation with a slave girl, Hira Bai , whose death at a young age greatly affected him. In his old age, he was under the charms of his concubine, Udaipuri Mahal . The latter had formerly been
7579-452: The No. of Zat. => 1st Class Mansabdar (b)No. of Sawar > 1/2 the No. of Zat => 2nd Class Mansabdar (c)No. of Sawar < Less than 1/2 the No. of Zat => 3rd Class Mansabdar Mansabdars were graded on the number of armed cavalrymen, or sowars , which each had to maintain for service in the imperial army . Thus, all mansabdars had a zat , or personal ranking, and a sowar , or
7722-584: The Persian concept of kinship, the Farr-i-Aizadi, and based his rule on the Quranic concept of kingship. Shah Jahan had already moved away from the liberalism of Akbar , although in a token manner rather than with the intent of suppressing Hinduism, and Aurangzeb took the change still further. Though the approach to faith of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan was more syncretic than Babur , the founder of
7865-471: The Sultan of Bijapur and besieged Bidar . The Kiladar (governor or captain) of the fortified city, Sidi Marjan, was mortally wounded when a gunpowder magazine exploded. After twenty-seven days of fighting, Bidar was captured by the Mughals and Aurangzeb continued his advance. Aurangzeb suspected Dara had exerted influence on his father. He believed that he was on the verge of victory in both instances, and
8008-670: The Sunni Hanafi system of jurisprudence. In its early years, the empire relied on Hanafi legal references inherited from its predecessor, the Delhi Sultanate. These included the al-Hidayah (the best guidance) and the Fatawa al-Tatarkhaniyya (religious decisions of the Emire Tatarkhan). During the Mughal Empire's peak, the Fatawa 'Alamgiri was commissioned by Emperor Aurangzeb. This compendium of Hanafi law sought to serve as
8151-604: The advice of his generals as the Mughal Army gathered and commenced the siege of Orchha in 1635. The campaign was successful and Singh was removed from power. Aurangzeb was appointed viceroy of the Deccan in 1636. After Shah Jahan's vassals had been devastated by the alarming expansion of Ahmednagar during the reign of the Nizam Shahi boy-prince Murtaza Shah III , the emperor dispatched Aurangzeb, who in 1636 brought
8294-489: The affairs of the state, and came under the influence of rival court cliques". Jahangir distinguished himself from Akbar by making substantial efforts to gain the support of the Islamic religious establishment. One way he did this was by bestowing many more madad-i-ma'ash (tax-free personal land revenue grants given to religiously learned or spiritually worthy individuals) than Akbar had. In contrast to Akbar, Jahangir came into conflict with non-Muslim religious leaders, notably
8437-631: The celebration of the Zoroastrian festival of Nauroz along with other un-Islamic ceremonies, and encouraged conversions to Islam; instances of persecution against particular Muslim factions were also reported. Yohanan Friedmann has reported that according to many modern historians and thinkers, the puritanical thought of Ahmad Sirhindi inspired the religious orthodoxy policy of Aurangzeb. Shortly after coming to power, Aurangzeb remitted more than 80 long-standing taxes affecting all of his subjects. In 1679, Aurangzeb chose to re-impose jizya ,
8580-417: The central authorities, and made their deals with local men of influence. The imperial army bogged down in long, futile wars against the more aggressive Marathas , and lost its fighting spirit. Finally came a series of violent political feuds over control of the throne. After the execution of Emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1719, local Mughal successor states took power in region after region. The Mughal Empire had
8723-533: The central government rather than the subahdar . Subas were subdivided into administrative units known as sarkars , which were further divided into groups of villages known as parganas . Mughal government in the pargana consisted of a Muslim judge and local tax collector. Parganas were the basic administrative unit of the Mughal Empire. Mughal administrative divisions were not static. Territories were often rearranged and reconstituted for better administrative control, and to extend cultivation. For example,
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#17327762754898866-514: The challengers were taking advantage of the situation. Shah Shuja in Bengal , where he had been governor since 1637 crowned himself King at RajMahal. He brought his cavalry, artillery and river flotilla upriver towards Agra. Near Varanasi his forces confronted a defending army sent from Delhi under the command of Prince Sulaiman Shukoh, son of Dara Shukoh, and Raja Jai Singh. Murad did the same in his governorship of Gujarat and Aurangzeb did so in
9009-436: The community or village level were common, but sparse documentation of them exists. For example, it is unclear how panchayats (village councils) operated in the Mughal era. The Mughal economy was large and prosperous. India was producing 24.5% of the world's manufacturing output up until 1750. Mughal India's economy has been described as a form of proto-industrialization , like that of 18th-century Western Europe before
9152-531: The control exercised over mansabdars became a bit slack. Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire was an early modern empire in South Asia . At its peak, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus River Basin in the west, northern Afghanistan in the northwest, and Kashmir in the north, to the highlands of present-day Assam and Bangladesh in the east, and the uplands of
9295-422: The cost of establishing a new capital was marginal. Situations where two simultaneous capitals happened multiple times in Mughal history. Certain cities also served as short-term, provincial capitals, as was the case with Aurangzeb's shift to Aurangabad in the Deccan . Kabul was the summer capital of Mughals from 1526 to 1681. The imperial camp, used for military expeditions and royal tours, also served as
9438-482: The court, however, began to exceed the revenue coming in. His reign was called as "The Golden Age of Mughal Architecture". Shah Jahan extended the Mughal Empire to the Deccan by ending the Ahmadnagar Sultanate and forcing the Adil Shahis and Qutb Shahis to pay tribute. Shah Jahan's eldest son, the liberal Dara Shikoh , became regent in 1658, as a result of his father's illness. Dara championed
9581-432: The economic infrastructure, built by a public works department set up by the Mughals which designed, constructed and maintained roads linking towns and cities across the empire, making trade easier to conduct. The main base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar. These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator, were paid in
9724-479: The economy, respectively. According to Moosvi, Mughal India had a per-capita income, in terms of wheat, 1.24% higher in the late 16th century than British India did in the early 20th century. This income, however, would have to be revised downwards if manufactured goods, like clothing, would be considered. Compared to food per capita, expenditure on clothing was much smaller though, so relative income between 1595 and 1596 should be comparable to 1901–1910. However, in
9867-400: The elephant was documented in Persian and Urdu verses. Aurangzeb was nominally in charge of the force sent to Bundelkhand with the intent of subduing the rebellious ruler of Orchha , Jhujhar Singh , who had attacked another territory in defiance of Shah Jahan's policy and was refusing to atone for his actions. By arrangement, Aurangzeb stayed in the rear, away from the fighting, and took
10010-415: The elephants into five. 10. For every ten cavalry men, the mansabdar had to maintain twenty horses for horses that had to be provided rest while on a march and replacements were necessary in times of war. 11. A record was kept of the description (‘huliya’) of each horseman under a mansabdar and branding (‘dag’) of horses to prevent corruption. 12. The troops raised by the emperor but not paid directly by
10153-489: The emboldened Aurangzeb's advance, Dara scrambled to form alliances in order but found that Aurangzeb had already courted key potential candidates. When Dara's disparate, hastily concocted army clashed with Aurangzeb's well-disciplined, battle-hardened force at the battle of Samugarh in late May, neither Dara's men nor his generalship were any match for Aurangzeb. Dara had also become over-confident in his own abilities and, by ignoring advice not to lead in battle while his father
10296-432: The emperor or the sadr-us-sudr (chief of charities). The jurisdiction of the qadi was availed by Muslims and non-Muslims alike. The jagirdar (local tax collector) was another kind of official approach, especially for high-stakes cases. Subjects of the Mughal Empire also took their grievances to the courts of superior officials who held more authority and punitive power than the local qadi . Such officials included
10439-480: The empire once they had gained control of it. The two armies clashed at Dharmat in April 1658, with Aurangzeb being the victor. Shuja was chased through Bihar . The victory of Aurangzeb proved this to be a poor decision by Dara Shikoh, who now had a defeated force on one front and a successful force unnecessarily pre-occupied on another. Realising that his recalled Bihar forces would not arrive at Agra in time to resist
10582-528: The empire to its greatest territorial extent, and oversaw an increase in the Islamicization of the Mughal state. He encouraged conversion to Islam, reinstated the jizya on non-Muslims, and compiled the Fatawa 'Alamgiri , a collection of Islamic law. Aurangzeb also ordered the execution of the Sikh guru Tegh Bahadur , leading to the militarization of the Sikh community. From the imperial perspective, conversion to Islam integrated local elites into
10725-541: The empire, Aurangzeb's position is not so obvious. His emphasis on sharia competed, or was directly in conflict, with his insistence that zawabit or secular decrees could supersede sharia. The chief qazi refusing to crown him in 1659, Aurangzeb had a political need to present himself as a "defender of the sharia" due to popular opposition to his actions against his father and brothers. Despite claims of sweeping edicts and policies, contradictory accounts exist. Historian Katherine Brown has argued that Aurangzeb never imposed
10868-429: The empire, though this was not followed absolutely in regions such as Gujarat , where lands granted in in'am to Charans were not affected. In around 1679, he ordered destruction of several prominent temples, including those of Khandela, Udaipur, Chittor and Jodhpur, which were patronaged by rebels. The Jama Masjid at Golkunda was similarly treated, after it was found that its ruler had built it to hide revenues from
11011-691: The end of a long siege. At some point, Aurangzeb married Aurangabadi Mahal , who was a Circassian or Georgian . In 1644, Aurangzeb's sister, Jahanara , suffered from burns when the chemicals in her perfume were ignited by a nearby lamp while in Agra . This event precipitated a family crisis with political consequences. Aurangzeb suffered his father's displeasure by not returning to Agra immediately but rather three weeks later. Shah Jahan had been nursing Jahanara back to health in that time and thousands of vassals had arrived in Agra to pay their respects. Shah Jahan
11154-464: The ensuing war of succession to the Mughal throne. Aurangzeb and his brother were consequently reunited with Shah Jahan in Agra . As a Mughal prince, Aurangzeb received an education covering subjects like combat, military strategy, and administration. His curriculum also included areas like Islamic studies, Turkic and Persian literature . Aurangzeb grew up fluent in the Hindustani language . He
11297-517: The entirety of the Indian subcontinent . Aurangzeb and the Mughals belonged to a branch of the Timurid dynasty . He held administrative and military posts under his father Shah Jahan ( r. 1628–1658 ) and gained recognition as an accomplished military commander. Aurangzeb served as the viceroy of the Deccan in 1636–1637 and the governor of Gujarat in 1645–1647. He jointly administered
11440-419: The epithet of Emperor Aurangzeb or endonymous identification from emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar as "Land of Hind" ( Hindostān ) in Hindustani . Contemporary Chinese chronicles referred to the empire as Hindustan ( Héndūsītǎn ). In the west, the term " Mughal " was used for the emperor, and by extension, the empire as a whole. The Mughal designation for their dynasty was Gurkani ( Gūrkāniyān ),
11583-429: The extremity of the empire, combined with the poor quality of armaments and the intransigence of the opposition have been cited by John Richards as the reasons for failure. A third attempt in 1653, led by Dara Shikoh, met with the same outcome. Aurangzeb became viceroy of the Deccan again after he was replaced by Dara Shukoh in the attempt to recapture Kandahar. Aurangbad's two jagirs (land grants) were moved there as
11726-411: The fact that Dara was a poor general and leader. It also ignores the fact that factional lines in the succession dispute were not, by and large, shaped by ideology." Marc Gaborieau, professor of Indian studies at l' École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales , explains that "The loyalties of [officials and their armed contingents] seem to have been motivated more by their own interests, the closeness of
11869-421: The family relation and above all the charisma of the pretenders than by ideological divides." Muslims and Hindus did not divide along religious lines in their support for one pretender or the other nor, according to Chandra, is there much evidence to support the belief that Jahanara and other members of the royal family were split in their support. Jahanara, certainly, interceded at various times on behalf of all of
12012-549: The fight had ended fatally for me it would not have been a matter of shame. Death drops the curtain even on emperors; it is no dishonor. The shame lay in what my brothers did! Historians have interpreted this as an unjust slur against his brothers. Shuja had also faced the elephant and wounded it with his spear. Dara had been too far away to come to their assistance. Three days later Aurangzeb turned fifteen. Shah Jahan weighed him and presented him with his weight in gold along with other presents worth Rs. 200,000. His bravery against
12155-517: The forces loyal to Aurangzeb. Shah Shuja then fled to Arakan (in present-day Burma), where he was executed by the local rulers. With Shuja and Murad disposed of, and with his father immured in Agra, Aurangzeb pursued Dara Shikoh, chasing him across the north-western bounds of the empire. Aurangzeb claimed that Dara was no longer a Muslim and accused him of poisoning the Mughal Grand Vizier Saadullah Khan . After
12298-457: The governorship of Bengal. This move had the effect of isolating Dara Shikoh and causing more troops to defect to Aurangzeb. Shah Shuja, who had declared himself emperor in Bengal began to annex more territory and this prompted Aurangzeb to march from Punjab with a new and large army that fought during the battle of Khajwa , where Shah Shuja and his chain-mail armoured war elephants were routed by
12441-579: The huge armies with which they had formerly enforced their rule. Many of the empire's elites now sought to control their affairs and broke away to form independent kingdoms. But lip service continued to be paid to the Mughal Emperor as the highest manifestation of sovereignty. Not only the Muslim gentry, but the Maratha, Hindu, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgements of the emperor as
12584-466: The imperial princes. Additionally, there was no distinction between the civil and military departments. Both civil and military officers held mansabs and were liable to be transferred from one branch of the administration to another. Each mansabdar was expected to maintain prescribed number of horses, elephants , and equipment, according to his rank and dignity. These rules, though initially strictly enforced, were later slackened. During Aurangzeb 's reign
12727-565: The independence of Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I in the Deccan, he encouraged the Marathas to invade central and northern India. The Indian campaign of Nader Shah , who had previously reestablished Iranian suzerainty over most of West Asia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, culminated with the Sack of Delhi shattering the remnants of Mughal power and prestige, and taking off all the accumulated Mughal treasury. The Mughals could no longer finance
12870-425: The king's vision of network of shared identity that would join disparate groups throughout the empire in obedience to the Mughal emperor. He led campaigns from 1682 in the Deccan, annexing its remaining Muslim powers of Bijapur and Golconda, though engaged in a prolonged conflict in the region which had a ruinous effect on the empire. The campaigns took a toll on the Mughal treasury, and Aurangzeb's absence led to
13013-626: The maintenance of shrines of worship but also (often) ordered their destruction. Modern historians reject the thought-school of colonial and nationalist historians about these destruction being guided by religious zealotry; rather, the association of temples with sovereignty, power and authority is emphasized upon. Whilst constructing mosques were considered an act of royal duty to subjects, there are also several firmans in Aurangzeb's name, supporting temples, maths , chishti shrines, and gurudwaras , including Mahakaleshwar temple of Ujjain ,
13156-491: The mansabdar had to maintain out of his salary a stipulated quota of horses, elephants, camels, mules and carts. A mansabdar holding a rank of 5,000 had to maintain 340 horses, 100 elephants, 400 camels, 100 mules and 160 carts. 8. Handsome salaries were paid to a mansabdar. A mansabdar with a rank of 5,000 got a salary of 30,000 rupees per month, one of 3,000 could get 17,000 rupees, while a mansabdar of 1,000 got 8,200 rupees. 9. The horses were classified into six categories and
13299-496: The masses as well as Hindu court officials. In order to meet state expenditures, Aurangzeb had ordered increases in land taxes; the burden of which fell heavily upon the Hindu Jats. The reimposition of the jizya encouraged Hindus to flee to areas under East India Company jurisdiction, under which policies of religious sufferance and pretermissions of religious taxes prevailed. Aurangzeb issued land grants and provided funds for
13442-414: The military (army/intelligence) was headed by an official titled mir bakhshi , who was in charge of military organisation, messenger service, and the mansabdari system. The ministry in charge of law/religious patronage was the responsibility of the sadr as-sudr, who appointed judges and managed charities and stipends. Another ministry was dedicated to the imperial household and public works, headed by
13585-536: The net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production. A major Mughal reform introduced by Akbar was a new land revenue system called zabt . He replaced the tribute system, previously common in India and used by Tokugawa Japan at the time, with a monetary tax system based on a uniform currency. The revenue system was biased in favour of higher value cash crops such as cotton, indigo, sugar cane , tree crops, and opium, providing state incentives to grow cash crops, in addition to rising market demand. Under
13728-601: The new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India. The instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun (reigned 1530–1556), who was forced into exile in Persia by the rebellious Sher Shah Suri (reigned 1540–1545). Humayun's exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal courts and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the later restored Mughal Empire. Humayun's triumphant return from Persia in 1555 restored Mughal rule in some parts of India, but he died in an accident
13871-549: The next year. Akbar (reigned 1556–1605) was born Jalal-ud-din Muhammad in the Rajput Umarkot Fort , to Humayun and his wife Hamida Banu Begum , a Persian princess. Akbar succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan , who helped consolidate the Mughal Empire in India. Through warfare, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of
14014-419: The number of Hindu officials in the Mughal administration rose by half, to represent 31.6% of Mughal nobility, the highest in the Mughal era. Many of them were Marathas and Rajputs , who were his political allies. However, Aurangzeb encouraged high ranking Hindu officials to convert to Islam. Under his reign, the Mughal Empire contributed to the world's GDP by nearly 25%, surpassing Qing China , making it
14157-438: The number of mansabdars was around 700 or more. 1. The emperor himself appointed the mansabdars. He could enhance the mansab, lower it or remove it. 2. A mansabdar could be asked to perform any civil or military service. 3. There were 33 categories of the mansabdars. The lowest mansabdar commanded 10 soldiers and the highest 10,000 soldiers. Only the princes of the imperial family and most important Rajput rulers were given
14300-443: The officials allow a woman to be burnt" . Although Aurangzeb's orders could be evaded with payment of bribes to officials, adds Ikram, later European travellers record that sati was not much practised in Mughal empire, and that Sati was "very rare, except it be some Rajah's wives, that the Indian women burn at all" by the end of Aurangzeb's reign. Historian Katherine Brown has noted that "The very name of Aurangzeb seems to act in
14443-470: The output of a peasant cultivator, were paid in the well-regulated silver currency, and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets. The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion. The burgeoning European presence in the Indian Ocean and an increasing demand for Indian raw and finished products generated much wealth for
14586-483: The popular imagination as a signifier of politico-religious bigotry and repression, regardless of historical accuracy." The subject has also resonated in modern times with popularly accepted claims that he intended to destroy the Bamiyan Buddhas . As a political and religious conservative, Aurangzeb chose not to follow the secular-religious viewpoints of his predecessors after his ascension. He made no mention of
14729-512: The princes and was well-regarded by Aurangzeb even though she shared the religious outlook of Dara. In 1656, a general under Qutb Shahi dynasty named Musa Khan led an army of 12,000 musketeers to attack Aurangzeb, who was besieging Golconda Fort . Later in the same campaign, Aurangzeb, in turn, rode against an army consisting of 8,000 horsemen and 20,000 Karnataki musketeers. After making clear his desire for his son Dara to take over after him, Shah Jahan fell ill with stranguary in 1657. He
14872-480: The production of piece goods , calicos , and muslins . The cotton textile industry was responsible for a large part of the empire's international trade. India had a 25% share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century, and it represented the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century. The most important centre of cotton production was the Bengal province, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka . The production of cotton
15015-505: The provinces of Multan and Sindh in 1648–1652 and continued expeditions into the neighboring Safavid territories. In September 1657, Shah Jahan nominated his eldest and liberalist son Dara Shikoh as his successor, a move repudiated by Aurangzeb, who proclaimed himself emperor in February 1658. In April 1658, Aurangzeb defeated the allied army of Shikoh and the Kingdom of Marwar at the Battle of Dharmat . Aurangzeb's decisive victory at
15158-440: The rank of sawar fixed the number of his horsemen. A K Mathur has opined that while the rank of zat indicated the total number of soldiers under a mansabdar, the rank of sawar indicated the number of horsemen under him. During the reign of Akbar, the mansabdars were asked to keep as many horsemen as were indicated by numbers of their ranks of sawar. But, the practice was not maintained by other Mughal emperors. (a )No. of Sawar =
15301-410: The ranks of zat and sawar in the system. Different views have been expressed regarding these terms. According to Blochmann, every mansabdar had to maintain as many soldiers as were indicated by his rank of zat while the rank of sawar indicated the number of horsemen among them. Irlos IV expressed the view that zat indicated the actual number of cavalry under a mansabdar besides other soldiers while sawar
15444-417: The seal of the qadi was required to validate deeds and tax records. Qadis did not constitute a single position, but made up a hierarchy. For example, the most basic kind was the pargana (district) qadi . More prestigious positions were those of the qadi al-quddat (judge of judges) who accompanied the mobile imperial camp, and the qadi-yi lashkar (judge of the army). Qadis were usually appointed by
15587-472: The sovereign of India. Meanwhile, some regional polities within the increasingly fragmented Mughal Empire involved themselves and the state in global conflicts, leading only to defeat and loss of territory during conflicts such as the Carnatic wars and Bengal War . The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II (1759–1806) made futile attempts to reverse the Mughal decline. Delhi was sacked by the Afghans, and when
15730-410: The state and placed under the charge of mansabadars were known as Dakhili 1. Difference in the highest mansab: After Akbar, higher mansabs were introduced. During Jahangir and Shah Jahan 's reigns, the mansab of a prince was raised to 40,000 and 60,000 respectively as against of 12,000 during Akbar's reign. 2. Reduction in the number of soldiers: Shah Jahan reduced the number of soldiers kept by
15873-654: The state; however desecration of mosques are rare due to their complete lack of political capital contra temples. In an order specific to Benaras, Aurangzeb invokes Sharia to declare that Hindus will be granted state-protection and temples won't be razed (but prohibits construction of any new temple); other orders to similar effect can be located. Richard Eaton, upon a critical evaluation of primary sources, counts 15 temples to have been destroyed during Aurangzeb's reign. Ian Copland and others reiterate Iqtidar Alam Khan who notes that, overall, Aurangzeb built more temples than he destroyed. Aurangzeb received tribute from all over
16016-441: The surprise of the opposing force commander. With the onset of winter, he and his father had to make an unsatisfactory deal with the Uzbeks. They had to give away territory in exchange for nominal recognition of Mughal sovereignty. The Mughal force suffered still further with attacks by Uzbeks and other tribesmen as it retreated through the snow to Kabul . By the end of this two-year campaign, into which Aurangzeb had been plunged at
16159-485: The suzerainty of the emperor. There are occasion of foreigner appointed as Mansabdar, such as the case of an english man William Hawkins during the era of Jahangir . he was appointed to lead the christian community in Agra. However, he has very small role in Mughal imperial court itself. It was prevalent during the reign of Babur and Humayun as well. Akbar made important changes to the system and made it more efficient. During later years of his reign, Akbar introduced
16302-479: The territory's capacity for revenue, based on simpler land surveys. The Mughals had multiple imperial capitals, established throughout their rule. These were the cities of Agra , Delhi , Lahore , and Fatehpur Sikri . Power often shifted back and forth between these capitals. Sometimes this was necessitated by political and military demands, but shifts also occurred for ideological reasons (for example, Akbar's establishment of Fatehpur Sikri), or even simply because
16445-607: The throne", as figureheads under the rule of a brotherhood of nobles belonging to the Indian Muslim caste known as the Sadaat-e-Bara , whose leaders, the Sayyid Brothers , became the de facto sovereigns of the empire. During the reign of Muhammad Shah (reigned 1719–1748), the empire began to break up, and vast tracts of central India passed from Mughal to Maratha hands. As the Mughals tried to suppress
16588-625: The time, exemplified by the common use of the seed drill among Indian peasants before its adoption in Europe. Geared sugar rolling mills first appeared in Mughal India, using the principle of rollers as well as worm gearing , by the 17th century. South Asia during the Mughal's rule was a very fertile ground for manufacturing technologies coveted by the Europeans before the Industrial Revolution . Up until 1750, India produced about 25% of
16731-406: The unemployed, the ill, and the insane were all perpetually exempted. The collectors were mandated to be Muslims. A majority of modern scholars reject that religious bigotry influenced the imposition; rather, realpolitik – economic constraints as a result of multiple ongoing battles and establishment of credence with the orthodox Ulemas – are held to be primary agents. Aurangzeb also enforced
16874-417: The walled city of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi). The Mughal Empire's legal system was context-specific and evolved throughout the empire's rule. Being a Muslim state, the empire employed fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and therefore the fundamental institutions of Islamic law such as those of the qadi (judge), mufti (jurisconsult), and muhtasib (censor and market supervisor) were well-established in
17017-491: The well-regulated silver currency, and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets. In circa 1595, Modern historians estimated the state's annual revenues of the Mughal Empire were around 99,000,000 rupees. The Mughals adopted and standardised the rupee ( rupiya , or silver) and dam (copper) currencies introduced by Sur Emperor Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule. The Mughals minted coins with high purity, never dropping below 96%, and without debasement until
17160-482: The world's industrial output. Manufactured goods and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world. The growth of manufacturing industries in the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal era in the 17th–18th centuries has been referred to as a form of proto-industrialization , similar to 18th-century Western Europe before the Industrial Revolution. In early modern Europe , there
17303-411: The world's largest economy and biggest manufacturing power, more than the entirety of Western Europe, and signaled proto-industrialization . Aurangzeb was an orthodox Muslim ruler. Subsequent to the policies of his three predecessors, he endeavored to make Islam a dominant force in his reign. However these efforts brought him into conflict with the forces that were opposed to this revival. Aurangzeb
17446-678: The world's largest economy and biggest manufacturing power. The Mughal military gradually improved and became one of the strongest armies in the world. A staunch Muslim, Aurangzeb is credited with the construction of numerous mosques and patronizing works of Arabic calligraphy . He successfully imposed the Fatawa-i Alamgiri as the principal regulating body of the empire and prohibited religiously forbidden activities in Islam. Although Aurangzeb suppressed several local revolts, he maintained cordial relations with foreign governments. Aurangzeb
17589-597: Was a follower of the Mujaddidi Order and a disciple of the son of the Punjabi saint, Ahmad Sirhindi . He sought to establish Islamic rule as instructed and inspired by him. Sheikh Muhammad Ikram stated that after returning from Kashmir, Aurangzeb issued order in 1663, to ban the practice of Sati , a Hindu practice to burn a widow whenever her husband passed away. Ikram recorded that Aurangzeb issued decree: "in all lands under Mughal control, never again should
17732-437: Was a leading producer of grains, salt, fruits, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments. Aurangzeb Muhi al-Din Muhammad (3 November 1618 – 3 March 1707), commonly known by the title Aurangzeb , and also by his regnal name Alamgir I , was the sixth Mughal emperor , reigning from 1658 until his death in 1707. Under his emperorship, Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent with territory spanning nearly
17875-507: Was a system whereby nobles were granted the rights to hold a jagir , or revenue assignment (not land itself), for services rendered by them, with the direct control of these nobles in the hands of the emperor . Asad Yar Jung mentioned 66 grades of mansabdars, but in practice there were around 33 mansabs. During the early reign of Akbar, the lowest grade was ten and the highest was 5,000 (later raised to 7,000 and 10,000). Higher mansabs were given to imperial princes and Rajput rulers who accepted
18018-403: Was advanced by the diffusion of the spinning wheel across India shortly before the Mughal era, lowering the costs of yarn and helping to increase demand for cotton. The diffusion of the spinning wheel and the incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era. The Bengal Subah province
18161-465: Was alive, he cemented the idea that he had usurped the throne. "After the defeat of Dara, Shah Jahan was imprisoned in the fort of Agra where he spent eight long years under the care of his favourite daughter Jahanara." Aurangzeb then broke his arrangement with Murad Baksh, which probably had been his intention all along. Instead of looking to partition the empire between himself and Murad, he had his brother arrested and imprisoned at Gwalior Fort. Murad
18304-494: Was also fluent in his ancestral language of Chagatai Turkic , but similar to his predecessors, he preferred to use Persian . On 28 May 1633, a war elephant stampeded through the Mughal imperial encampment. Aurangzeb rode against the elephant and threw his spear at its head. He was unhorsed but escaped death. For his courage, Aurangzeb's father conferred on him the title of Bahadur (brave) and presented him with gifts. When chided for his recklessness, Aurangzeb replied: If
18447-400: Was an additional honour. According to I W Butlar, the rank of sawar was given to mansabdars to fix up their additional allowances. A mansabdar was paid two rupees per horse. Therefore, if a mansabdar received the rank of 500 sawar he was given rupees one thousand additional allowance. Abdul Aziz is of the opinion that while the rank of zat fixed the number of other soldiers under a mansabdar,
18590-521: Was born during the reign of his patrilineal grandfather Jahangir ( r. 1605–1627 ), the fourth emperor of the Mughal Empire . In June 1626, after an unsuccessful rebellion by his father, eight-year-old Aurangzeb and his brother Dara Shikoh were sent to the Mughal court in Lahore as hostages of their grandfather Jahangir and his wife, Nur Jahan , as part of their father's pardon deal. After Jahangir died in 1627, Shah Jahan emerged victorious in
18733-531: Was born in Dahod on 3 November 1618. His father was Emperor Shah Jahan ( r. 1628–1658 ), who hailed from the Mughal house of the Timurid dynasty . The latter was descended from Emir Timur ( r. 1370–1405 ), the founder of the Timurid Empire . Aurangzeb's mother Mumtaz Mahal was the daughter of the Persian nobleman Asaf Khan , who was the youngest son of vizier Mirza Ghiyas . Aurangzeb
18876-564: Was done for political reasons. Aurangzeb had his allied brother Prince Murad Baksh held for murder, judged and then executed. Aurangzeb was accused of poisoning his imprisoned nephew Sulaiman Shikoh . Having secured his position, Aurangzeb confined his frail father at the Agra Fort but did not mistreat him. Shah Jahan was cared for by Jahanara and died in 1666. Aurangzeb's imperial bureaucracy employed significantly more Hindus than that of his predecessors. Between 1679 and 1707,
19019-517: Was especially prosperous from the time of its takeover by the Mughals in 1590 until the British East India Company seized control in 1757. Historian C. A. Bayly wrote that it was probably the Mughal Empire's wealthiest province. Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks, and opium. The province
19162-524: Was established by Raja Man Singh, whose grandson Jai Singh was believed to have facilitated Shivaji's escape. After the Jat rebellion in Mathura (early 1670), which killed the patron of the town-mosque, Aurangzeb suppressed the rebels and ordered for the city's Kesava Deo temple to be demolished, and replaced with an Eidgah . In 1672–73, Aurangzeb ordered the resumption of all grants held by Hindus throughout
19305-537: Was executed on 4 December 1661, ostensibly for the murder of the diwan of Gujarat. The allegation was encouraged by Aurangzeb, who caused the diwan's son to seek retribution for the death under the principles of Sharia law . Meanwhile, Dara gathered his forces, and moved to the Punjab . The army sent against Shuja was trapped in the east, its generals Jai Singh and Dilir Khan submitted to Aurangzeb, but Dara's son, Suleiman Shikoh, escaped. Aurangzeb offered Shah Shuja
19448-414: Was frustrated that Shah Jahan chose then to settle for negotiations with the opposing forces rather than pushing for complete victory. The four sons of Shah Jahan all held governorships during their father's reign. The emperor favoured the eldest, Dara Shikoh . This had caused resentment among the younger three, who sought at various times to strengthen alliances between themselves and against Dara. There
19591-457: Was kept in seclusion and cared for by Dara in the newly built city of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi). Rumours spread that Shah Jahan had died, which led to concerns among his younger sons. Subsequently, these younger sons took military actions seemingly in response but it is not known whether these preparations were made in the mistaken belief that the rumours of death of Shah Jahan were true and that Dara might be hiding it for political gain, or whether
19734-432: Was no Mughal tradition of primogeniture , the systematic passing of rule, upon an emperor's death, to his eldest son. Instead it was customary for sons to overthrow their father and for brothers to war to the death among themselves. Historian Satish Chandra says that "In the ultimate resort, connections among the powerful military leaders, and military strength and capacity [were] the real arbiters". The contest for power
19877-415: Was outraged to see Aurangzeb enter the interior palace compound in military attire and immediately dismissed him from his position of viceroy of the Deccan; Aurangzeb was also no longer allowed to use red tents or to associate himself with the official military standard of the Mughal emperor. Other sources state that Aurangzeb was dismissed from his position because Aurangzeb left the life of luxury and became
20020-526: Was primarily between Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb because, although all four sons had demonstrated competence in their official roles, it was around these two that the supporting cast of officials and other influential people mostly circulated. There were ideological differences – Dara was an intellectual and a religious liberal in the mould of Akbar, while Aurangzeb was much more conservative – but, as historians Barbara D. Metcalf and Thomas R. Metcalf say, "To focus on divergent philosophies neglects
20163-432: Was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo , silks, and saltpetre (for use in munitions ). European fashion , for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was textile manufacturing , particularly cotton textile manufacturing, which included
20306-559: Was the longest reigning Mughal Emperor. His empire was also one of the largest in Indian history. However, his emperorship has a complicated legacy. His critics, citing his actions against the non-Muslims and his conservative view of Islam, argue that he abandoned the legacy of pluralism and tolerance of the earlier Mughal emperors. Others, however, reject these assertions, arguing that he opposed bigotry against Hindus, Sikhs and Shia Muslims and that he employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors. Aurangzeb
20449-476: Was under the East India Company's control. After a crushing defeat in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 which he nominally led, the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar , was deposed by the British East India Company and exiled in 1858 to Rangoon , Burma. Historians have offered numerous accounts of the several factors involved in the rapid collapse of the Mughal Empire between 1707 and 1720, after
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