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90-466: On 2 March 1848, news of the French Revolution of 1848 reached Stockholm. On the morning of 18 March, the police encountered proclamations all over the capital defying the government and demanding reforms, among them elective and suffrage reform. That afternoon, a banquet was arranged at the luxury Hotel de la Croix. A mob gathered on the square outside, Brunkebergstorg, and threatened to enter

180-492: A constitutional monarchy . Upon Louis XVIII's death, his brother, the Count of Artois, ascended to the throne in 1824, as Charles X . Supported by the ultra-royalists , Charles X was an extremely unpopular reactionary monarch whose aspirations were far more grand than those of his deceased brother. He had no desire to rule as a constitutional monarch, taking various steps to strengthen his own authority as monarch and weaken that of

270-547: A motion of no confidence , the Address of the 221 , against the king and Polignac 's ministry. The following day, Charles dissolved parliament, and alarmed the opposition by delaying elections for two months. During this time, the liberals championed the "221" as popular heroes, while the government struggled to gain support across the country, as prefects were shuffled around the departments of France . The elections that followed , taking place between 5 and 19 July 1830, returned

360-568: A deaf ear to the reform movement, and discontent among wide sections of the French people continued to grow. Social and political discontent sparked revolutions in France in 1830 and 1848, which in turn inspired revolts in other parts of Europe. Workers lost their jobs, bread prices rose, and people accused the government of corruption . The French revolted and set up a republic. French successes led to other revolts, including those who wanted relief from

450-470: A duty... It is for France to judge how far its own resistance ought to extend. Despite public anger over the police raid, Jean-Henri-Claude Magin, the Paris Préfet de police , wrote that evening: "the most perfect tranquility continues to reign in all parts of the capital. No event worthy of attention is recorded in the reports that have come through to me." Throughout the day, Paris grew quiet as

540-528: A large-scale protest against the government of François Guizot , it later developed into a violent uprising against the monarchy. After intense urban fighting, large crowds managed to take control of the capital, leading to the abdication of King Louis Philippe on 24 February and the subsequent proclamation of the Second Republic. Under the Charter of 1814 , Louis XVIII ruled France as the head of

630-527: A mob on the 25th. After Louis Philippe's abdication, his daughter-in-law Helena, Duchess of Orléans , became the presumptive regent of France as the mother of Philippe, Count of Paris. She therefore, along with her son, went from the Tuileries to the Chamber of Deputies to try to prevent the abolition of the monarchy. However, following their victory at the Tuileries, the revolutionary crowd broke into

720-615: A narrow majority for Polignac and his Ultra-royalists , but many Chamber members were nevertheless hostile to the king. On Sunday, 25 July 1830, the king, with the agreement of Polignac, set out to alter the Charter of 1814 by decree. His decrees, known as the July Ordinances , dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, suspended the liberty of the press, excluded the commercial middle class from future elections, and called for new elections. On Monday 26 July, these decrees were published in

810-492: A petition in which they asked for the ordonnances to be withdrawn. The petition was critical "not of the King, but his ministers", thereby countering the conviction of Charles X that his liberal opponents were enemies of his dynasty. After signing the petition, committee members went directly to Marmont to beg for an end to the bloodshed, and to plead with him to become a mediator between Saint-Cloud and Paris. Marmont acknowledged

900-505: A sweltering, unemployed mob angrily shouting, " À bas les Bourbons! " ("Down with the Bourbons!") and " Vive la Charte! " ("Long live the Charter!"). Armand Carrel , a journalist, wrote in the next day's edition of Le National : France... falls back into revolution by the act of the government itself... the legal regime is now interrupted, that of force has begun... in the situation in which we are now placed obedience has ceased to be

990-427: A third of Paris was on social welfare . Writers such as Louis Blanc ("The right to work ") and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (" Property is theft !") proliferated. Bastiat, who was one of the most famous political writers of the 1840s, had written countless works concerning the economic situation before 1848, and provided a different explanation of why the French people were forced to rise in the revolt. He believed that

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1080-529: A time all is silent again so for a time one could believe that everything in the city was normal. But all the shops are shut; the Pont Neuf is almost completely dark, the stupefaction visible on every face reminds us all too much of the crisis we face.... In 1828, the city of Paris had installed some 2,000 street lamps . These lanterns were hung on ropes looped-on-looped from one pole to another, as opposed to being secured on posts. The rioting lasted well into

1170-463: A voluntary group of citizens formerly considered a reliable conduit between the monarchy and the people. Cooler heads were appalled: "[I] would rather have my head cut off", wrote a nobleman from the Rhineland upon hearing the news, "than have counseled such an act: the only further measure needed to cause a revolution is censorship." On 17 March 1830, the majority in the Chamber of Deputies passed

1260-471: The Journal des débats , Le Moniteur , and Le Constitutionnel had already ceased publication in compliance with the new law, nearly 50 journalists from a dozen city newspapers met in the offices of Le National . There they signed a collective protest, and vowed their newspapers would continue to run. That evening, when police raided a news press and seized contraband newspapers, they were greeted by

1350-727: The February Revolution ( Révolution de février ), was a period of civil unrest in France, in February 1848, that led to the collapse of the July Monarchy and the foundation of the French Second Republic . It sparked the wave of revolutions of 1848 . The revolution took place in Paris , and was preceded by the French government's crackdown on the campagne des banquets . Starting on 22 February as

1440-651: The French Revolution of 1848 . The 1830 Revolution marked a shift from one constitutional monarchy , under the restored House of Bourbon , to another, the July Monarchy ; the transition of power from the House of Bourbon to its cadet branch , the House of Orléans ; and the replacement of the principle of hereditary right by that of popular sovereignty . Supporters of the Bourbons would be called Legitimists , and supporters of Louis Philippe were known as Orléanists . In addition, there continued to be Bonapartists supporting

1530-570: The Garde Royale in the Champ de Mars , the king was greeted with icy silence, and many of the spectators refused to remove their hats, the traditional sign of respect for the king. Charles X "later told [his cousin] Orléans that, 'although most people present were not too hostile, some looked at times with terrible expressions'." Because of what Charles X's government perceived to be growing, relentless, and increasingly vitriolic criticism of both

1620-675: The Hôtel de Ville , had been captured. The amount of looting during these three days was surprisingly small ; not only at the Louvre —whose paintings and objets d'art were protected by the crowd—but the Tuileries, the Palais de Justice , the Archbishop's Palace , and other places as well. A few hours later, politicians entered the battered complex and set about establishing a provisional government. Though there would be spots of fighting throughout

1710-604: The July Revolution ( French : révolution de Juillet ), Second French Revolution , or Trois Glorieuses ("Three Glorious [Days]"), was a second French Revolution after the first in 1789. It led to the overthrow of King Charles X , the French Bourbon monarch, and the ascent of his cousin Louis Philippe , Duke of Orléans. After 18 precarious years on the throne, Louis-Philippe was overthrown in

1800-582: The lower house . In 1830, Charles X of France, presumably instigated by one of his chief advisers, Jules, Prince de Polignac , issued the Four Ordinances of St. Cloud . These ordinances abolished freedom of the press , reduced the electorate by 75%, and dissolved the lower house. This action provoked an immediate reaction from the citizenry, who revolted against the monarchy during the Three Glorious Days of 26–29 July 1830. Charles

1890-405: The ordonnances vital to the safety and dignity of the throne of France. Thus, the King would not withdraw the ordonnances . At 4 pm, Charles X received Colonel Komierowski, one of Marmont's chief aides. The colonel was carrying a note from Marmont to his Majesty: Sire, it is no longer a riot, it is a revolution. It is urgent for Your Majesty to take measures for pacification. The honour of

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1980-608: The Atlantic Coast to file for bankruptcy, along with the one owned by Bastiat's family. Indeed, most of Bastiat's early works concern the situation in Bayonne and Bordeaux, two large merchant harbors before the Napoleonic Wars, gradually devastated first by Napoleon I's continental blockade, and later by the protectionist legislation of the nineteenth century. According to Bastiat's biographer, G.C. Roche, just prior to

2070-816: The Camp—the Rèforme and the National—March of Democracy" published in The Northern Star on 4 December 1847; "Reform Banquet at Lille—Speech of LeDru-Rollin" published in The Northern Star on 16 December 1847; "Reform Movement in France—Banquet of Dijon" published in The Northern Star on 18 December 1847; "The Réforme and the National" published in the Deutsche-Brüsseler-Zeitung on 30 December 1847; and "Louis Blanc's Speech at

2160-515: The Chamber of Deputies. Such membership was indispensable to those who sought the ultimate in social prestige. In protest, members of the Bourse refused to lend money, and business owners shuttered their factories. Workers were unceremoniously turned out into the street to fend for themselves. Unemployment, which had been growing through early summer, spiked. "Large numbers of... workers therefore had nothing to do but protest." While newspapers such as

2250-520: The Château d'Eau, a guard post on the way to the Tuileries held by about one hundred men of the Municipal Guard and the despised 14th Line Regiment. After intense fighting, the Château d'Eau was overrun and set on fire, with the surviving soldiers throwing away their weapons in surrender. With the insurgents closing in on the royal palace, Thiers advised Louis Philippe to leave Paris and crush

2340-790: The Congress, but decision-making was controlled by four major powers: the Austrian Empire , represented by the Chief Minister Prince Metternich ; the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , represented by its Foreign Secretary Viscount Castlereagh ; the Russian Empire , represented by Emperor Alexander I ; and Prussia , represented by King Frederick William III . France's foreign minister, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand , also attended

2430-453: The Congress. Although France was considered an enemy state, Talleyrand was allowed to attend the Congress because he claimed that he had only cooperated with Napoleon under duress. He suggested that France be restored to her "legitimate" (i.e. pre-Napoleonic) borders and governments—a plan that, with some changes, was accepted by the major powers. France was spared large annexations and returned to its 1791 borders. The House of Bourbon, deposed by

2520-603: The Continent", and that "the various monarchs hastened to pay their subjects the constitutions which they owed them". As one of its immediate effects, it sparked a wave of revolutions in the German states . The outcome of the Revolution in France pressured the monarchs of Prussia , Bavaria , Austria and Sardinia into granting liberal reforms. Three Glorious Days The French Revolution of 1830 , also known as

2610-614: The Dijon Banquet" published in the Deutsche-Brusseler-Zeitung on 30 December 1847. On 14 January 1848, ahead of the highly awaited next banquet in Paris, the government of prime minister François Guizot outlawed it. Nonetheless, the banquet's organizers decided that it would still be held, alongside a political demonstration, and scheduled it for 22 February. Aware of the political gatherings scheduled for

2700-494: The King then requested Count Molé to form a new government. Upon Guizot's resignation, the leaders of the Movement Party (known as the "dynastic opposition"), Adolphe Thiers and Odilon Barrot , congratulated themselves on achieving a change of ministry while preserving the monarchy. After news of Guizot's resignation spread through Paris, fighting gradually ceased and the crowds began to celebrate. However, despite

2790-581: The Orléanists and opposed on his right by the Legitimists (former ultra-royalists) and on his left by the Republicans . Louis Philippe was an expert businessman and, by means of his businesses, he had become one of the richest men in France. Louis Philippe saw himself as the successful embodiment of a "small businessman" ( petite bourgeoisie ). He and his government did not look with favor on

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2880-627: The Reform" ( Vive la réforme ). The National Guard was mobilized, however its soldiers refused to engage the crowds, and instead joined them in their demonstrations against Guizot and King Louis Philippe. In the early afternoon, Louis Philippe summoned Guizot to the Tuileries Palace , the king's residence, and reluctantly asked for his resignation. Guizot returned to the Parliament where he announced his resignation as prime minister, and

2970-487: The Revolution, was restored to the throne in the person of Louis XVIII . The Congress, however, forced Louis to grant a constitution, the Charter of 1814 . On 16 September 1824, after a lingering illness of several months, the 68-year-old Louis XVIII died. As he was childless, his younger brother, Charles, aged 66, inherited the throne of France. He was known to have more reactionary politics. On 27 September Charles X made his state entry into Paris to popular acclaim. During

3060-888: The Southern Provinces of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands , leading to separation and the establishment of the Kingdom of Belgium . There was also a successful revolution in Brunswick . The example of the July Revolution also inspired unsuccessful revolutions in Italy and the November Uprising in Poland. Two years later, Parisian republicans, disillusioned by the outcome and underlying motives of

3150-465: The United Kingdom, including the ban on importing tea, perceived as destructive to the French national spirit. As the United Kingdom was the largest economy in the world in the nineteenth century, France deprived itself of its most important economic partner, one that could have supplied France with what it lacked and bought surplus French goods. Such governmental policies and obliviousness to

3240-704: The afternoon, protesters were dispersed from the Place de la Concorde and the Place de la Madeleine. The crowds were too large to be arrested or contained, and so they spread out around the Champs-Élysées and back into southeast Paris, building the first barricades . In the evening, early skirmishes took place with the Municipal Guard. On 23 February, the Ministry of War requested more regular troops from outside Paris. Crowds marched past Guizot's residence shouting "Down with Guizot" ( À bas Guizot ) and "Long Live

3330-405: The arm depots or gunpowder factories. For a time, those precautions seemed premature, but at 7:00 pm, with the coming of twilight, the fighting began. "Parisians, rather than soldiers, were the aggressor. Paving stones, roof tiles, and flowerpots from the upper windows... began to rain down on the soldiers in the streets". At first, soldiers fired warning shots into the air. But before the night

3420-443: The arrested, which dissolved the crowd. Another crowd formed later the same day, however, which threw stones through windows at Gustav Adolfs torg , Drottninggatan and Blasieholmen , among them at the windows of Arch Bishop Wingård . On 19 March, mobs gathered again and shops were plundered. When a crowd on Storkyrkobrinken refused to dissolve, the monarch called out the militia . Shots were fired, leading to 18 casualties among

3510-649: The balcony of the Hôtel de Ville and, followed by a euphoric cheering from the crowd, announced the proclamation of the French Republic. The February Revolution had a major impact in Europe, sparking a revolutionary wave known as the Revolutions of 1848 . The American chargé d'affaires to the Austrian Empire , William H. Stiles , reported the Revolution "fell like a bomb amid the states and kingdoms of

3600-583: The banquet leaders were recalled to their normal duties by the Prefect of Police . Only a small number of troops remained at critical points. Shortly before noon, large crowds began flooding out onto the streets of Paris, gathering from the eastern suburbs and the Latin Quarter towards the Place de la Concorde and the Place de la Madeleine . Their appearance came as a surprise to the authorities, after

3690-591: The big business (bourgeoisie), especially the industrial section of the French bourgeoisie, yet Louis Philippe did support the bankers, large and small. At the beginning of his reign in 1830, Jaques Laffitte, a banker and liberal politician who supported Louis Philippe's rise to the throne, said "From now on, the bankers will rule." During the reign of Louis Philippe, the privileged "financial aristocracy", i.e. bankers, stock exchange magnates, railroad barons, owners of coal mines, iron ore mines, and forests and all landowners associated with them, tended to support him, while

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3780-597: The building. The mob was crushed by the police and some were arrested, though they defended themselves by throwing stones. On the evening, a crowd gathered between the Royal Palace and the Storkyrkan . King Oscar I of Sweden , who was attending a performance by Jenny Lind at the Royal Swedish Opera , met the protesters at Storkyrkobrinken , listened to their complaints and ordered the release of

3870-516: The ceremony, while presenting the King the keys to the city, the comte de Chabrol, Prefect of the Seine, declared: "Proud to possess its new king, Paris can aspire to become the queen of cities by its magnificence, as its people aspire to be foremost in its fidelity, its devotion, and its love." Eight months later, the mood of the capital had sharply worsened in its opinion of the new king. The causes of this dramatic shift in public opinion were many, but

3960-510: The city for the next few days, the revolution, for all intents and purposes, was over. The revolution of July 1830 created a constitutional monarchy. On 2 August, Charles X and his son the Dauphin abdicated their rights to the throne and departed for Great Britain. Although Charles had intended that his grandson, the Duke of Bordeaux , would take the throne as Henry V, the politicians who composed

4050-588: The constitution and the Chamber of Deputies with the people of Paris, the king's relationship with the élite—both the Bourbon supporters and Bourbon opposition—had remained solid. This, too, was about to change. On 12 April, propelled by both genuine conviction and the spirit of independence, the Chamber of Deputies roundly rejected the government's proposal to change the inheritance laws. The popular newspaper Le Constitutionnel pronounced this refusal "a victory over

4140-445: The crowd not to pass, but the soldiers began to be pressed by the crowd. The officer then ordered his men to fix bayonets in order to keep people at distance. However, as they were performing this, an unidentified weapon was discharged, and in response the soldiers opened fire on the crowd in a fusillade . 52 people were killed and 74 others were injured, and the crowd immediately dispersed as people fled in all directions. News of

4230-495: The crown can still be saved. Tomorrow, perhaps, there will be no more time... I await with impatience Your Majesty's orders. The king asked Polignac for advice, and the advice was to resist. "They (the king and ministers) do not come to Paris", wrote the poet, novelist and playwright Alfred de Vigny , "people are dying for them ... Not one prince has appeared. The poor men of the guard abandoned without orders, without bread for two days, hunted everywhere and fighting." Perhaps for

4320-521: The employment of children less than 13 years old for night-time work. This law was routinely flouted. The year 1846 saw a financial crisis and bad harvests, and the following year saw an economic depression. A poor railway system hindered aid efforts, and the peasant rebellions that resulted were forcibly crushed. According to French economist Frédéric Bastiat , the poor condition of the railway system can largely be attributed to French efforts to promote other systems of transport, such as carriages. Perhaps

4410-512: The evening, the final list of the eleven individuals who would form the Provisional Government was drawn up, with its members then being announced one by one to the crowd outside. Its composition was the result of a compromise between the moderate and radical tendencies of the republican movement, associated, respectively, with the newspapers Le National and La Réforme . In the early hours of 25 February, Lamartine came to

4500-613: The events in Paris by his ministers, who insisted that the troubles would end as soon as the rioters ran out of ammunition. Marmont's plan was to have the Garde Royale and available line units of the city garrison guard the vital thoroughfares and bridges of the city, as well as protect important buildings such as the Palais Royal , Palais de Justice , and the Hôtel de Ville . This plan was both ill-considered and wildly ambitious; not only were there not enough troops, but there were also nowhere near enough provisions. The Garde Royale

4590-482: The events were supposedly cancelled, and led to a confused initial response. The crowds, mostly unarmed, easily overcame the few Municipal Guardsmen, filling the squares and nearly invading the Palais Bourbon , the seat of the Chamber of Deputies . These demonstrations soon developed into a large-scale, popular revolt, making 22 February the first day of the Revolution. With the arrival of reinforcements in

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4680-467: The fall of an unpopular government, underlying social pressures remained, and republicans still sought to secure a change of regime. At around 9:30 pm, a crowd of over six hundred gathered outside the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on the Boulevard des Capucines . The building was guarded by about two hundred men of the 14th Line Infantry Regiment  [ fr ] . The commanding officer ordered

4770-407: The following day, the French government banned the political banquets for the second time on 21 February. The ban succeeded in pressuring the organizing committee to cancel the events. However, the workers and students, mobilising in the previous days, refused to back down over the demonstrations. 22 February started quietly, and at 9 a.m., members of the Municipal Guard who had been assigned to arrest

4860-428: The forces of counter-revolutionaries and reactionism." The popularity of both the Chamber of Peers and the Chamber of Deputies skyrocketed, and the popularity of the king and his ministry dropped. The Coronation of Charles took place at Reims Cathedral on 29 May 1825. In an elaborate ceremony the King swore both to uphold the Charter but also France's ancient "fundamental laws". On 16 April 1827, while reviewing

4950-532: The government and the Church, it introduced a proposal at the Chamber of Deputies for a law to tighten censorship, especially of newspapers. The Chamber, for its part, objected so violently that the humiliated government had no choice but to withdraw its proposals. On 30 April, on the grounds that it had behaved in an offensive manner towards the crown, the king abruptly dissolved the National Guard of Paris,

5040-823: The government to expand the electoral franchise, just as Great Britain had done with the Reform Act 1832 . The more radical democrats of the reform movement coalesced around the newspaper, La Réforme ; the more moderate republicans and the liberal opposition rallied around the Le National newspaper. Starting in July 1847 the Reformists of all shades began to hold "banquets" at which toasts were drunk to "République française" (the French Republic), " Liberté, égalité, fraternité ", etc. Louis Philippe turned

5130-439: The industrial section of the bourgeoisie, which may have owned the land their factories sat on but not much more, were disfavored by Louis Philippe and actually tended to side with the middle class and laboring class in opposition to Louis Philippe in the Chamber of Deputies. Land-ownership was favored, and this elitism resulted in the disenfranchisement of much of the middle and working classes. By 1848, only about one percent of

5220-409: The king's throne, which would be burned the next day at the Place de la Bastille , they wrote, "The People of Paris to All Europe: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity . 24 February 1848". The Palais Royal , the historic seat of the Orléans family in Paris, was likewise invaded by a mob and sacked. Another Orléans residence just west of Paris, the Château de Neuilly , was pillaged and largely burned down by

5310-436: The leading conservative newspaper in Paris, Le Moniteur . On Tuesday 27 July, a revolution began in earnest Les trois journées de juillet , and ultimately ended the Bourbon monarchy. It was a hot, dry summer, pushing those who could afford it to leave Paris for the country. Most businessmen could not, and so were among the first to learn of the Saint-Cloud "Ordinances", which banned them from running as candidates for

5400-423: The main reasons were primarily the political corruption, along with its very complex system of monopolies, permits, and bureaucracy, which made those who were able to obtain political favors unjustly privileged and able to dictate the market conditions and caused a myriad of businesses to collapse, as well as protectionism which was the basis for the French foreign trade at the time, and which caused businesses along

5490-478: The main two were: Critics of the first accused the king and his new ministry of pandering to the Catholic Church, and by so doing of violating guarantees of equality of religious belief as specified in the Charter of 1814. The second matter, that of financial indemnities, was far more opportunistic than the first. Since the restoration of the monarchy, there had been demands from all groups to settle matters of property ownership in order to reduce, if not eliminate,

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5580-434: The massacre soon sparked anger among Parisians. After the crowd regrouped on the Boulevard des Capucines, some of the dead were loaded on to horse-drawn wagons and paraded through the streets by workers calling for vengeance, as a general call to arms. During the night between 23 and 24 February, over 1,500 barricades were erected throughout Paris, and many railways leading to the city were sabotaged . By 24 February, Paris

5670-411: The meeting hall of the Chamber. The effort by the dynastic opposition to secure a regency was defeated by popular calls for a Republic, and a preliminary list of members of a provisional government was announced by deputy Alphonse de Lamartine . Responding to cries of "To the Hôtel de Ville!", Lamartine, along with the left-wing republican deputy Ledru-Rollin , marched to the Hôtel de Ville. There, on

5760-496: The milling crowds grew larger. At 4:30 pm commanders of the troops of the First Military division of Paris and the Garde Royale were ordered to concentrate their troops, and guns, on the Place du Carrousel facing the Tuileries , the Place Vendôme , and the Place de la Bastille . In order to maintain order and protect gun shops from looters, military patrols throughout the city were established, strengthened, and expanded. However, no special measures were taken to protect either

5850-519: The night until most of them had been destroyed by 10:00 PM, forcing the crowds to slip away. Fighting in Paris continued throughout the night. One eyewitness wrote: It is hardly a quarter past eight, and already shouts and gun shots can be heard. Business is at a complete standstill.... Crowds rushing through the streets... the sound of cannon and gunfire is becoming ever louder.... Cries of " À bas le roi!', 'À la guillotine!! " can be heard.... Charles X ordered Maréchal Auguste Marmont , Duke of Ragusa,

5940-403: The on-duty Major-General of the Garde Royale , to repress the disturbances. Marmont was personally liberal, and opposed to the ministry's policy, but was bound tightly to the King because he believed such to be his duty; and possibly because of his unpopularity for his generally perceived and widely criticized desertion of Napoleon in 1814. The king remained at Saint-Cloud, but was kept abreast of

6030-404: The palace cellars." Earlier that day, the Louvre had fallen, even more quickly. Swiss troops of the Royal Army, confronted by the mob and under orders from Marmont not to fire unless fired upon, were withdrawn by their officers who feared a repetition of the massacre of Swiss Guards that had occurred when the Tuileries had been stormed on 10 August 1792 . By mid-afternoon, the greatest prize,

6120-440: The petition, but stated that the people of Paris would have to lay down arms first for a settlement to be reached. Discouraged but not despairing, the party then sought out the king's chief minister, de Polignac – " Jeanne d'Arc en culottes ". From Polignac they received even less satisfaction. He refused to see them, perhaps because he knew that discussions would be a waste of time. Like Marmont, he knew that Charles X considered

6210-603: The population held the franchise. Although France had a free press and trial by jury , only landholders were permitted to vote , which alienated the petty bourgeoisie and even the industrial bourgeoisie from the government. Louis Philippe was viewed as generally indifferent to the needs of society, especially to those members of the middle class who were excluded from the political arena. Early in 1848, some Orléanist liberals , such as Adolphe Thiers , had turned against Louis Philippe, disappointed by his opposition to parliamentarism . A reform movement developed in France which urged

6300-409: The presence of mind to call for additional troops from Saint-Denis, Vincennes, Lunéville, or Saint-Omer; neither did he ask for help from reservists or those Parisians still loyal to Charles X. The Bourbon opposition and supporters of the July Revolution swarmed to his headquarters demanding the arrest of Polignac and the other ministers, while supporters of the Bourbon and city leaders demanded he arrest

6390-615: The protesters. At Norra Smedjegatan , the military stormed a barricade. Among the wealthy merchant class, private militias were formed to keep the peace. The following day was calm. On 21 March, reinforcements from the army arrived to the capital to be at hand in case of further riots, but none occurred. French Revolution of 1848 [REDACTED] Revolutionaries [REDACTED] Government of France Non-centralized leadership Louis Philippe François Guizot Thomas Robert Bugeaud The French Revolution of 1848 ( French : Révolution française de 1848 ), also known as

6480-618: The provisional government instead placed on the throne a distant cousin, Louis Philippe of the House of Orléans , who agreed to rule as a constitutional monarch. This period became known as the July Monarchy . Supporters of the exiled senior line of the Bourbon dynasty became known as Legitimists . The July Column , located on Place de la Bastille , commemorates the events of the Three Glorious Days. This renewed French Revolution sparked an August uprising in Brussels and

6570-519: The real reasons of economic troubles were, according to Bastiat, the main causes of the French Revolution of the 1848 and the rise of socialists and anarchists in the years preceding the revolution itself. Because political gatherings and demonstrations were outlawed in France, activists of the largely middle class opposition to the government began to hold a series of fund-raising banquets. This campaign of banquets ( Campagne des banquets ),

6660-461: The return of Napoleon's descendants. Revolutionary victory [REDACTED] Revolutionaries Support : [REDACTED] Government of France Support : After Napoleonic France 's defeat and surrender in May 1814 , Continental Europe, and France in particular, was in a state of disarray. The Congress of Vienna met to redraw the continent's political map. Many European countries attended

6750-411: The revolution from outside with an overwhelming force of regular troops; however, this strategy was soundly rejected by Thiers' colleagues, including Barrot. While the Château d'Eau burned, the king received conflicting pieces of advice from his allies, and briefly collapsed on his study. Émile de Girardin was the first of his advisors to suggest abdication. At around noon, realizing no further defense

6840-520: The revolution, 100,000 citizens of Lyon were described as "indigent" and by 1840 there were at least 130,000 abandoned children in France. International markets were not similarly troubled at the time, which Bastiat attributed to the freedom of trade. Indeed, a large part of French economic problems in the 1830s and 1840s were caused by the shortage and unnaturally high prices of different products which could have easily been imported from other countries, such as textiles, machines, tools, and ores, but doing so

6930-464: The rioters and their puppet masters. Marmont refused to act on either request, instead awaiting orders from the king. By 1:30 pm, the Tuileries Palace had been sacked. A man wearing a ball dress belonging to the duchesse de Berry , the king's widowed daughter in law and the mother of the heir to the throne, with feathers and flowers in his hair, screamed from a palace window: ' Je reçois! Je reçois! ' ('I receive! I receive!') Others drank wine from

7020-411: The same reason, royalists were nowhere to be found; perhaps another reason was that now the révoltés were well organized and very well armed. In only a day and a night, over 4,000 barricades had been thrown up throughout the city. The tricolor flag of the revolutionaries – the "people's flag" – flew over buildings, an increasing number of them important buildings. Marmont lacked either the initiative or

7110-674: The suffering caused by the Industrial Revolution, and nationalism sprang up hoping for independence from foreign rulers. Alexis de Tocqueville observed, "We are sleeping together in a volcano. ... A wind of revolution blows, the storm is on the horizon." Lacking the property qualifications to vote, the lower classes were about to erupt in revolt. The French middle class watched changes in Britain with interest. When Britain's Reform Act 1832 extended enfranchisement to any man paying taxes of £10 or more per year (previously

7200-416: The uncertainties in the real estate market. But opponents, many of whom were frustrated Bonapartists , began a whispering campaign that Charles X was proposing this action in order to shame those opponents who had not left the country. Both measures, they claimed, were nothing more than clever subterfuge meant to bring about the destruction of the Charter of 1814. Up to this time, thanks to the popularity of

7290-439: The vote was restricted to landholders), France's free press took interest. Meanwhile, economically, the French working class may perhaps have been slightly better off than Britain's working class. Still, unemployment in France threw skilled workers down to the level of the proletariat. The only nominally social law of the July Monarchy was passed in 1841. This law prohibited the use of labor of children under eight years of age, and

7380-480: Was a barricaded city, and King Louis Philippe remained without a government, as first Molé, then Thiers, failed to form a cabinet. After hearing of the massacre on the Boulevard des Capucines, Louis Philippe called for a government to be installed by Barrot, who represented a significant concession to the reformists. At the same time, however, the king gave the command of the troops in Paris to Marshal Bugeaud , who

7470-504: Was captured by the insurgents at Vincennes . The seat of the city administration, the Hôtel de Ville , was taken by the revolutionary National Guards. Bugeaud ordered all his soldiers to fall back and consolidate the defense around the Tuileries Palace. During the morning, heavy fighting broke out in several parts of Paris, with the largest combat taking place at the Place du Château d'Eau . There, armed insurgents attacked

7560-421: Was despised by the crowds for his reputation of brutality in suppressing protests. In the early morning, Bugeaud sent four columns through the city in an attempt to defeat the insurgents at the barricades. However, Louis Philippe, intending to avoid even more bloodshed, ordered the officers in charge to attempt to negotiate before opening fire. Several barracks in Paris were attacked, and a convoy of ammunition

7650-581: Was either outright illegal at the time or unprofitable due to the system of punitive tariffs. Bastiat has also noted that the French legislators were entirely unaware of the reality and the effects of their radical policies. One of the members of the French Chamber of Deputies reportedly received a standing ovation when he proposed that the depression of 1847 was due primarily to "external weakness" and "idle pacifism". Nationalist tendencies caused France to severely restrict all international contacts with

7740-466: Was forced to abdicate the throne and to flee Paris for the United Kingdom. As a result, Louis Philippe , of the Orléanist branch, rose to power, replacing the old Charter by the Charter of 1830 , and his rule became known as the July Monarchy . Nicknamed the "Bourgeois Monarch", Louis Philippe sat at the head of a moderately liberal state controlled mainly by an educated elite. He was supported by

7830-497: Was intended to circumvent the governmental restriction on political meetings and provide a legal outlet for popular criticism of the regime. The campaign began in July 1847. Friedrich Engels was in Paris dating from October 1847 and was able to observe and attend some of these banquets. He wrote a series of articles on them, including "The Reform Movement in France" which was published in La Rèforme on 20 November 1847; "Split in

7920-420: Was mostly loyal for the moment, but the attached line units were wavering: a small but growing number of troops were deserting; some merely slipping away, others leaving, not caring who saw them. In Paris, a committee of the Bourbon opposition, composed of banker-and-kingmaker Jacques Laffitte , Casimir Perier , Generals Étienne Gérard and Georges Mouton, comte de Lobau , among others, had drawn up and signed

8010-437: Was over, twenty-one civilians were killed. Rioters then paraded the corpse of one of their fallen throughout the streets shouting " Mort aux Ministres! À bas les aristocrates! " ("Death to the ministers! Down with the aristocrats!") One witness wrote: [I saw] a crowd of agitated people pass by and disappear, then a troop of cavalry succeed them... In every direction and at intervals... Indistinct noises, gunshots, and then for

8100-431: Was possible, Louis Philippe called off all resistance and formally abdicated in favor of his nine-year-old grandson Philippe, Count of Paris . Louis Philippe and Queen Maria Amalia boarded a carriage awaiting at the Place de la Concorde , from where escorted by the cavalry, they drove off and left Paris. After the royal couple's departure, the revolutionaries finally seized the now nearly deserted Tuileries Palace. On

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