119-747: Marie Antoinette ( / ˌ æ n t w ə ˈ n ɛ t , ˌ ɒ̃ t -/ ; French: [maʁi ɑ̃twanɛt] ; Maria Antonia Josefa Johanna; 2 November 1755 – 16 October 1793) was the last Queen of France prior to the French Revolution and the French First Republic . Marie Antoinette was the wife of Louis XVI . Born Archduchess Maria Antonia of Austria , she was the penultimate child and youngest daughter of Empress Maria Theresa and Emperor Francis I . She married Louis XVI, Dauphin of France , in May 1770 at age 14. She then became
238-472: A hot air balloon for the first time in human history; this extraordinary feat which represented a turning point in human civilization was done by Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier . On 27 April 1784, Pierre Beaumarchais 's play The Marriage of Figaro premiered in Paris. Initially banned by the king due to its negative portrayal of the nobility, the play was finally allowed to be publicly performed because of
357-737: A brief respite from the affairs of war, which had taken a toll on her health. Maria Carolina entered a secret defensive alliance with Austria on 20 May 1798, in response to France's occupation of the Papal States , which shared a border with Naples. After the British victory at the Battle of the Nile , the queen decided to join the Second Coalition against France; Austria sent General Mack to take command. War council meetings, comprising
476-549: A friendship, Emma singing duets with the king and dining privately with the royal family. The queen, whom Emma thought "most excellent and strictly good and upright", was drawn closer to Emma by her willingness to betray Britain's diplomatic secrets. King Louis XVI of France and Queen Marie Antoinette were arrested on 10 August 1792. Hence, the Neapolitan government refused to recognise French diplomatist Baron Armand de Mackau's recently arrived legation. Queen Maria Carolina
595-688: A guest at Versailles. He met his sister and her husband on 18 April 1777 at the Château de la Muette , and spoke frankly to his brother-in-law, curious as to why the royal marriage had not been consummated, arriving at the conclusion that no obstacle to the couple's conjugal relations existed save the Queen's lack of interest and the King's unwillingness to exert himself. In a letter to his brother Leopold, Grand Duke of Tuscany , Joseph II described them as "a couple of complete blunderers." He disclosed to Leopold that
714-407: A huge increase in taxation. Fearing for the safety of her family, Maria Carolina employed food-testers and switched the royal families' apartments on a daily basis. What compelled Maria Carolina to do this was the general terror reigning throughout the city, in which "nobody was safe". The cessation of Franco-Spanish hostilities in the summer of 1795 gave Napoleon Bonaparte , a Corsican general in
833-428: A known conjugal visit from the King. Courtiers at Versailles noted in their diaries that the date of the child's conception corresponded perfectly with a period when the King and the Queen had spent much time together, but these details were ignored amid attacks on the Queen's character. These suspicions of illegitimacy, along with the continued publication of the libelles and never-ending cavalcades of court intrigues,
952-485: A lacklustre education from the Prince of San Nicandro, lacked the ability to rule, relying completely on his father Charles III of Spain's counsel, communicated by Bernardo Tanucci . Pursuant to Empress Maria Theresa's instructions, Maria Carolina gained Ferdinand's trust by feigning interest in his favourite activity—hunting. With it, she obtained a back door to the administration of the state, to be fully realised only by
1071-466: A makeover to bring her more in line with the fashion of French royalty. This included the straightening of her teeth by a French dentist, the diversification of her wardrobe, and hairstyles reminiscent of Madame de Pompadour . She was also instructed by Jean-Georges Noverre , who taught her to walk in the gliding fashion characteristic of the court of Versailles. Following the Seven Years' War and
1190-670: A miscarriage. In 1783 the Queen played a decisive role in the nomination of Charles Alexandre de Calonne , a close friend of the Polignacs , as Controller-General of Finances , and of the Baron de Breteuil as the Minister of the Royal Household, making him perhaps the strongest and most conservative minister of the reign. The result of these two nominations was that Marie Antoinette's influence became paramount in government, and
1309-570: A profound effect on her later life: the return of her friend, the Swedish diplomat Count Axel von Fersen the Younger to Versailles for two years, and her brother's claim to the throne of Bavaria , contested by Saxony and Prussia. Marie Antoinette pleaded with her husband for the French to intercede on behalf of Austria. The Peace of Teschen , signed on 13 May 1779, ended the brief conflict, with
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#17327719672681428-482: A reactionary course. She rejected the French Revolution and was determined to prevent its ideology gaining prevalence in Naples. She did this by sub-dividing Naples into twelve police wards, controlled by government-appointed commissioners, replacing the popularly elected alderman system. The effectiveness of the wards was increased by the creation of a secret police force, which had in its pay spies of every class. It
1547-517: A replacement. The empress offered the court of Madrid, negotiating on behalf of that of Naples, Maria Amalia or Maria Carolina. Because Maria Amalia was five years older than his son, Charles III opted for the latter. Maria Carolina reacted badly to her engagement, crying, entreating and saying that Neapolitan marriages were unlucky, considering that two of her sisters had died before they could marry Ferdinand. Her objections, however, did not delay her preparation for her new role as Queen of Naples by
1666-465: A result of all these fashion activities, Marie Antoinette presided over one of the most important and fashionable courts in history and she was dominant over all of the other ladies of the court; as for her bearing and appearance the queen was very majestic and charismatic in spite of the fact that she gained much weight over the years due to her many pregnancies. By the time of the Flour War of 1775,
1785-531: A rift with his father. The appointment of Tanucci's successor, the Marquis of Sambuca, Maria Carolina's powerless puppet, represented the end of Spanish influence in Naples, hitherto virtually a province of that country. Maria Carolina proceeded to alienate large swaths of the nobility by replacing the influence of Spain with that of Austria. Her unpopularity among the nobility was increased by her attempts to curb their prerogative. Without Tanucci in government,
1904-448: A rustic retreat built by her favoured architect, Richard Mique , according to the designs of the painter Hubert Robert . Its creation, however, caused another uproar when its cost became widely known. However, the hamlet was not an eccentricity of Marie Antoinette's. It was en vogue at the time for nobles to have recreations of small villages on their properties. In fact, the design was copied from that of Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé . It
2023-665: A second time by French forces, in 1806, Maria Carolina died in Vienna in 1814, a year before her husband's restoration to Naples. Maria Carolina was the last surviving child of Maria Theresa. She was also the last queen of Naples and Sicily before the unification of the two into the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies . Born on 13 August 1752 at the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna, Maria Carolina Louise Josepha Johanna Antonia
2142-532: A series of riots, due to the high price of flour and bread, had damaged her reputation among the general public. Eventually, Marie Antoinette's reputation was no better than that of the favourites of previous kings. Many French people were beginning to blame her for the degrading economic situation, suggesting the country's inability to pay off its debt was the result of her wasting the crown's money. In her correspondence, Marie Antoinette's mother, Maria Theresa, expressed concern over her daughter's spending habits, citing
2261-618: The Abbaye du Pont-aux-Dames in Meaux , pleasing both his wife and aunts. Two and a half years later, at the end of October 1776, Madame du Barry's exile ended and she was allowed to return to her beloved château at Louveciennes , but she was never permitted to return to Versailles. On 10 May 1774, upon the death of Louis XV , the Dauphin ascended the throne as King Louis XVI of France and Navarre with Marie Antoinette as his queen consort . At
2380-590: The American Revolution by securing Austrian and Russian support for France, which resulted in the establishment of the First League of Armed Neutrality that stopped Britain's attack, and by weighing in decisively for the nomination of Philippe Henri, Marquis de Ségur , as Minister of War and Charles Eugène Gabriel de La Croix as Secretary of the Navy in 1780, who helped George Washington defeat
2499-589: The Countess of Lerchenfeld . Nine months later, on 7 April 1768, Maria Carolina married Ferdinand IV of Naples by proxy , her brother Ferdinand representing the bride-groom. The fifteen-year-old Queen of Naples journeyed at leisure from Vienna to Naples, making stops at Mantua , Bologna , Florence , and Rome on the way. She entered the Kingdom of Naples on 12 May 1768, disembarking at Terracina , where she took leave of her native attendants. From Terracina, she and her remaining suite, comprising her brother,
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#17327719672682618-537: The Dauphine of France . On 10 May 1774, her husband ascended the throne as Louis XVI and she became queen. As queen, Marie Antoinette became increasingly a target of criticism by opponents of the domestic and foreign policies of Louis XVI, and those opposed to the monarchy in general. The French libelles accused her of being profligate, promiscuous, having illegitimate children, and harboring sympathies for France's perceived enemies, including her native Austria . She
2737-673: The Diplomatic Revolution of 1756, Empress Maria Theresa decided to end hostilities with her longtime enemy, King Louis XV of France. Their common desire to destroy the ambitions of Prussia and Great Britain , and to secure a definitive peace between their respective countries led them to seal their alliance with a marriage: on 7 February 1770, Louis XV formally requested the hand of Maria Antonia for his eldest surviving grandson and heir, Louis Auguste , Duke of Berry and Dauphin of France . Maria Antonia formally renounced her rights to Habsburg domains, and on 19 April 1770 she
2856-644: The Duchess of Polignac . In 1774, she took under her patronage her former music teacher, the German opera composer Christoph Willibald Gluck , who remained in France until 1779. Amidst the atmosphere of a wave of libelles , the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II came to France incognito, using the name Comte de Falkenstein, for a six-week visit during which he toured Paris extensively and was
2975-580: The Franco-Austrian Alliance and Marie Antoinette's marriage, and in exiling his sister, the Duchess of Gramont , one of Marie Antoinette's ladies-in-waiting. Marie Antoinette was persuaded by her husband's aunts to refuse to acknowledge du Barry, which some saw as a political blunder that jeopardized Austria's interests at the French court. Marie Antoinette's mother and the Austrian ambassador to France, Comte de Mercy-Argenteau , who sent
3094-602: The Parlement of Paris , Rohan was found innocent of any wrongdoing and allowed to leave the Bastille . Marie Antoinette, who had insisted on the arrest of the Cardinal, was dealt a heavy personal blow, as was the monarchy, and despite the fact that the guilty parties were tried and convicted, the affair proved to be extremely damaging to her reputation, which never recovered from it. Suffering from an acute case of depression,
3213-604: The Temple Prison on 13 August 1792. On 21 September 1792, France was declared a republic and the monarchy was abolished . Louis XVI was executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793. Marie Antoinette's trial began on 14 October 1793; two days later, she was convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal of high treason and executed by beheading by guillotine on 16 October 1793 at the Place de la Révolution during
3332-631: The Théâtre de la Reine built for her by Richard Mique . Repayment of the French debt remained a difficult problem, further exacerbated by Vergennes and also by Marie Antoinette prodding Louis XVI to involve France in the American Revolutionary War . The primary motive for the queen's involvement in political affairs in this period may arguably have had more to do with court factionalism than any true interest on her part in politics themselves, but she played an important role in aiding
3451-467: The Théâtre de la Reine . She limited the audience to her intimate circle and a few musicians, among them the Chevalier de Saint-Georges . "Admitted to perform music with the Queen," Saint-Georges probably played his violin sonatas for two instruments, with Her Majesty playing the fortepiano . She also supported some scientific endeavours, encouraging and witnessing the first launch of a Montgolfière ,
3570-463: The château Trompette in Bordeaux. This was unpopular, particularly with those factions of the nobility who disliked the Queen, but also with a growing percentage of the population, who disapproved of a queen of France independently owning a private residence. The purchase of Saint-Cloud thus damaged the public's image of the Queen even further. The château's high price, almost 6 million livres , plus
3689-497: The "inflammatory" philosophical works of Galanti and Filangeri, who had hitherto enjoyed the queen's patronage. In 1794, following the discovery of a Jacobin plot to overthrow the government, Maria Carolina ordered Medici to suppress the Freemasons, of which she was once an adherent, believing they were partaking in treasonable activities with the French. The army was kept perpetually mobilised in case of sudden attack, occasioning
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3808-769: The British in the American Revolutionary War, which ended in 1783. Marie Antoinette's second pregnancy ended in a miscarriage early in July 1779, as confirmed by letters between the Queen and her mother, although some historians believed that she may have experienced bleeding related to an irregular menstrual cycle, which she mistook for a lost pregnancy. Her third pregnancy was affirmed in March 1781, and on 22 October she gave birth to Louis Joseph Xavier François , Dauphin of France. Empress Maria Theresa died on 29 November 1780 in Vienna. Marie Antoinette feared that
3927-486: The Empress secret reports on Marie Antoinette's behaviour, pressured Marie Antoinette to speak to Madame du Barry, which she grudgingly agreed to do on New Year's Day 1772. She merely commented to her, "There are a lot of people at Versailles today", but it was enough for Madame du Barry, who was satisfied with this recognition, and the crisis passed. Two days after the death of Louis XV in 1774, Louis XVI exiled du Barry to
4046-700: The English fleet, which had supplied the royal army with weapons. Again, it was Admiral Nelson who successfully defeated the French in the middle of 1799 from Naples and Sicily securing the throne for the Royal couple. In June 1800, Maria Carolina traveled with her three unmarried daughters, her younger son Leopoldo , and accompanied by William and Emma Hamilton and Nelson over Livorno , Florence , Trieste and Laibach to Vienna , where she arrived two months later. Maria Carolina stayed two years in her homeland, where she arranged advantageous marriages for her children. In
4165-661: The French Revolution. Marie Antoinette, full name Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna, was born on 2 November 1755 at the Hofburg Palace in Vienna , Archduchy of Austria, at 20:30. She was the youngest daughter and 15th child of Empress Maria Theresa , ruler of the Habsburg monarchy , and her husband Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor . Maria Theresa gave birth to all of her previous children without any problems. During
4284-561: The French army, the opportunity to focus on France's Italian Campaign . Bonaparte's successes in Northern Italy compelled Maria Carolina to sue for peace, under which Naples had to pay to France a war indemnity of 8 million francs . However, neither country intended to observe this treaty in the long-term. The marriage of her eldest son, the Duke of Calabria , to Archduchess Maria Clementina of Austria in 1797 offered Maria Carolina
4403-717: The French government intercepted a letter detailing how he sabotaged the diplomatic mission of Huguet de Sémonville to the Ottoman Empire . When France started making preparations for war in November to avenge this insult, the king and queen finally capitulated and begrudgingly recognized Mackau and the Republic. However, the national assembly had already sent 9 ships under Admiral Latouche Tréville to seek redress, which arrived on 17 December in Naples. Latouche stipulated that, if Acton did not apologise to him in person for
4522-516: The French treasury. Despite the general celebration over the birth of an heir, Marie Antoinette's political influence, such as it was, was perceived to greatly benefit Austria. During the Kettle War , in which her brother Joseph attempted to open the Scheldt river for naval passage, Marie Antoinette succeeded in obliging Vergennes to pay huge financial compensation to Austria. Finally, the Queen
4641-613: The French treated their queen, her sister Marie Antoinette , allied Naples with Britain and Austria during the Napoleonic and French Revolutionary Wars . As a result of a failed Neapolitan invasion of French-occupied Rome, she fled to Sicily with her husband in December 1798. One month later, the Parthenopean Republic was declared, which repudiated Bourbon rule in Naples for six months. Deposed as Queen of Naples for
4760-540: The Grand Duke of Tuscany , and his wife Maria Luisa of Spain , ventured to Poztella , where she met her husband, whom she found "very ugly". To the Countess of Lerchenfeld, she wrote, "I love him only out of duty..." Ferdinand was not taken with her either, declaring, after their first night together, "She sleeps like the dead and sweats like a pig." Maria Carolina's dislike of her husband, however, did not get in
4879-540: The Hofburg Palace and Schönbrunn , the imperial summer residence in Vienna, where on 13 October 1762, when she was seven, she met Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart , two months her junior and a child prodigy. Despite the private tutoring she received, the results of her schooling were less than satisfactory. At the age of 10 she could not write correctly in German or in any language commonly used at court, such as French or Italian, and conversations with her were stilted. Under
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4998-558: The King began to seek the advice of his wife. In her new role and with increasing political power, the Queen tried to improve the awkward situation brewing between the Parlement and the King. This change of the queen's position signaled the end of the Polignacs' influence and their impact on the finances of the Crown. Continuing deterioration of the financial situation despite cutbacks to the royal retinue and court expenses ultimately forced
5117-634: The King, the Queen and the Controller-General of Finances, Charles Alexandre de Calonne , at the urging of Vergennes, to call a session of the Assembly of Notables , after a hiatus of 160 years. The assembly was held for the purpose of initiating necessary financial reforms, but the Assembly refused to cooperate. The first meeting took place on 22 February 1787, nine days after the death of Vergennes on 13 February. Marie Antoinette did not attend
5236-693: The Mediterranean. In August 1793, following the Siege of Toulon , Naples joined the First Coalition , comprising Great Britain, Russia , Austria , Prussia , Spain, Portugal and Savoy-Sardinia , against France. The execution of Marie Antoinette in October 1793 breathed a new lease of life into the queen's counter-revolution . Maria Carolina was so horrified by that event that she refused to speak French, "that monstrous language", and banned
5355-457: The Neapolitan people. During the republican period, a government was installed with Ercole D'Agnese as elected President, press freedom was proclaimed, and future reforms were prepared. However, after only 6 months, the young republic ended when the Sanfedisti , the army led by Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo , attacked and invaded Naples (21 June 1799). The collapse of the republic was largely due to
5474-459: The Parisian populace and press. The measure also blocked the access of 'commoners', mainly sons of members of the professional classes, and of more recently elevated nobility to important positions in the armed forces. As such, the decree became an important grievance for social classes that had been habitually supportive of the monarchy and established order, and which went on to supply the bulk of
5593-414: The Polignacs' dominance at court, and also fueled the increasing popular disapproval of Marie Antoinette, mostly in Paris. De Mercy wrote to the empress: "It is almost unexampled that in so short a time, the royal favour should have brought such overwhelming advantages to a family". In June 1783, Marie Antoinette's new pregnancy was announced, but on the night of 1–2 November, her 28th birthday, she suffered
5712-475: The Queen imposing French mediation at her mother's insistence and Austria's gaining the Innviertel territory of at least 100,000 inhabitants—a strong retreat from the early French position which was hostile towards Austria. This gave the impression, partially justified, that the Queen had sided with Austria against France. Meanwhile, the Queen began to institute changes in court customs. Some of them met with
5831-512: The Queen's support and its overwhelming popularity at court, where secret readings of it had been given by Marie Antoinette. The play was a disaster for the image of the monarchy and aristocracy. It inspired Mozart 's The Marriage of Figaro , which premiered in Vienna on 1 May 1786. On 24 October 1784, putting the Baron de Breteuil in charge of its acquisition, Louis XVI bought the Château de Saint-Cloud from Louis Philippe I, Duke of Orléans in
5950-703: The Revolution after the government placed the royal family under house arrest in the Tuileries Palace in October 1789. The June 1791 attempted flight to Varennes and her role in the War of the First Coalition were immensely damaging to her image among French citizens. On 10 August 1792, the attack on the Tuileries forced the royal family to take refuge at the Assembly , and they were imprisoned in
6069-467: The Spanish fleet to salute to him. To consolidate their reconciliation, Charles IV proposed that his daughter marry the king and queen's eldest son, the Duke of Calabria . While the king supported the match, Maria Carolina shunned it. Like her mother, she had carefully chosen the prospective husbands and wives of her children, matches that were to cement political alliances of her choosing. The death of
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#17327719672686188-460: The Sémonville affair, he would bombard and lay waste to Naples within an hour. The queen's decision to accede to Latouche's demands earned her the criticism of some Neapolitan historians, like General Colletta , who overlook the fact that Naples was unable to mount a defence at the time as the navy was not mobilised. Maria Carolina's preventatives against Jacobinism were rendered useless in
6307-520: The United States, was angered by Acton's appointment to the Ministry of War and of Marine because he felt his Spanish candidate, Don Antonio Otero, was more worthy of such a high government post by virtue of the fact he was not English. Maria Carolina once again replied using a letter written by the king, expounding to Charles III that Acton, the son of a French woman, was not English and that he
6426-453: The actions of Joseph II in the Kettle War , the purchase of Saint-Cloud and the Affair of the Diamond Necklace combined to turn popular opinion sharply against the Queen, and the image of a licentious, spendthrift, empty-headed foreign queen was quickly taking root in the French psyche. A second daughter, her last child, Marie Sophie Hélène Béatrix , Madame Sophie , was born on 9 July 1786 and lived only eleven months until 19 June 1787. She
6545-431: The age of 13, important writing skills. Nonetheless, he also complimented her, stating, "Her character, her heart, are excellent." He found her "more intelligent than has been generally supposed," but since "she is rather lazy and extremely frivolous, she is hard to teach". Under the recommendation of Étienne François de Choiseul, Duke of Choiseul , a strong supporter of her prospective marriage, Maria Antonia also received
6664-401: The army. Acton and Maria Carolina were seen to have become so close by 1782 that, according to the Sardinian ambassador in Naples, people falsely believed they were lovers. That the rumour was untrue was not known to the king, who tried several times to "surprise you together" and threatened to kill them both in a rage. In response, Maria Carolina set spies on her husband, but a reconciliation
6783-411: The artistic circles in Rome to Naples. The queen's patronage was not restricted to portrait painters: she allotted landscape painter Jacob Philipp Hackert a wing of the palace at Francavilla. Like Kauffman, he gave lessons to the queen's children and enjoyed her confidence. On recommendation from Hackert, the king and queen restored the statues of Palazzo Farnese and brought them to Naples. In 1784,
6902-464: The birth of an heir in 1775, and her consequent admission to the Privy Council. Until then, Maria Carolina presided over the rejuvenation of Neapolitan court life, largely neglected since the advent of her husband's regency. Academics Gaetano Filangieri , Domenico Cirillo , and Giuseppe Maria Galanti frequented her salon , among others. Tanucci 's fall from grace came about over an argument with Maria Carolina regarding Freemasonry , of which she
7021-414: The birth of her last daughter Maria Antonia, serious complications arose, and doctors even feared for the life of the mother. Her godparents were Joseph I and Mariana Victoria , King and Queen of Portugal; Archduke Joseph and Archduchess Maria Anna acted as proxies for their newborn sister. Maria Antonia was born on All Souls' Day , a Catholic day of mourning, and during her childhood, her birthday
7140-407: The child and to a noticeable decline of the Queen's reputation in public opinion. The majority of Marie Antoinette's and Louis XVII's biographers believe that the young prince was the biological son of Louis XVI, including Stefan Zweig and Antonia Fraser , who believe that Fersen and Marie Antoinette were indeed romantically involved. Fraser has also noted that the birthdate matches up perfectly with
7259-542: The civil unrest it was beginning to cause. As early as 1774, Marie Antoinette had begun to befriend some of her male admirers, such as the Baron de Besenval , the Duc de Coigny , and Count Valentin Esterházy , and also formed deep friendships with various ladies at court. Most noted was Marie-Louise, Princesse de Lamballe , related to the royal family through her marriage into the Penthièvre family . On 19 September 1774, she appointed her superintendent of her household, an appointment she soon transferred to her new favourite,
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#17327719672687378-402: The country resulted in the 25 May dissolution of the Assembly of Notables because of its inability to function, and the lack of solutions was blamed on the Queen. Queen consort of France This is a list of the women who were queens or empresses as wives of French monarchs from the 843 Treaty of Verdun , which gave rise to West Francia , until 1870, when the French Third Republic
7497-447: The country was facing a grave financial crisis and the population was suffering. Rose Bertin created dresses for her, and hairstyles such as poufs , up to three feet (90 cm) high, and the panache — a spray of feather plumes. She and her court also adopted the English fashion of dresses made of indienne , a material banned in France from 1686 until 1759 to protect local French woolen and silk industries, percale and muslin . As
7616-408: The death of Louis XV, the king gave his wife the Petit Trianon , a small château on the grounds of Versailles that had been built by Louis XV for his mistress, Madame de Pompadour . Louis XVI allowed Marie Antoinette to renovate it to suit her own tastes; soon rumours circulated that she had plastered the walls with gold and diamonds. The Queen spent heavily on fashion, luxuries, and gambling, though
7735-428: The death of her mother would jeopardise the Franco-Austrian alliance, as well as, ultimately, herself, but her brother, Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, wrote to her that he had no intention of breaking the alliance. A second visit from Joseph II, which took place in July 1781 to reaffirm the Franco-Austrian alliance and also to see his sister, was tainted by false rumours that Marie Antoinette was sending money to him from
7854-408: The disapproval of the older generation, such as the abandonment of heavy make-up and the popular wide-hooped panniers . The new fashion called for a simpler feminine look, typified first by the rustic robe à la polonaise style and later by the gaulle , a layered muslin dress Marie Antoinette wore in a 1783 Vigée-Le Brun portrait. In 1780 she began to participate in amateur plays and musicals in
7973-419: The duchess was considered to be of too modest origins to occupy such an exalted position. In contrast, both the king and the queen trusted Madame de Polignac completely, gave her a thirteen-room apartment in Versailles and paid her well. The entire Polignac family benefited greatly from royal favour in titles and positions, but its sudden wealth and lavish lifestyle outraged most aristocratic families, who resented
8092-471: The early leadership of the French Revolution. Count Axel von Fersen , after his return from America in June 1783, was accepted into the Queen's private society. There were claims that the two were romantically involved, but since most of their correspondence has been lost, destroyed, or redacted, for many years there was no conclusive evidence. Starting in 2016, scientists at the Centre for Research and Restoration of Museums of France (CRCC), uncovered some of
8211-409: The face of the subversive actives of Latouche's fleet, which was obliged to return to Naples shortly after leaving by a storm. The French sailors, "republican agents", were allowed to land on this occasion, inculcating their anti-monarchical sentiments in the Neapolitans. Upon Latouche's departure, on 29 January 1793, Maria Carolina launched an ineffective offensive against Neapolitan radicals, allowing
8330-483: The family circle, she spent most time with her favorite grandchild, Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria , who later became the wife of her arch-enemy Napoleon. After her stay in Vienna, Maria Carolina returned to Naples on 17 August 1802. It is said that Napoleon claimed that the queen was the only man in the Kingdom of Naples . The European states were concerned by Napoleon's growing power, which reached its peak with his Imperial coronation on 18 May 1804. By 1805 Italy
8449-422: The festivities, the day ended with the ritual bedding . The couple's longtime failure to consummate the marriage plagued the reputations of the royal couple for the next seven years. The initial reaction to the marriage between Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI was mixed. On the one hand, the Dauphine was beautiful, personable and well-liked by the common people. Her first official appearance in Paris on 8 June 1773
8568-469: The inexperienced—then still only 22-year-old—Louis XVI had confided in him the course of action he had been undertaking in their marital bed; saying Louis XVI "introduces the member," but then "stays there without moving for about two minutes," withdraws without having completed the act and "bids goodnight." Suggestions that Louis suffered from phimosis , which was relieved by circumcision , have been discredited. Nevertheless, following Joseph's intervention,
8687-455: The investiture and choice of bishops. Consequently, Naples had stopped paying its annual tribute of 7,000 ducats. Therefore, Maria Carolina arranged a meeting with the pope. To emphasise their desire to see him, the king and queen arrived in Rome, en route to Naples from Vienna, earlier than expected, where they were greeted by Pius VI in a private audience. The pope agreed to cede to the king
8806-492: The jewelers Boehmer and Bassenge of the price of an expensive diamond necklace they had originally created for Madame du Barry . The main actors in the scandal were Cardinal de Rohan , Prince de Rohan-Guéméné , Grand Almoner of France , and Jeanne de Valois-Saint-Rémy , Countess de La Motte, a descendant of an illegitimate child of Henry II of France of the House of Valois . Marie Antoinette had profoundly disliked Rohan since
8925-552: The marriage was finally consummated in August 1777. Eight months later, in April 1778, it was suspected that the queen was pregnant, which was officially announced on 16 May. Marie Antoinette's daughter, Marie-Thérèse Charlotte , Madame Royale , was born at Versailles on 19 December 1778. The child's paternity was contested in the libelles , as were all her children's. In the middle of the queen's pregnancy, two events occurred which had
9044-409: The meeting and her absence resulted in accusations that the Queen was trying to undermine its purpose. The Assembly was a failure. It did not pass any reforms and, instead, fell into a pattern of defying the King. On the urging of the Queen, Louis XVI dismissed Calonne on 8 April 1787. On 1 May 1787 Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne , Archbishop of Toulouse and one of the queen's political allies
9163-455: The most dangerous schemers to escape justice. Why the offensive failed can be explained by the fact that her chief of police, Luigi de' Medici , was secretly a radical himself. Concurrently, Maria Carolina arranged a treaty of alliance with Great Britain, on whom France had latterly declared war. By this treaty, Naples was to contribute four men-of-war, four frigates and four smaller ships, along with six thousand soldiers, to protect commerce in
9282-415: The name of his wife, which she wanted due to their expanding family. She wanted to be able to own her own property, one that was actually hers, to then have the authority to bequeath it to "whichever of my children I wish," choosing the child she thought could use it rather than it going through patriarchal inheritance laws or whims. It was proposed that the cost could be covered by other sales, such as that of
9401-488: The necklace as a gift to Marie Antoinette, for him to gain the queen's favour. When the affair was discovered, those involved, except de La Motte and Rétaux de Villette, who both managed to flee, were arrested, tried, convicted, and either imprisoned or exiled. Madame de La Motte was sentenced for life to confinement in the Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital , which also served as a prison for women. Judged by
9520-470: The new ministers rejected any major change to the structure of the old regime. More than that, the decree by de Ségur, the minister of war, requiring four quarterings of nobility as a condition for the appointment of officers, mainly served the interest of older noble families including poorer provincial ones, who were widely seen as a reactionary interest group by ambitious members of the middle and professional classes, by some more recent nobility, and even by
9639-495: The outset, the new queen had limited political influence with her husband, who, with the support of his two most important ministers, Chief Minister Maurepas and Foreign Minister Vergennes , blocked several of her candidates from assuming important positions, including Choiseul. The queen did play a decisive role in the disgrace and exile of the most powerful of Louis XV's ministers, the Duc d'Aiguillon . On 24 May 1774, two weeks after
9758-572: The queen alone ruled Naples and Sicily, assisted by her French-born, English favourite, Sir John Acton , from 1778 onwards. Acting on her brother the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II's advice, Maria Carolina and Acton revamped the Neapolitan navy, then neglected, opening 4 marine colleges and commissioning 150 ships of various sizes. The merchant navy, too, was augmented by trade pacts with Russia and Genoa . Charles III , having declared war on Great Britain in alliance with
9877-456: The queen and a variety of other nobles in a political statement decrying the immoral practices of the court. As time went on, these came to focus more on the queen. They described amorous encounters with a wide range of figures, from the Duchess of Polignac to Louis XV. As these attacks increased, they were connected with the public's dislike of her association with the rival nation of Austria. It
9996-413: The queen established the philanthropic San Leucio colony, a village with its own unique laws and customs whose sole object was to weave silk. She also commissioned ornamental snuff boxes and jewellery from goldsmiths. In 1788, with the death of King Charles III, Neapolitan-Spanish relations improved. The new king, Charles IV , was eager to be on good terms with his brother, the King of Naples, sending
10115-466: The queen was forced to leave Sicily and return to Vienna. During her trip, she received the news of Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Leipzig on 19 October 1813. After a long journey through Constantinople , Odessa , Lviv , and Budapest , Maria Carolina finally arrived in Vienna in January 1814, where she began negotiations with Prince Metternich and her nephew, Emperor Francis I of Austria , for
10234-509: The queen's nephew Crown Prince Francis of Austria 's wife, Duchess Elisabeth of Württemberg , afforded her an opportunity to fulfil her marital ambitions. Her daughters Maria Theresa and Luisa married Crown Prince Francis and Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany , respectively, during the Neapolitan royal family's visit to Vienna in 1790. Maria Carolina was anxious to improve Neapolitan-Papal relations, which had deteriorated owing to arguments with Pope Pius VI over ecclesiastical laws and
10353-680: The queen, the king, Mack, Sir William Hamilton, the English ambassador, and Admiral Nelson , the victor of the Nile, were held in the Palace of Caserta . They decided to invade the Roman Republic , a French puppet state. When the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily joined the Second Coalition, Napoleon found a reason to act. The French General Jean Étienne Championnet succeeded rapidly, and in January 1799 he occupied Naples and forced
10472-399: The redacted text of the queen's letters to Fersen. The revealed texts do not mention a physical relationship, but do confirm a very strong emotional relationship. Around this time, pamphlets describing farcical sexual deviance including the Queen and her friends in the court were growing in popularity around the country. The Portefeuille d'un talon rouge was one of the earliest, including
10591-489: The restoration of her husband and herself to the Neapolitan throne. However, this never happened: Maria Carolina died on 8 September as a consequence of a stroke, without seeing the final defeat of Napoleon and the restoration of her husband by the Congress of Vienna . Her maid found the queen lying dead on the floor among scattered letters. Maria Carolina was the last surviving child of Empress Maria Theresa. Maria Carolina
10710-559: The revocation of the ban on Freemasonry , the enlargement of the navy under her favorite , Sir John Acton , and the expulsion of Spanish influence. She was a proponent of enlightened absolutism until the advent of the French Revolution , when, in order to prevent its ideas gaining currency, she made Naples a police state . Born an archduchess of Austria , the thirteenth child of Empress Maria Theresa and Holy Roman Emperor Francis I , Maria Carolina married Ferdinand as part of an Austrian alliance with Spain, of which Ferdinand's father
10829-569: The right of appointing bishops to vacant sees. Thus, because the king and queen had not made any concessions in return, the prestige of Naples was augmented. On leaving, Maria Carolina was presented with the Golden Rose , a great mark of Papal favour. The return from Vienna marked a new epoch in the politics of Naples. Alarmed by developments in France, especially in regards to her favourite sister, Marie Antoinette , Maria Carolina ended her experiment in enlightened absolutism and started on
10948-465: The royal family to escape to Sicily. In the Sicilian exile Maria Carolina continued her politics towards Naples. On 24 January 1799, the Parthenopean Republic was proclaimed in Naples by the French troops led by General Championnet. The chosen name (after Parthenope , an ancient Greek colony which existed on the site of the future city of Naples) was an attempt by the French to obtain the support of
11067-566: The same year, Maria Carolina's sister Maria Josepha , destined to marry Ferdinand IV of Naples as part of an alliance with Spain, died during a smallpox epidemic before she could leave for Naples to marry him. Just five years earlier, Maria Josepha's older sister, Maria Johanna was previously engaged to the young king, but she too had died from smallpox. Anxious to save the Austro-Spanish alliance, Charles III of Spain , father of Ferdinand IV, requested one of Maria Josepha's sisters as
11186-401: The substantial extra cost of redecorating, ensured that much less money was going towards repaying France's substantial debt. On 27 March 1785, Marie Antoinette gave birth to a second son, Louis Charles, who bore the title of Duke of Normandy . The fact that the birth occurred exactly nine months after Fersen's return did not escape the attention of many, leading to doubt as to the parentage of
11305-468: The teaching of Christoph Willibald Gluck , Maria Antonia developed into a good musician. She learned to play the harp , the harpsichord and the flute . She sang during the family's evening gatherings, as she was known to have had a beautiful voice. She also excelled at dancing, had "exquisite" poise, and loved dolls. The death of her older sister Maria Josepha from smallpox during the epidemic in Vienna in October 1767 made an everlasting impression on
11424-521: The throne of Naples. The royal family was forced to flee to Sicily in February 1806. In their exile, the refugees relied on the help of Great Britain, but after the death of Admiral Nelson in the Battle of Trafalgar (21 October 1805), the British developed more and more aversion to Maria Carolina. Finally in 1813, her husband essentially (but not officially) abdicated and appointed their son Francis regent. This deprived her of any political influence, and
11543-561: The time he had been the French ambassador to Vienna when she was a child. Despite his high clerical position at the Court, she never addressed a word to him. Others involved were Nicole Lequay , alias Baronne d'Oliva , a prostitute who happened to look like Marie Antoinette; Rétaux de Villette , a forger; Alessandro Cagliostro , an Italian adventurer; and the Count de La Motte, Jeanne de Valois' husband. Madame de La Motte tricked Rohan into buying
11662-484: The way of her bearing children, as her most important wifely duty was to perpetuate the dynasty. In total, Maria Carolina bore Ferdinand eighteen children, of whom seven survived into adulthood including his successor, Francis I , the last Holy Roman Empress , a Grand Duchess of Tuscany , the last Queen of the French , and a Princess of Asturias . Maria Carolina of Austria gave birth to eighteen children in twenty one years, from 1772 to 1793. Ferdinand, having received
11781-512: The young Maria Antonia. Maria Antonia, in her later life, recalled the ailing Maria Josepha taking her in her arms. She told her that she would not be traveling to Naples to marry King Ferdinand IV of Naples , to whom she was betrothed, but for the family vault . Later in 1768, Mathieu-Jacques de Vermond was dispatched by Louis XV to tutor Marie Antoinette as she became the future wife to Louis XVI. Serving as an educator, Abbé de Vermond found her to be unsatisfactorily educated and lacking in, at
11900-476: Was married by proxy with Louis Auguste at the Augustinian Church, Vienna , with her brother Archduke Ferdinand standing in for the Dauphin. On 14 May 1770 she met her husband at the edge of the forest of Compiègne . Upon her arrival in France, she adopted the French version of her name: Marie Antoinette. A further ceremonial wedding took place on 16 May 1770 in the Palace of Versailles and, after
12019-455: Was a resounding success. On the other hand, those opposed to the alliance with Austria had a difficult relationship with Marie Antoinette, as did others who disliked her for more personal or petty reasons. Madame du Barry proved a troublesome foe to the new dauphine. She was Louis XV's mistress and had considerable political influence over him. In 1770 she was instrumental in ousting Étienne François, duc de Choiseul , who had helped orchestrate
12138-533: Was able to obtain her brother's support against Great Britain in the American Revolution and she neutralized French hostility to his alliance with Russia. In 1782, after the governess of the royal children, the Princesse de Guéméné , went bankrupt and resigned, Marie Antoinette appointed her favourite, the Duchess of Polignac , to the position. This decision met with disapproval from the court as
12257-424: Was again the center of interest of the new Emperor, whose crown bore the inscription Rex totius Italiae . From then on, events came quickly and Maria Carolina was surprised by the news of the defeat of Austria in the Battle of Austerlitz (2 December 1805). Napoleon then did not hesitate to conquer Naples and installed first his brother Joseph Bonaparte , and four years later his brother-in-law Joachim Murat , on
12376-470: Was also significantly smaller and less intricate than many other nobles'. Around this time she accumulated a library of 5,000 books. Those on music, often dedicated to her, were the most read, though she also liked to read history. She sponsored the arts, in particular music. Marie Antoinette preferred to hold her musicales in the salon of her Petit appartement de la reine in the Palace of Versailles, or in
12495-456: Was an adherent. Acting on orders from Charles III, Tanucci revived a law from 1751 banning Freemasonry in response to the discovery of a Masonic lodge among the royal regiment. Angered, the queen expressed to Charles III her opinion that Tanucci was ruining the country through the medium of a letter written by her husband, thus making it look as if it was his idea. Resigned to the queen's wishes, Ferdinand dismissed Tanucci in October 1776, causing
12614-409: Was appointed before Spanish hostilities with Britain broke out. Charles's attacks against Acton only served to endear the latter more to the queen, who proceeded to appoint him Field-Marshal. Acton's reforms were not restricted to the expansion of the navy; at the same time, he cut the expenditure of his department by 500,000 ducats and invited foreign drill-sergeants and officers to fill vacancies in
12733-436: Was appointed by the King at her urging to replace Calonne, first as Controller-General of Finances and then as Chief Minister . He began to institute more cutbacks at court while trying to restore the royal absolute power weakened by the Parlement. Brienne was unable to improve the financial situation, and since he was the Queen's ally, this failure adversely affected her political position. The continued poor financial climate of
12852-596: Was declared. Living wives of reigning monarchs technically became queen consorts, including Margaret of Burgundy and Blanche of Burgundy who were kept in prison during their whole queenships. Some sources refer to Margaret of Anjou as Queen of France, but her right to enjoy that title is disputed. She was briefly recognized only in English-controlled territories of France. (See also: Dual monarchy of England and France ) Françoise d'Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon , who secretly married Louis XIV in 1683,
12971-578: Was falsely accused of defrauding the Crown's jewelers in the Affair of the Diamond Necklace , but the accusations damaged her reputation further. During the French Revolution, she became known as Madame Déficit because the country's financial crisis was blamed on her lavish spending and her opposition to social and financial reforms proposed by Anne Robert Jacques Turgot and Jacques Necker . Several events were linked to Marie Antoinette during
13090-561: Was instead celebrated the day before, on All Saints' Day , due to the connotations of the date. Shortly after her birth she was placed under the care of the governess of the imperial children, Countess von Brandeis. Maria Antonia was raised together with her sister, Maria Carolina of Austria , who was three years older, and with whom she had a lifelong close relationship. Maria Antonia had a difficult but ultimately loving relationship with her mother, who referred to her as "the little Madame Antoine". Maria Antonia spent her formative years between
13209-634: Was king. Following the birth of a male heir in 1775, Maria Carolina was admitted to the Privy Council . She dominated the Council until 1812, when she was sent back to Vienna . Like her mother, Maria Carolina arranged politically advantageous marriages for her children. Maria Carolina promoted Naples as a centre of the arts, patronising painters Jacob Philipp Hackert and Angelica Kauffman , and academics Gaetano Filangieri , Domenico Cirillo and Giuseppe Maria Galanti . Maria Carolina, abhorring how
13328-476: Was named after the King's aunt, Princess Sophie of France . Marie Antoinette began to abandon her more carefree activities to become increasingly involved in politics in her role as queen of France. By publicly showing her attention to the education and care of her children, the queen sought to improve the dissolute image she had acquired in 1785 from the "Diamond Necklace Affair", in which public opinion had falsely accused her of criminal participation in defrauding
13447-432: Was never publicly acknowledged as his wife. Maria Carolina of Austria Maria Carolina of Austria (Maria Carolina Louise Josepha Johanna Antonia; 13 August 1752 – 8 September 1814) was Queen of Naples and Sicily as the wife of King Ferdinand IV and III , who later became King of the Two Sicilies . As de facto ruler of her husband's kingdoms, Maria Carolina oversaw the promulgation of many reforms, including
13566-420: Was publicly suggested that her supposed behaviour was learned at the Austrian court, particularly lesbianism, which was known as the "German vice". Her mother again expressed concern for the safety of her daughter, and she began to use Austria's ambassador to France, Comte de Mercy , to provide information on Marie Antoinette's safety and movements. In 1783, the Queen was busy with the creation of her " hamlet ",
13685-628: Was so horrified at what had happened at the Tuileries that day that she almost broke off relations with France altogether. The king and queen's procrastination regarding Mackau's requests to be recognised as a representative of the French Republic caused tension with that country. John Acton, now Prime Minister of Naples, allayed Maria Carolina's fervent desire to go to war with France and tried to placate Mackau until he could rely on British military support. His plan, however, backfired when
13804-479: Was soon achieved. As part of this rapprochement , Acton went to live in Castellamare , but returned to Naples three times a week to see the queen. Maria Carolina patronised German-Swiss artists, foremostly Angelica Kauffman , who famously painted the queen's family in an informal garden setting in 1783, and gave her daughters lessons in drawing. Maria Carolina showered Kauffman with gifts, but she preferred
13923-494: Was the daughter who resembled her mother most. Maria Carolina formed a very close bond with her youngest sister, Marie Antoinette . From very early on they shared the same governess, Countess Lerchenfeld . A testament to their closeness is the fact that when one caught an illness the other did too. In August 1767 Maria Theresa separated the two girls, hitherto raised together under the auspices of Countess Marie von Brandis, because of their bad behaviour. Soon after in October of
14042-539: Was the thirteenth and sixth surviving child of Maria Theresa , Queen of Hungary and Bohemia and ruler of the Habsburg dominions, and Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor . She was a namesake of her elder sisters – Maria Carolina , who died two weeks after her first birthday, and Maria Carolina , who died several hours after being baptised – but she was known as Charlotte by her family. Her godparents were King Louis XV of France and his wife, Maria Leszczyńska . Maria Carolina
14161-494: Was through her secret police that Maria Carolina learned of her substantial decline in popularity among all classes of society. In an attempt to please Great Britain, with a military alliance in mind, the queen deigned to meet the wife of the English ambassador, Emma Hamilton , in audience, despite the fact that the British Queen, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz , had not yet received her. However, they soon struck up
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