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65-571: The SSN-AUKUS , also known as the SSN-A , is a planned class of nuclear-powered fleet submarine ( SSN ) intended to enter service with the United Kingdom's Royal Navy in the late 2030s and Royal Australian Navy in the early 2040s. The class will replace the UK's Astute -class and Australia's Collins -class submarines. The UK commenced an Astute class replacement project in 2018, which

130-478: A 70 MWt reactor such as Hyperion's. In response to its members' interest in nuclear propulsion, Lloyd's Register has also re-written its 'rules' for nuclear ships, which concern the integration of a reactor certified by a land-based regulator with the rest of the ship. The overall rationale of the rule-making process assumes that in contrast to the current marine industry practice where the designer/builder typically demonstrates compliance with regulatory requirements, in

195-589: A common vertical launch system and weapons", and "will have a high degree of commonality" with the Virginia class, including "sharing elements of the propulsion plant, combat system and weapons", enhancing interoperability and Australia's transition to SSN-AUKUS. In November 2023, Australian Minister for Defence Industry Pat Conroy said the submarines would use an "evolved" version of the AN/BYG1 Combat Management System in use with

260-561: A few experimental ships. The U.S.-built NS  Savannah , completed in 1962, was primarily a demonstration of civil nuclear power and was too small and expensive to operate economically as a merchant ship. The design was too much of a compromise, being neither an efficient freighter nor a viable passenger liner. The German-built Otto Hahn , completed in 1968, a cargo ship and research facility, sailed some 650,000 nautical miles (1,200,000 km) on 126 voyages over 10 years without any technical problems. It proved too expensive to operate and

325-420: A land-based nuclear power plant, which increases the probability of fission to the level where a sustained reaction can occur. Some marine reactors run on relatively low-enriched uranium , which requires more frequent refueling. Others run on highly enriched uranium , varying from 20% U, to the over 96% U found in U.S. submarines , in which the resulting smaller core is quieter in operation (a big advantage to

390-444: A land-based reactor that always remains upright. Salt water corrosion is an additional problem that complicates maintenance. As the core of a seagoing reactor is much smaller than a power reactor, the probability of a neutron intersecting with a fissionable nucleus before it escapes into the shielding is much lower. As such, the fuel is typically more highly enriched (i.e., contains a higher concentration of U vs. U) than that used in

455-457: A marine reactor must be physically small, so it must generate higher power per unit of space. This means its components are subject to greater stresses than those of a land-based reactor. Its mechanical systems must operate flawlessly under the adverse conditions encountered at sea, including vibration and the pitching and rolling of a ship operating in rough seas. Reactor shutdown mechanisms cannot rely on gravity to drop control rods into place as in

520-691: A modified version of their own, the PWR2 . The largest nuclear submarines ever built are the 26,500 tonne Russian Typhoon class . The smallest nuclear warships to date are the 2,700 tonne French Rubis -class attack submarines. The U.S. Navy operated an unarmed nuclear submarine, the NR-1 Deep Submergence Craft , between 1969 and 2008, which was not a combat vessel but was the smallest nuclear-powered submarine at 400 tons. The United States and France have built nuclear aircraft carriers . The sole French nuclear aircraft carrier example

585-551: A new facility near Sayda Bay is to provide storage in a concrete-floored facility on land for some submarines in the far north. Russia built a floating nuclear power plant for its far eastern territories. The design has two 35 MWe units based on the KLT-40 reactor used in icebreakers (with refueling every four years). Some Russian naval vessels have been used to supply electricity for domestic and industrial use in remote far eastern and Siberian towns. In 2010, Lloyd's Register

650-468: A submarine). Using more-highly enriched fuel also increases the reactor's power density and extends the usable life of the nuclear fuel load, but is more expensive and a greater risk to nuclear proliferation than less-highly enriched fuel. A marine nuclear propulsion plant must be designed to be highly reliable and self-sufficient, requiring minimal maintenance and repairs, which might have to be undertaken many thousands of miles from its home port. One of

715-664: A submerged circumnavigation of the Earth ( Operation Sandblast ), doing so in 1960. Nautilus , with a pressurized water reactor (PWR), led to the parallel development of other submarines like a unique liquid metal cooled (sodium) reactor in USS ; Seawolf , or two reactors in Triton , and then the Skate -class submarines, powered by single reactors, and a cruiser, USS  Long Beach , in 1961, powered by two reactors. By 1962,

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780-405: A temperature of around 250 to 300 °C (482 to 572 °F). Any radioactive contamination in the primary water is confined. Water is circulated by pumps; at lower power levels, reactors designed for submarines may rely on natural circulation of the water to reduce noise generated by the pumps. The hot water from the reactor heats a separate water circuit in the steam generator. That water

845-660: Is Charles de Gaulle , commissioned in 2001 (a successor is planned). The French carrier is equipped with catapults and arresters . The Charles de Gaulle has 42,000 tonnes, is the flagship of the French Navy (Marine Nationale). The ship carries a complement of Dassault Rafale M and E‑2C Hawkeye aircraft, EC725 Caracal and AS532 Cougar helicopters for combat search and rescue , as well as modern electronics and Aster missiles. The United States Navy operates 11 carriers, all nuclear-powered: The Kirov class, Soviet designation 'Project 1144 Orlan' ( sea eagle ),

910-468: Is a class of nuclear-powered guided-missile cruisers of the Soviet Navy and Russian Navy , the largest and heaviest surface combatant warships (i.e. not an aircraft carrier or amphibious assault ship ) in operation in the world. Among modern warships, they are second in size only to large aircraft carriers , and of similar size to World War II era battleships . The Soviet classification of

975-763: Is a nuclear-powered and nuclear-armed unmanned underwater vehicle under development by Rubin Design Bureau , capable of delivering both conventional and nuclear payloads . According to Russian state TV, it is able to deliver a thermonuclear cobalt bomb of up to 200 megatonnes (four times as powerful as the most powerful device ever detonated, the Tsar Bomba , and twice its maximum theoretical yield) against an enemy's naval ports and coastal cities. The following are ships that are or were in commercial or civilian use and have nuclear marine propulsion. Nuclear-powered civil merchant ships have not developed beyond

1040-473: Is considered. This is a small fast-neutron reactor using lead–bismuth eutectic cooling and able to operate for ten full-power years before refueling, and in service last for a 25-year operational life of the vessel. They conclude that the concept is feasible, but further maturity of nuclear technology and the development and harmonisation of the regulatory framework would be necessary before the concept would be viable. Nuclear propulsion has been proposed again on

1105-465: Is converted to steam and passes through steam driers on its way to the steam turbine . Spent steam at low pressure runs through a condenser cooled by seawater and returns to liquid form. The water is pumped back to the steam generator and continues the cycle. Any water lost in the process can be made up by desalinated sea water added to the steam generator feed water. In the turbine, the steam expands and reduces its pressure as it imparts energy to

1170-401: Is described as being "the next step in developing autonomous underwater warfare capability" and is also to feed into the design of SSNR. In January 2023, it was reported that the submarines were likely to incorporate a vertical launch system (VLS) for land-attack missiles. This would be a first for Royal Navy SSNs, which currently launch land-attack missiles via their torpedo tubes. A VLS system

1235-543: Is designed to allow for future expansion to 210 metres (690 ft) length and lifting capacity of 20,000 tonnes (20,000 long tons; 22,000 short tons). Between 2017 and 2020, an extension was built behind Osborne South to construct the Hunter -class frigates . The largest building in the new complex is known as Building 22, and is 80 metres (260 ft) high with a footprint of 170 by 50 metres (560 ft × 160 ft), large enough for assembly of two frigates other than

1300-464: Is offset by high operating costs and investment in infrastructure, however, so nearly all nuclear-powered vessels are military. Most naval nuclear reactors are of the pressurized water type, with the exception of a few attempts at using liquid sodium-cooled reactors. A primary water circuit transfers heat generated from nuclear fission in the fuel to a steam generator ; this water is kept under pressure so it does not boil. This circuit operates at

1365-496: Is provided with an internal neutron shield, which reduces the damage to the steel from constant neutron bombardment. Decommissioning nuclear-powered submarines has become a major task for U.S. and Russian navies. After defuelling, U.S. practice is to cut the reactor section from the vessel for disposal in shallow land burial as low-level waste (see the ship-submarine recycling program ). In Russia, whole vessels, or sealed reactor sections, typically remain stored afloat, although

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1430-467: Is reported to be powered by a thorium-based molten salt reactor , making it a first thorium-powered container ship and, if completed, the largest nuclear-powered container ship in the world. Nuclear propulsion has proven both technically and economically feasible for nuclear-powered icebreakers in the Soviet , and later Russian , Arctic . Nuclear-fuelled ships operate for years without refueling, and

1495-467: Is still interest in nuclear propulsion. In November 2010 British Maritime Technology and Lloyd's Register embarked upon a two-year study with U.S.-based Hyperion Power Generation (now Gen4 Energy ), and the Greek ship operator Enterprises Shipping and Trading SA to investigate the practical maritime applications for small modular reactors. The research intended to produce a concept tanker-ship design, based on

1560-684: The Royal Australian Navy fleet . The facility was established by the direction of the Australian government in 1987 for the Australian Submarine Corporation to construct six Collins -Class submarines . Since then, it has expanded significantly, incorporating a vast array of technology and facilities as the main supplier of naval vessels to the RAN . The Osborne Naval Shipyard is widely regarded as one of

1625-604: The Collins class, and BAE Systems . The building of the first boat is to begin by the end of the 2030s with the boat delivered in the early 2040s. A boat will be built every three years. Australia will operate two submarine classes, and if the build schedule for the SSN-AUKUS falls behind, has the option of purchasing up to two additional Virginia class boats from the United States. As a non-nuclear weapon state under

1690-566: The EPR ), a typical marine propulsion reactor produces no more than a few hundred megawatts. Some small modular reactors (SMR) are similar to marine propulsion reactors in capacity and some design considerations and thus nuclear marine propulsion (whether civilian or military) is sometimes proposed as an additional market niche for SMRs. Unlike for land-based applications where hundreds of hectares can be occupied by installations like Bruce Nuclear Generating Station , at sea tight space limits dictate that

1755-534: The Hunter-class frigate program and Arafura-class offshore patrol vessels . As of 2024, significant expansions of the facility are under construction to triple the size of the shipyard to accommodate SSN-AUKUS submarine construction. Once completed, the facility will be one of only a handful across the world which will have the capacity to produce large surface combatant vessels and nuclear-powered submarines simultaneously. According to preliminary plans for

1820-599: The IAEA , Australia will not produce nuclear fuel for its SSNs. The UK and US intend to provide Australia with nuclear material in complete, welded nuclear power units. In March 2023, Vice Admiral Jonathan Mead , head of the Australian Nuclear Powered Submarine Task Force, said the SSN-AUKUS design was "about 70 per cent mature". The SSN-AUKUS class "will incorporate US technology such as propulsion plant systems and components,

1885-658: The United States . The class will be powered by Rolls-Royce's pressurised water reactors (PWR). The submarines will displace over 10,000 tonnes. The United Kingdom began planning for the replacement of the Astute class of submarines in early 2018. Initially, the programme was known as the Maritime Underwater Future Capability (MUFC). The concept phase was scheduled to last for three years to assess requirements and consider options but

1950-714: The United States Navy had 26 operational nuclear submarines and another 30 under construction. Nuclear power had revolutionized the Navy. The United States shared its technology with the United Kingdom , while French , Soviet , Indian and Chinese development proceeded separately. After the Skate -class vessels, U.S. submarines were powered by a series of standardized, single-reactor designs built by Westinghouse and General Electric . Rolls-Royce plc built similar units for Royal Navy submarines, eventually developing

2015-445: The Virginia -class and Collins -class and will be armed with Mk-48 torpedoes. Nuclear marine propulsion Compared to oil- or coal-fuelled ships, nuclear propulsion offers the advantage of very long intervals of operation before refueling. All the fuel is contained within the nuclear reactor, so no cargo or supplies space is taken up by fuel, nor is space taken up by exhaust stacks or combustion air intakes. The low fuel cost

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2080-459: The Australian government performed a land swap with the state government, trading land on three nearby military sites for 60 acres of land around Osborne Naval Shipyard for the construction of the nuclear submarine shipyard facilities and a workforce skills training centre, the federal government expect spades in the ground for the construction of site access roads and utilities diversions before

2145-666: The Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships , developed in 1962, would have made signatory national governments liable for accidents caused by nuclear vessels under their flag but was never ratified owing to disagreement on the inclusion of warships under the convention. Nuclear reactors under United States jurisdiction are insured by the provisions of the Price–Anderson Act . By 1990, there were more nuclear reactors powering ships (mostly military) than there were generating electric power in commercial power plants worldwide. Under

2210-651: The Soviet Union or Russia. Osborne Naval Shipyard The Osborne Naval Shipyard is a Royal Australian Navy multi-user facility on the Lefevre Peninsula , at Osborne, South Australia . It is the most advanced shipbuilding facility in both Australia and the Southern Hemisphere . The facility has produced a range of major surface combatants and submerged vessels such as Destroyers , Frigates , Patrol boats and Submarines for

2275-463: The UK Ministry of Defence, the site will double in size creating a further 1170 jobs needed to support the delivery of the Australian boats. In October 2023, the UK government announced a series of contracts with BAE Systems, Rolls-Royce and Babcock, collectively worth £4 billion, to support the design and development of the submarine class up to 2028. These contracts will fund the finalization of

2340-640: The UK would boost defense spending by additional £5 billion over two years, some of which would go towards funding "the next phase of the AUKUS submarine programme." The first SSN-AUKUS class boat for the Royal Navy will commence construction in Barrow in Furness as early as the late 2020s and is expected to be operational as early as the late 2030s. The Royal Navy boats will be built by BAE Systems . As of 2023,

2405-776: The direction of U.S. Navy Captain (later Admiral) Hyman G. Rickover , the design, development and production of nuclear marine propulsion plants started in the United States in the 1940s. The first prototype naval reactor was constructed and tested at the Naval Reactor Facility at the National Reactor Testing Station in Idaho (now called the Idaho National Laboratory ) in 1953. The first nuclear submarine , USS  Nautilus  (SSN-571) , put to sea in 1955 (SS

2470-465: The four-ship Virginia class . USS  Virginia  (CGN-38) was commissioned in 1976, followed by USS  Texas  (CGN-39) in 1977, USS  Mississippi  (CGN-40) in 1978 and finally USS  Arkansas  (CGN-41) in 1980. Ultimately, all these ships proved to be too costly to maintain and they were all retired between 1993 and 1999. SSV-33 Ural ( ССВ-33 Урал ; NATO reporting name : Kapusta [ Russian for " cabbage "])

2535-436: The future the nuclear regulators will wish to ensure that it is the operator of the nuclear plant that demonstrates safety in operation, in addition to the safety through design and construction. Nuclear ships are currently the responsibility of their own countries, but none are involved in international trade. As a result of this work in 2014 two papers on commercial nuclear marine propulsion were published by Lloyd's Register and

2600-477: The government in the form of two £85 million contracts to BAE Systems and Rolls-Royce Holdings for early design work on the SSNR. The investment will support 350 jobs for the UK economy. In November 2022, MSubs Ltd was awarded a £15.4m contract to build an XLUUV (Extra Large Uncrewed Underwater Vehicle) vessel which is to be delivered to the Royal Navy within two years. The 17-tonne vessel (known as Project CETUS )

2665-416: The most technologically advanced naval ship building facilities in the world, with "digital twin" ship building methods. The shipyard will notably be constructing SSN-AUKUS submarines from 2030s onwards, as the primary manufacturing hub of the trilateral AUKUS announcement in 2021. The facility currently administers Collins-class submarine full-cycle docking and 'Life of Type' extension program, as well as

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2730-469: The new shipyard, Osborne will receive a third shiplift and potentially a graving dock to the north of the site for construction and maintenance of SSN-AUKUS submarines . The ship building precinct includes a number of discrete facilities, as it has grown over the time it has existed. The Government of South Australia built a "common user facility" that includes a wharf and Shiplift constructed between 2007 and 2010, known as Techport Australia . It

2795-453: The other members of this consortium. These publications review past and recent work in the area of marine nuclear propulsion and describe a preliminary concept design study for a 155,000  DWT Suezmax tanker that is based on a conventional hull form with alternative arrangements for accommodating a 70 MWt nuclear propulsion plant delivering up to 23.5 MW shaft power at maximum continuous rating (average: 9.75 MW). The Gen4Energy power module

2860-426: The relatively high enrichment of the uranium and by incorporating a " burnable poison " in the fuel elements, which is slowly depleted as the fuel elements age and become less reactive. The gradual dissipation of the "nuclear poison" increases the reactivity of the core to compensate for the lessening reactivity of the aging fuel elements, thereby extending the usable life of the fuel. The compact reactor pressure vessel

2925-534: The rotating blades of the turbine. There may be many stages of rotating blades and fixed guide vanes. The output shaft of the turbine may be connected to a gearbox to reduce rotation speed, then a shaft connects to the vessel's propellers. In another form of drive system, the turbine turns an electrical generator, and the electric power produced is fed to one or more drive motors for the vessel's propellers. The Russian , U.S. and British navies rely on direct steam turbine propulsion, while French and Chinese ships use

2990-411: The ship-type is "heavy nuclear-powered guided missile cruiser" ( Russian : тяжёлый атомный ракетный крейсер ). The ships are often referred to as battlecruisers by Western defence commentators due to their size and general appearance. The United States Navy at one time had nuclear-powered cruisers as part of its fleet. The first such ship was USS Long Beach (CGN-9) . Commissioned in 1961, she

3055-667: The submarine design, as well as procure long-lead items for the first UK submarine. The Royal Australian Navy will acquire five SSN-AUKUS class boats that will be built at the Osborne Naval Shipyard in South Australia . A new submarine construction yard will be constructed at Osborne to be known as the Submarine Construction Yard. The Royal Australian Navy boats will be built by a joint venture between ASC , who constructed and maintain

3120-400: The submarine, finally making it a true "underwater" vessel, rather than a "submersible" craft, which could only stay underwater for limited periods. It gave the submarine the ability to operate submerged at high speeds, comparable to those of surface vessels, for unlimited periods, dependent only on the endurance of its crew. To demonstrate this USS  Triton was the first vessel to execute

3185-442: The technical difficulties in designing fuel elements for a seagoing nuclear reactor is the creation of fuel elements that will withstand a large amount of radiation damage. Fuel elements may crack over time and gas bubbles may form. The fuel used in marine reactors is a metal- zirconium alloy rather than the ceramic UO 2 ( uranium dioxide ) often used in land-based reactors. Marine reactors are designed for long core life, enabled by

3250-718: The turbine to generate electricity for propulsion ( turbo-electric transmission ). Some nuclear submarines have a single reactor, but Russian submarines have two, and so had USS  Triton . Most American aircraft carriers are powered by two reactors, but USS  Enterprise had eight. The majority of marine reactors are of the pressurized water type, although the U.S. and Soviet navies have designed warships powered with liquid metal cooled reactors . Marine-type reactors differ from land-based commercial electric power reactors in several respects. While land-based reactors in nuclear power plants produce up to around 1600 megawatts of net electrical power (the nameplate capacity of

3315-802: The upper superstructure. In September 2021, the Morrison government scrapped the French multi-billion-dollar deal to build the Attack -class submarines . Instead signing a monumental agreement with the United Kingdom and the United States to build 8 SSN-AUKUS submarines at the Osborne Naval Shipyard Adelaide for the Royal Australian Navy . The first submarine is expected in the early 2030s. November 2023

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3380-445: The vessels have powerful engines, well-suited to the task of icebreaking. The Soviet icebreaker Lenin was the world's first nuclear-powered surface vessel in 1959 and remained in service for 30 years (new reactors were fitted in 1970). It led to a series of larger icebreakers, the 23,500 ton Arktika class of six vessels, launched beginning in 1975. These vessels have two reactors and are used in deep Arctic waters. NS Arktika

3445-678: The wave of decarbonization of marine shipping, which accounts for 3–4% of global greenhouse gas emissions. In December 5, 2023, the Jiangnan Shipyard under the China State Shipbuilding Corporation officially released a design of a 24000  TEU -class container ship — known as the KUN-24AP — at Marintec China 2023, a premier maritime industry exhibition held in Shanghai . The container ship

3510-547: The workforce at Barrow in Furness was being expanded from 10,000 to 17,000 to support both the Dreadnought class program and the SSN-AUKUS class. The SSN-AUKUS class will be powered by a Rolls-Royce pressurised water reactor (PWR) , manufactured at an expanded Rolls Royce Raynesway site in Derby . Australia is to invest A$ 4.6 billion (£2.4 billion) to allow the expansion of Rolls Royce's Derby site, and alongside funding from

3575-687: Was a command and control naval ship operated by the Soviet Navy . SSV-33 ' s hull was derived from that of the nuclear-powered Kirov -class battlecruisers with nuclear marine propulsion. SSV-33 served in electronic intelligence , missile tracking, space tracking, and communications relay roles. Due to high operating costs, SSV-33 was laid up. SSV-33 carried only light defensive weapons. These were two AK-176 76 mm guns, four AK-630 30 mm guns, and four quadruple Igla missile mounts. The Poseidon ( Russian : Посейдон , " Poseidon ", NATO reporting name Kanyon ), previously known by Russian codename Status-6 ( Russian : Статус-6 ),

3640-459: Was a traditional hull classification symbol for U.S. submarines, while SSN denoted the first "nuclear" submarine). The Soviet Union also developed nuclear submarines. The first types developed were the Project 627, NATO-designated November class with two water-cooled reactors, the first of which, K-3 Leninsky Komsomol , was underway under nuclear power in 1958. Nuclear power revolutionized

3705-427: Was commissioned in 1988. As of 2021 , it is the only nuclear-powered merchant ship in service. Civilian nuclear ships suffer from the costs of specialized infrastructure. The Savannah was expensive to operate since it was the only vessel using its specialized nuclear shore staff and servicing facility. A larger fleet could share fixed costs among more operating vessels, reducing operating costs. Despite this, there

3770-486: Was converted to diesel. The Japanese Mutsu , completed in 1972, was dogged by technical and political problems. Its reactor had significant radiation leakage and fishermen protested against the vessel's operation. All of these three ships used low-enriched uranium. Sevmorput , a Soviet and later Russian LASH carrier with icebreaking capability, has operated successfully on the Northern Sea Route since it

3835-674: Was described as likely to increase interoperability options with the US Navy since future US land attack missiles may not have a horizontal launch option. Following an 18-month consultation starting in September 2021, the design was renamed SSN-AUKUS in March 2023 when Australia joined the programme and additional US technology was incorporated, both as part of the AUKUS agreement. The British Prime Minister Rishi Sunak announced in March 2023 that

3900-482: Was designed by Aurecon and constructed by McConnell Dowell and Built Environs . Techport was sold by the state government to the Federal Government in 2017 for A$ 230 million . The shiplift was supplied by Rolls-Royce and is 156 metres (512 ft) long and 34 metres (112 ft) wide. It can lift 9,300 tonnes (9,200 long tons; 10,300 short tons) from a water depth of 18 metres (59 ft). It

3965-494: Was investigating the possibility of civilian nuclear marine propulsion and rewriting draft rules (see text under Merchant Ships ). Insurance of nuclear vessels is not like the insurance of conventional ships. The consequences of an accident could span national boundaries, and the magnitude of possible damage is beyond the capacity of private insurers. A special international agreement, the Brussels Convention on

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4030-510: Was later named the Submersible Ship Nuclear Replacement ( SSNR ). The ongoing SSNR design was renamed SSN-AUKUS in March 2023, under the 2021 AUKUS trilateral security partnership, when Australia joined the programme and additional US technology was incorporated into the design. Australia plans to build five SSN-AUKUS submarines in addition to acquiring three nuclear-powered Virginia -class submarines from

4095-502: Was suspended for two years due to delays in the Astute -class and Dreadnought -class delivery programmes. In 2020, the Ministry of Defence recruited for a Submarine Delivery Agency Project Manager to work on the SSNR design and development process. In March 2021, the government's defence paper Defence in a Competitive Age committed to funding the SSNR project. This was followed in September 2021 by an investment of £170 million by

4160-570: Was the first surface vessel to reach the North Pole . For use in shallow waters such as estuaries and rivers, shallow-draft, Taymyr -class icebreakers were built in Finland and then fitted with their single-reactor nuclear propulsion system in Russia . They were built to conform to international safety standards for nuclear vessels. All nuclear-powered icebreakers have been commissioned by

4225-468: Was the world's first nuclear-powered surface combatant . She was followed a year later by USS Bainbridge (DLGN-25) . While Long Beach was designed and built as a cruiser, Bainbridge began life as a frigate , though at that time the Navy was using the hull code "DLGN" for " destroyer leader , guided missile , nuclear ". The last nuclear-powered cruisers the Americans would produce would be

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