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126-820: Administratively, the Northern Sea Route begins at the boundary between the Barents and Kara Seas (the Kara Strait) and ends in the Bering Strait ( Cape Dezhnev ). The NSR straddles the seas of the Arctic Ocean ( Kara , Laptev , East Siberian and Chukchi Seas ). The entire route lies in Arctic waters and within Russia's exclusive economic zone (EEZ), and is included in what has been called

252-681: A 2019 paper holds BKS ice decline responsible for 44% of the 1995–2014 central Eurasian cooling trend, far more than indicated by the models, while another study from that year suggests that the decline in BKS ice reduces snow cover in the North Eurasia but increases it in central Europe. There are also potential links to summer precipitation: a connection has been proposed between the reduced BKS ice extent in November–December and greater June rainfall over South China . One paper even identified

378-582: A combined propulsion power of 34,000 kW (46,000 hp). In Canada, diesel-electric icebreakers started to be built in 1952, first with HMCS Labrador (was transferred later to the Canadian Coast Guard), using the USCG Wind -class design but without the bow propeller. Then in 1960, the next step in the Canadian development of large icebreakers came when CCGS  John A. Macdonald

504-520: A connection between Kara Sea ice extent and the ice cover of Lake Qinghai on the Tibetan Plateau . The Barents Sea was formerly known to Russians as Murmanskoye More , or the "Sea of Murmans" (i.e., their term for Norwegians). It appears with this name in sixteenth-century maps, including Gerard Mercator 's Map of the Arctic published in his 1595 atlas. Its eastern corner, in the region of

630-465: A digital space that will provide various services to cargo carriers, shipowners, captains, insurers, and other participants in the logistics market on the NSR. In particular, it involves issuing permits for the passage of vessels, monitoring, dispatching, and managing the work of the fleet. The single digital platform will collect information from all the available sources, for example, hydrometeorological data,

756-514: A front called the Polar Front is formed. In the western parts of the sea (close to Bear Island ), this front is determined by the bottom topography and is therefore relatively sharp and stable from year to year, while in the east (towards Novaya Zemlya ), it can be quite diffuse and its position can vary markedly between years. The lands of Novaya Zemlya attained most of their early Holocene coastal deglaciation approximately 10,000 years before

882-625: A heavy icebreaker must perform Operation Deep Freeze , clearing a safe path for resupply ships to the National Science Foundation ’s facility McMurdo in Antarctica. The most recent multi-month excursion was led by the Polar Star which escorted a container and fuel ship through treacherous conditions before maintaining the channel free of ice. Icebreakers are often described as ships that drive their sloping bows onto

1008-535: A hull that is wider in the bow than in the stern. These so-called "reamers" increase the width of the ice channel and thus reduce frictional resistance in the aftship as well as improve the ship's maneuverability in ice. In addition to low friction paint, some icebreakers utilize an explosion-welded abrasion-resistant stainless steel ice belt that further reduces friction and protects the ship's hull from corrosion. Auxiliary systems such as powerful water deluges and air bubbling systems are used to reduce friction by forming

1134-524: A lubricating layer between the hull and the ice. Pumping water between tanks on both sides of the vessel results in continuous rolling that reduces friction and makes progress through the ice easier. Experimental bow designs such as the flat Thyssen-Waas bow and a cylindrical bow have been tried over the years to further reduce the ice resistance and create an ice-free channel. Icebreakers and other ships operating in ice-filled waters require additional structural strengthening against various loads resulting from

1260-417: A nuclear-powered icebreaking cargo ship, Sevmorput , which had a single nuclear reactor and a steam turbine directly coupled to the propeller shaft. Russia, which remains the sole operator of nuclear-powered icebreakers, is currently building 60,000 kW (80,000 hp) icebreakers to replace the aging Arktika class. The first vessel of this type entered service in 2020. A hovercraft can break ice by

1386-518: A short parallel midship to improve maneuverability in ice. However, the spoon-shaped bow and round hull have poor hydrodynamic efficiency and seakeeping characteristics, and make the icebreaker susceptible to slamming , or the impacting of the bottom structure of the ship onto the sea surface. For this reason, the hull of an icebreaker is often a compromise between minimum ice resistance, maneuverability in ice, low hydrodynamic resistance, and adequate open water characteristics. Some icebreakers have

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1512-468: A succession of dry holes, wells containing only gas (which was cheap at the time), and the prohibitive costs of developing wells in such a remote area. Interest in the area was reignited in the late 2000s after the Snovhit field was finally brought into production and two new large discoveries were made. The Russians began exploration in their territory around the same time, encouraged by their success in

1638-641: A vertical axis. These thrusters improve propulsion efficiency, icebreaking capability and maneuverability of the vessel. The use of azimuth thrusters also allows a ship to move astern in ice without losing manoeuvrability. This has led to the development of double acting ships , vessels with the stern shaped like an icebreaker's bow and the bow designed for open water performance. In this way, the ship remains economical to operate in open water without compromising its ability to operate in difficult ice conditions. Azimuth thrusters have also made it possible to develop new experimental icebreakers that operate sideways to open

1764-499: A vise and causing damage. This vise-like action is caused by the force of winds and tides on ice formations. The first boats to be used in the polar waters were those of the Eskimos . Their kayaks are small human-powered boats with a covered deck, and one or more cockpits, each seating one paddler who strokes a single or double-bladed paddle . Such boats have no icebreaking capabilities, but they are light and well fit to carry over

1890-593: A wide channel through ice. The steam-powered icebreakers were resurrected in the late 1950s when the Soviet Union commissioned the first nuclear-powered icebreaker , Lenin , in 1959. It had a nuclear-turbo-electric powertrain in which the nuclear reactor was used to produce steam for turbogenerators , which in turn produced electricity for propulsion motors. Starting from 1975, the Russians commissioned six Arktika -class nuclear icebreakers . Soviets also built

2016-563: A year, started being settled. The mixed ethnic group of the Karelians and the Russians in the North-Russia that lived on the shores of the Arctic Ocean became known as Pomors ("seaside settlers"). Gradually they developed a special type of small one- or two-mast wooden sailing ships , used for voyages in the ice conditions of the Arctic seas and later on Siberian rivers. These earliest icebreakers were called kochi . The koch's hull

2142-481: A year-round arctic shipping route. Rosatom is a state corporation that organizes the navigation of vessels in the waters of the NSR in accordance with the Merchant Shipping Code, manages a fleet of powerful nuclear icebreakers, ensures the safety and uninterrupted operation of navigation, provides port services for gas tankers in case of unfavorable weather conditions. Rosatom , a legacy member of

2268-660: Is a key food for top predators such as the north-east Arctic cod , harp seals , and seabirds such as the common guillemot and Brunnich's guillemot . The fisheries of the Barents Sea, in particular the cod fisheries, are of great importance for both Norway and Russia. SIZEX-89 was an international winter experiment in 1989 for which the main objectives were to perform sensor signature studies of different ice types to develop SAR algorithms for ice variables, such as ice types, ice concentrations and ice kinematics. Although previous research suggested that predation by whales may be

2394-491: Is also planned to build two more icebreakers of this prototype. These icebreakers will be equipped with a two-reactor power plant with RITM-400 reactors with a capacity of 315 MW. The maximum ice thickness overcome by these icebreakers will exceed 4 meters. It was reported in 2023 that Rosmorport , a state-owned agency of the Russian Ministry of Transport , has plans to run cruises for tourists in icebreakers along

2520-489: Is an environmental concern in the Barents Sea. For decades there was a boundary dispute between Norway and Russia regarding the position of the boundary between their respective claims to the Barents Sea. The Norwegians favoured a median line , based on the Geneva Convention of 1958 , whereas the Russians favoured a meridian - based sector line, based on a Soviet decision of 1926. A neutral "grey" zone between

2646-612: Is dominated by extensional tectonics , caused by the collapse of the Caledonian and Uralian orogenic belts and the break-up of Pangaea . These events created the major rift basins that dominate the Barents Shelf, along with various platforms and structural highs. The later geological history of the Barents Sea is dominated by Late Cenozoic uplift , particularly that caused by Quaternary glaciation , which has resulted in erosion and deposition of significant sediment. Due to

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2772-456: Is high, the economic advantage of the NSR-SCR combined shipping scheme is obvious. Ice thickness directly affects the shipping cost. Now, when the Arctic ice is slowly melting due to weather conditions, the cost of icebreaking service is expected to reduce. Also, vessels of some ice classes can sail on the NSR independently. That is why the NSR icebreaker escort fee may be several times lower than

2898-402: Is low enough that the ice breaks usually without noticeable change in the vessel's trim . In cases of very thick ice, an icebreaker can drive its bow onto the ice to break it under the weight of the ship. A buildup of broken ice in front of a ship can slow it down much more than the breaking of the ice itself, so icebreakers have a specially designed hull to direct the broken ice around or under

3024-451: Is to perform model tests in an ice tank . Regardless of the method, the actual performance of new icebreakers is verified in full scale ice trials once the ship has been built. In order to minimize the icebreaking forces, the hull lines of an icebreaker are usually designed so that the flare at the waterline is as small as possible. As a result, icebreaking ships are characterized by a sloping or rounded stem as well as sloping sides and

3150-556: The Arctic Economic Council , also provides navigation and hydrographic support in the waters of the Northern Sea Route, develops the infrastructure of sea harbors, and manages the state property of these ports. For this purpose, the Directorate of the Northern Sea Route was formed, that now manages three subordinate organizations "Atomflot" (ROSATOMFLOT), "Hydrographic Enterprise" and "ChukotAtomEnergo". Recently,

3276-604: The Atlantic " or in the process of being "Atlantified" because of its status as "the Arctic warming hot spot." Hydrologic changes due to global warming have led to a reduction in sea ice and in the stratification of the water column, which could produce major changes in weather in Eurasia . One prediction is that, as the Barents Sea's permanent ice-free area grows, evaporation will increase, leading to increased winter snowfalls in much of continental Europe. The southern half of

3402-672: The Baltic Sea , the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence Seaway , and along the Northern Sea Route , the main function of icebreakers is to escort convoys of one or more ships safely through ice-filled waters. When a ship becomes immobilized by ice, the icebreaker has to free it by breaking the ice surrounding the ship and, if necessary, open a safe passage through the ice field. In difficult ice conditions,

3528-624: The North Atlantic drift , the Barents Sea has a high biological production compared to other oceans of similar latitude. The spring bloom of phytoplankton can start quite early near the ice edge because the fresh water from the melting ice makes up a stable water layer on top of the seawater. The phytoplankton bloom feeds zooplankton such as Calanus finmarchicus , Calanus glacialis , Calanus hyperboreus , Oithona spp., and krill . The zooplankton feeders include young cod , capelin , polar cod , whales , and little auk . The capelin

3654-587: The Northeast Passage , analogous to Canada's Northwest Passage . The Northern Sea Route itself does not include the Barents Sea , and it therefore does not reach the Atlantic. The Northern Sea Route currently serves the Arctic ports and major rivers of Siberia by importing fuel, equipment, food and exporting timber and minerals. There are currently six major seaports located on the NSR route in

3780-700: The Pechora River 's estuary, has been known as Pechorskoye Morye , that is, Pechora Sea . It was also known as Pomorsky Morye , after the first inhabitants of its shores, the Pomors . This sea was given its present name by Europeans in honour of Willem Barentsz , a Dutch navigator and explorer. Barentsz was the leader of early expeditions to the far north, at the end of the sixteenth century. The Barents Sea has been called by sailors " The Devil's Dance Floor " due to its unpredictability and difficulty level. Ocean rowers call it " Devil's Jaw ". In 2017, after

3906-529: The St. Lawrence River . Icebreakers were built in order to maintain the river free of ice jam, east of Montréal . In about the same time, Canada had to fill its obligations in the Canadian Arctic. Large steam icebreakers, like the 80-metre (260 ft) CGS  N.B. McLean (1930) and CGS  D'Iberville (1952), were built for this dual use (St. Lawrence flood prevention and Arctic replenishment). At

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4032-550: The Timan-Pechora Basin . They drilled their first wells in the early 1980s, and some very large gas fields were discovered throughout this decade. The Shtokman field was discovered in 1988 and is classed as a giant gas field: currently the 5th-largest gas field in the world . Similar practical difficulties Barents Sea resulted in a decline in Russian exploration, aggravated by the nation's political instability of

4158-526: The United States Coast Guard , have a combined diesel-electric and mechanical propulsion system that consists of six diesel engines and three gas turbines . While the diesel engines are coupled to generators that produce power for three propulsion motors, the gas turbines are directly coupled to the propeller shafts driving controllable pitch propellers. The diesel-electric power plant can produce up to 13,000 kW (18,000 hp) while

4284-535: The Wind class . Research in Scandinavia and the Soviet Union led to a design that had a very strongly built short and wide hull, with a cut away forefoot and a rounded bottom. Powerful diesel-electric machinery drove two stern and one auxiliary bow propeller. These features would become the standard for postwar icebreakers until the 1980s. Since the mid-1970s, the most powerful diesel-electric icebreakers have been

4410-517: The "Main Directorate of the Northern Sea Route" (" Glavsevmorput ") was established on the basis of the Naval Operations Headquarters of FSUE “Atomflot”. The main purpose of the creation of Glavsevmorput is to organize the navigation of vessels in the waters of the Northern Sea Route. Glavsevmorput Federal State Budgetary Institution solves the following tasks: ensuring the organization of icebreaking vessels taking into account

4536-619: The 15th century the use of ice breakers in Flanders ( Oudenaarde , Kortrijk , Ieper , Veurne , Diksmuide and Hulst ) was already well established. The use of the ice breaking barges expanded in the 17th century where every town of some importance in the Low Country used some form of icebreaker to keep their waterways clear. Before the 17th century the specifications of icebreakers are unknown. The specifications for ice breaking vessels show that they were dragged by teams of horses and

4662-595: The 1990s. The Barents Sea contains the world's largest remaining cod population, as well as important stocks of haddock and capelin. Fishing is managed jointly by Russia and Norway in the form of the Joint Norwegian–Russian Fisheries Commission , established in 1976, in an attempt to keep track of how many fish are leaving the ecosystem due to fishing. The Joint Norwegian-Russian Fisheries Commission sets Total Allowable Catches (TACs) for multiple species throughout their migratory tracks. Through

4788-529: The 2000s, International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) has proposed adopting an unified system known as the Polar Class (PC) to replace classification society specific ice class notations. Since the Second World War , most icebreakers have been built with diesel-electric propulsion in which diesel engines coupled to generators produce electricity for propulsion motors that turn

4914-636: The Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation: Sabetta, Dikson, Dudinka, Khatanga, Tiksi, and Pevek ports. Some parts of the route are only free of ice for two months per year, but melting Arctic ice caps are likely to increase traffic and the commercial viability of the Northern Sea Route. One study, for instance, projects "remarkable shifts in trade flows between Asia and Europe, diversion of trade within Europe, heavy shipping traffic in

5040-533: The Arctic and a substantial drop in Suez traffic. Projected shifts in trade also imply substantial pressure on an already threatened Arctic ecosystem". At the same time, research conducted by the Center for Marine Research showed that exceeding the maximum permissible concentrations in the atmospheric air, sea waters, and bottom sediments, which could indicate the impact of economic activities at this stage of development of

5166-409: The Arctic, there are concerns that a further increase in pollution is likely, not least from the increased risk of future oil spills from ships not properly equipped for the environment. Barents Sea is the fastest-warming part of the Arctic, and some assessments now treat Barents sea ice as a separate tipping point from the rest of the Arctic sea ice, suggesting that it could permanently disappear once

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5292-482: The Barents Sea, including the ports of Murmansk (Russia) and Vardø (Norway) remain ice -free year-round due to the warm North Atlantic drift . In September, the entire Barents Sea is more or less completely ice-free. From 1920 to 1944, Finland 's territory also reached the Barents Sea. The Liinakhamari harbour in the Pechengsky District was Finland's only ice-free winter harbour until 1944 when it

5418-633: The Commission, Norway and Russia also exchange fishing quotas and catch statistics to ensure the TACs are not being violated. However there are problems with reporting under this system, and researchers believe that they do not have accurate data for the effects of fishing on the Barents Sea ecosystem. Cod is one of the major catches. A large portion of catches are not reported when the fishing boats land, to account for profits that are being lost to high taxes and fees. Since many fishermen do not strictly follow

5544-641: The Federal State Budgetary Institution “Administration of the Northern Sea Route” was created. In 2022 organizational authority  was transferred to the Main Directorate of the Northern Sea Route of Rosatom. Since 2008, the structure of Rosatom includes the Russian nuclear-powered icebreaker , designed to travel the NSR. Beginning in the late 2010s, Russia began improving its defense resources near

5670-696: The Fourth IMO GHG Study 2020, sea cargo transportation is responsible for 2.9% of global emissions. In the next 20 years the trading maritime volume is expected to double. Marine transport produces about 1 gigaton of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions per year and has been struggling for many years to reduce its environmental impact. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has obliged sea carriers to reduce CO 2 emissions by 50% by 2050. Marine transport generates 14% of all transport emissions, and effective techniques that could replace marine engines powered by fossil fuels are not currently used, in

5796-667: The German cruiser Admiral Hipper was severely damaged by British gunfire. The Germans later retreated and the British convoy arrived safely at Murmansk shortly afterwards. During the Cold War , the Soviet Red Banner Northern Fleet used the southern reaches of the sea as a ballistic missile submarine bastion , a strategy that Russia continued. Nuclear contamination from dumped Russian naval reactors

5922-472: The NSR was not recorded. Proponents of using the sea route for global trade claim that because it is considerably shorter than the existing sea routes from Asia to Europe, usage emits less CO 2 , by cutting time at sea, and fuel consumption, by more than half. The distance from Murmansk (Russia) to Yokohama (Japan) through the Suez Canal is 12,840 nautical miles, but only 5,770 nautical miles through

6048-407: The NSR water area. Researchers and economists usually compare the Northern Sea Route with the conventional Suez Canal Route. The first route is shorter, which allow to save on fuel, but it is connected with environmental risks and increased operating costs. However, the above-mentioned research can be considered disputable and incomplete, as it does not consider such factors like the reduced length of

6174-468: The Northern Sea Route (NSR) remains low in comparison to the Suez Canal . Though, the cargo traffic is steadily growing every year. The research shows that the NSR-SCR combined shipping scheme can be more competitive than the use of the Suez Canal Route only. If the shipping company provides sufficient loading on the NSR, uses a reliable ice-class vessel for navigation and the price of crude oil

6300-555: The Northern Sea Route (comparing to the Suez Canal) and, therefore, reduced CO2 emissions; the absence of charge payments for the passage; no risks of a pirate attack; the reduced cost of journey due to its reduced length. Major shipping companies encounter substantial costs due to carbon emissions, whereas the deployment of nuclear icebreakers, which operate without hydrocarbon fuel and produce very low carbon emissions, offers an economic advantage for shippers. Some studies recommend

6426-496: The Northern Sea Route in 2022 was 34.034 million tonnes, slightly less than in 2021. Total number of voyages in 2022 was 2994, made by 314 vessels. In the months from January to July, the number of voyages was higher than in 2021. 280 voyages was made with LNG from the Sabetta port. The volume of cargo transported along the Northern Sea Route (NSR) in 2023 reached a historical maximum and amounted to 36.254 million tons. In 2023,

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6552-605: The Northern Sea Route is a strategically important transport artery, it can already be called economically profitable in comparison, for example, with the Suez Canal due to a number of reasons: As the development of the icebreaking fleet is the most important condition for constant navigation in Arctic waters, another three nuclear icebreakers of Project 22220 are currently being built in St. Petersburg : Yakutiya , Chukotka and Leningrad laid down in January 2024. All nuclear icebreakers of Project 22220 will be able to change

6678-638: The Northern Sea Route may be ice-free by 2030, earlier than the Northwest Passage or Transpolar Sea Route . A 2016 report by the Copenhagen Business School found that large-scale trans-Arctic shipping may become economically viable by 2040. The Russian Maritime Register of Shipping maintains an ice class . The Rosneft corporation often contracts the Zvezda Shipyard to build its LNG carriers , for use with

6804-494: The Northern Sea Route. Two-thirds of the Arctic seas remain ice-free in summer, that is why ships have more route options. In August 2017, the first ship traversed the Northern Sea Route without the use of icebreakers . According to the New York Times , this foreshadows more shipping through the Arctic, as the sea ice melts and makes shipping easier. The Dutch Bureau for Economic Policy Analysis projected in 2015 that

6930-567: The Northern Sea Route. For the corporate players in bulk shipping of relatively low-value raw materials, cost savings for fuel are a crucial driver to explore the Northern Sea Route for commercial transits, more than delivery time, or environmental concerns. Sailing along the NSR can also help to reduce emission costs due to shorter distances. With the maritime industry joining the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) from 2024 and large freight companies receiving huge carbon bills,

7056-546: The SCR toll. State Corporation Rosatom assumes the possibility and functions of the NSR and ensures the safety of navigation on the high technological level. Besides organizing the navigation along the NSR and the icebreaking services with the world's only nuclear icebreaker fleet, Rosatom is planning to implement the Arctic Ice Regime Shipping System (AIRSS) methodology. This system will represent

7182-502: The Soviet Union. Two shallow-draft Taymyr -class nuclear icebreakers were built in Finland for the Soviet Union in the late 1980s. In May 2007, sea trials were completed for the nuclear-powered Russian icebreaker NS 50 Let Pobedy . The vessel was put into service by Murmansk Shipping Company, which manages all eight Russian state-owned nuclear icebreakers. The keel was originally laid in 1989 by Baltic Works of Leningrad , and

7308-531: The TACs and rules set forth by the Commission, the amount of fish being extracted annually from the Barents Sea is underestimated. The Barents Sea, where temperate waters from the Gulf Stream and cold waters from the Arctic meet, is home to an enormous diversity of organisms, which are well-adapted to the extreme conditions of their marine habitats. This makes these arctic species very attractive for marine bioprospecting . Marine bioprospecting may be defined as

7434-596: The altered bow Pilot ' s design from Britnev to make his own icebreaker, Eisbrecher I . The first true modern sea-going icebreaker was built at the turn of the 20th century. Icebreaker Yermak , was built in 1899 at the Armstrong Whitworth naval yard in England under contract from the Imperial Russian Navy . The ship borrowed the main principles from Pilot and applied them to

7560-602: The beginning of the 20th century, several other countries began to operate purpose-built icebreakers. Most were coastal icebreakers, but Canada, Russia, and later, the Soviet Union , also built several oceangoing icebreakers up to 11,000 tons in displacement. Before the first diesel-electric icebreakers were built in the 1930s, icebreakers were either coal- or oil-fired steam ships . Reciprocating steam engines were preferred in icebreakers due to their reliability, robustness, good torque characteristics, and ability to reverse

7686-485: The boundary equidistant from their competing claims. This was ratified and went into force on 7 July 2011, opening the grey zone for hydrocarbon exploration . Encouraged by the success of oil exploration and production in the North Sea in the 1960s , Norway began hydrocarbon exploration in the Barents Sea in 1969. They acquired seismic reflection surveys through the following years, which were analysed to understand

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7812-567: The bow altered to achieve an ice-clearing capability (20° raise from keel line). This allowed Pilot to push herself on the top of the ice and consequently break it. Britnev fashioned the bow of his ship after the shape of old Pomor boats, which had been navigating icy waters of the White Sea and Barents Sea for centuries. Pilot was used between 1864 and 1890 for navigation in the Gulf of Finland between Kronstadt and Oranienbaum thus extending

7938-423: The case of nuclear power, or still in modern era redevelopment, such as wind and solar power. Due to its shorter length, navigation on the NSR contributes to reducing the carbon footprint of maritime transport, although this entails considerable risks for fragile Arctic ecosystems. Taking care of the environmental is in focus when it comes to the development of the Northern Sea Route. For example, Rosatom evaluates

8064-692: The cause of depleting fish stocks, more recent research suggests that marine mammal consumption has only a trivial influence on fisheries. A model assessing the effects of fisheries and climate was far more accurate at describing trends in fish abundance. There is a genetically distinct polar bear population associated with the Barents Sea. The Barents Sea is "among the most polluted places on Earth" due to accumulated marine garbage, decades of Soviet nuclear tests, radioactive waste dumping and industrial pollution. The elevated pollution has caused elevated rates of disease among locals. With rising military buildup and increased use of shipping lanes heading east through

8190-403: The competing claims had an area of 175,000 square kilometres (68,000 sq mi), which is approximately 12% of the total area of the Barents Sea. The two countries started negotiations on the location of the boundary in 1974 and agreed to a moratorium on hydrocarbon exploration in 1976. Twenty years after the fall of the Soviet Union, in 2010 Norway and Russia signed an agreement that placed

8316-466: The contact between the hull of the vessel and the surrounding ice. As ice pressures vary between different regions of the hull, the most reinforced areas in the hull of an icegoing vessel are the bow, which experiences the highest ice loads, and around the waterline, with additional strengthening both above and below the waterline to form a continuous ice belt around the ship. Short and stubby icebreakers are generally built using transverse framing in which

8442-422: The creation of the first polar icebreaker, which was able to run over and crush pack ice . The ship displaced 5,000 tons, and her steam- reciprocating engines delivered 10,000 horsepower (7,500 kW). The ship was decommissioned in 1963 and scrapped in 1964, making her one of the longest serving icebreakers in the world. In Canada, the government needed to provide a way to prevent flooding due to ice jam on

8568-424: The current state of the environment in NSR waters as a part of the joint project with Lomonosov Moscow State University Marine Research Centre (MSU MRC). The project involves studies that cover all components of the environment to determine the impact of maritime traffic at all ecosystem levels by means of experimental methods, special equipment, the development of digital services, and environmental practices. One of

8694-628: The diesel-electric powertrain is the preferred choice for icebreakers due to the good low-speed torque characteristics of the electric propulsion motors, icebreakers have also been built with diesel engines mechanically coupled to reduction gearboxes and controllable pitch propellers . The mechanical powertrain has several advantages over diesel-electric propulsion systems, such as lower weight and better fuel efficiency. However, diesel engines are sensitive to sudden changes in propeller revolutions, and to counter this mechanical powertrains are usually fitted with large flywheels or hydrodynamic couplings to absorb

8820-407: The direction of rotation quickly. During the steam era, the most powerful pre-war steam-powered icebreakers had a propulsion power of about 10,000 shaft horsepower (7,500 kW). The world's first diesel-electric icebreaker was the 4,330-ton Swedish icebreaker Ymer in 1933. At 9,000 hp (6,700 kW) divided between two propellers in the stern and one propeller in the bow, she remained

8946-501: The draft from 10.5 to 8.1 meters, depending on the depth, which will allow them to work both at sea and in the mouths of Siberian rivers. Nuclear icebreakers of Project 22220 are powered by two RITM-200 reactors and capable of overcoming ice up to 3 meters thick. In addition, the Zvezda shipyard is working on the construction of the world's most powerful nuclear icebreaker Project 10510 "Russia", scheduled to commissioning in 2027. It

9072-572: The end of the Age of Sail also featured the egg-shaped form like that of Pomor boats, for example the Fram , used by Fridtjof Nansen and other great Norwegian Polar explorers . Fram was the wooden ship to have sailed farthest north (85°57'N) and farthest south (78°41'S), and one of the strongest wooden ships ever built. An early ship designed to operate in icy conditions was a 51-metre (167 ft) wooden paddle steamer , City Ice Boat No. 1 , that

9198-772: The entire Northern Sea Route between Murmansk and Vladivostok . It was reported in July 2024 that Sibir would escort the light ice-class vessel Xin Xin Hai 1 on its voyage from the Port of Taicang near Shanghai via the Bering Strait and the NSR to the Port of Arkhangelsk before travelling on toward ports in the northern Europe . The New New Shipping Line of Hainan Yangpu , which owns at least two ice-class vessels, completed seven transits between July 2023 and December 2023, and in June 2024 signed an agreement with Rosatom to establish

9324-619: The first North American surface vessels to reach the North Pole. The vessel was originally scheduled to be decommissioned in 2000; however, a refit extended the decommissioning date to 2017. It is now planned to be kept in service through the 2020s pending the introduction of two new polar icebreakers, CCGS  Arpatuuq and CCGS  Imnaryuaq , for the Coast Guard. Russia currently operates all existing and functioning nuclear-powered icebreakers. The first one, NS Lenin ,

9450-535: The first recorded complete man-powered crossing of the Barents Sea from Tromsø to Longyearbyen in a rowboat by the Polar Row expedition, captain Fiann Paul was asked by Norwegian TV2 how a rower would name the Barents Sea. Fiann responded that he would name it "Devil's Jaw", adding that the winds you constantly battle are like breath from the devil's nostrils while he holds you in his jaws. Seabed mapping

9576-511: The fixed pitch propellers. The first diesel-electric icebreakers were built with direct current (DC) generators and propulsion motors, but over the years the technology advanced first to alternating current (AC) generators and finally to frequency-controlled AC-AC systems. In modern diesel-electric icebreakers, the propulsion system is built according to the power plant principle in which the main generators supply electricity for all onboard consumers and no auxiliary engines are needed. Although

9702-403: The formerly Soviet and later Russian icebreakers Ermak , Admiral Makarov and Krasin which have nine twelve-cylinder diesel generators producing electricity for three propulsion motors with a combined output of 26,500 kW (35,500 hp). In the late 2020s, they will be surpassed by the new Canadian polar icebreakers CCGS  Arpatuuq and CCGS  Imnaryuaq , which will have

9828-503: The gas turbines have a continuous combined rating of 45,000 kW (60,000 hp). The number, type and location of the propellers depends on the power, draft and intended purpose of the vessel. Smaller icebreakers and icebreaking special purpose ships may be able to do with just one propeller while large polar icebreakers typically need up to three large propellers to absorb all power and deliver enough thrust. Some shallow draught river icebreakers have been built with four propellers in

9954-462: The global warming exceeds 1.5 degrees. This rapid warming also makes it easier to detect any potential connections between the state of sea ice and weather conditions elsewhere than in any other area. The first study proposing a connection between floating ice decline in the Barents Sea and the neighbouring Kara Sea and more intense winters in Europe was published in 2010, and there has been extensive research into this subject since then. For instance,

10080-429: The heavy weight of the ship pushed down on the ice breaking it. They were used in conjunction with teams of men with axes and saws and the technology behind them didn't change much until the industrial revolution. Ice-strengthened ships were used in the earliest days of polar exploration. These were originally wooden and based on existing designs, but reinforced, particularly around the waterline with double planking to

10206-412: The hull and strengthening cross members inside the ship. Bands of iron were wrapped around the outside. Sometimes metal sheeting was placed at the bows, at the stern, and along the keel. Such strengthening was designed to help the ship push through ice and also to protect the ship in case it was "nipped" by the ice. Nipping occurs when ice floes around a ship are pushed against the ship, trapping it as if in

10332-416: The hull and the ice, and allowed the icebreakers to penetrate thick ice ridges without ramming. However, the bow propellers are not suitable for polar icebreakers operating in the presence of harder multi-year ice and thus have not been used in the Arctic. Azimuth thrusters remove the need of traditional propellers and rudders by having the propellers in steerable gondolas that can rotate 360 degrees around

10458-498: The hydrometeorological, ice, and navigation conditions in the waters of the NSR; vessels navigation in the waters of the NSR; issuance, suspension, renewal, and termination of permits for sailing vessels in the waters of the NSR. To solve these tasks, the department arranges icebreaker fleet vessels in the waters of the NSR, monitors the traffic in the NSR water area, provides information on hydrometeorological, ice, and navigation conditions, and processes information from vessels located in

10584-423: The ice and break it under the weight of the ship. In reality, this only happens in very thick ice where the icebreaker will proceed at walking pace or may even have to repeatedly back down several ship lengths and ram the ice pack at full power. More commonly the ice, which has a relatively low flexural strength , is easily broken and submerged under the hull without a noticeable change in the icebreaker's trim while

10710-654: The ice. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Viking expansion reached the North Atlantic , and eventually Greenland and Svalbard in the Arctic. Vikings , however, operated their ships in the waters that were ice-free for most of the year, in the conditions of the Medieval Warm Period . In the 11th century, in North Russia the coasts of the White Sea , named so for being ice-covered for over half of

10836-403: The icebreaker can also tow the weakest ships. Some icebreakers are also used to support scientific research in the Arctic and Antarctic. In addition to icebreaking capability, the ships need to have reasonably good open-water characteristics for transit to and from the polar regions, facilities and accommodation for the scientific personnel, and cargo capacity for supplying research stations on

10962-405: The joint usage of the two routes where the Northern Sea Route is used in summer when it is almost ice-free, and the Suez Canal Route is sailed in the rest of the year. The researchers also claim that the economic feasibility of the NSR largely depends on its weather conditions. Even though the Arctic ice is melting and Polar routes are being extensively studied, the amount of cargo shipped through

11088-417: The key priorities within project implementation is the ongoing interaction between the international expert community from international environmental research institutes and non-governmental organizations. Over the course of three years, representatives of leading scientific institutions from Norway , Finland , France , Iceland , Great Britain , China , India , Egypt , Malaysia , Turkey took part in

11214-576: The level of ice strengthening in the ship's hull. It is usually determined by the maximum ice thickness where the ship is expected to operate and other requirements such as possible limitations on ramming. While the ice class is generally an indication of the level of ice strengthening, not the actual icebreaking capability of an icebreaker, some classification societies such as the Russian Maritime Register of Shipping have operational capability requirements for certain ice classes. Since

11340-469: The location of ships and icebreakers, port congestion. As a result, users will receive an advanced "ice navigator" that will allow to plot a precise route in view of the changing ice conditions of the NSR. In other words, the study of Sibul et al. proposed a path-finding algorithm for the NSR strategic assessment. It uses real weather as input and find the optimal shipping route. Number of complete through transits per flag state . The total traffic volume on

11466-510: The location of the main sedimentary basins . NorskHydro drilled the first well in 1980, which was a dry hole, and the first discoveries were made the following year: the Alke and Askeladden gas fields. Several more discoveries were made on the Norwegian side of the Barents Sea throughout the 1980s, including the important Snøhvit field . However, interest in the area began to wane due to

11592-412: The more spread-out hull loads. While the shell plating, which is in direct contact with the ice, can be up to 50 millimetres (2.0 in) thick in older polar icebreakers, the use of high strength steel with yield strength up to 500 MPa (73,000 psi) in modern icebreakers results in the same structural strength with smaller material thicknesses and lower steel weight. Regardless of the strength,

11718-588: The most powerful Swedish icebreaker until the commissioning of Oden in 1957. Ymer was followed by the Finnish Sisu , the first diesel-electric icebreaker in Finland, in 1939. Both vessels were decommissioned in the 1970s and replaced by much larger icebreakers in both countries, the 1976-built Sisu in Finland and the 1977-built Ymer in Sweden. In 1941, the United States started building

11844-405: The nation's presence in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. As the icecaps in the Arctic continue to melt, there are more passageways being discovered. These possible navigation routes cause an increase of interests in the polar hemispheres from nations worldwide. The United States polar icebreakers must continue to support scientific research in the expanding Arctic and Antarctic oceans. Every year,

11970-554: The northern areas of Norway play a central role in this strategy. They have excellent access to unique Arctic marine organisms, existing marine industries, and R&D competence and infrastructure in this region. Since 2007, science and industry have cooperated closely on bioprospecting and the development and commercialization of new products. Icebreaker An icebreaker is a special-purpose ship or boat designed to move and navigate through ice -covered waters, and provide safe waterways for other boats and ships. Although

12096-460: The northern/Arctic coast of Russia. A convoy of seven brand new merchant vessels (900 DWT to 5,500 DWT) built for People's Republic of China but under Polish flag from Gdynia with the assistance of Soviet icebreakers reached port of Pevek (via Kara Gates , Vilkitsky , Dmitry Laptev and Sannikov Straits), two days of navigation before Bering Strait in 1956. The administrative entity was sequentially updated, upgraded and renamed. Thus, in 2013,

12222-579: The output of the Trebs and Titov oil fields . The Yamal LNG project of Novatek is another industrial scale development which transports product via the NSR. In July 2018 the Russian government transferred the main responsibility for the Northern Sea Route to Rosatom . Rosatom is a state corporation that manages the world's only nuclear icebreakers. As of 2020 the fleet included seven vessels: Yamal , Project 10521 50 Let Pobedy , Taymyr , Vaygach , Arktika , Siberia and Ural , and as of press date

12348-584: The present. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the "Barentsz Sea" [ sic ] as follows: Other islands in the Barents Sea include Chaichy and Timanets. The Barents Sea was originally formed from two major continental collisions: the Caledonian orogeny , in which the Baltica and Laurentia collided to form Laurasia , and a subsequent collision between Laurasia and Western Siberia. Most of its geological history

12474-503: The project. Barents Sea The Barents Sea ( / ˈ b ær ə n t s / BARR -ənts , also US : / ˈ b ɑːr ə n t s / BAR -ənts ; Norwegian : Barentshavet , Urban East Norwegian: [ˈbɑ̀ːrəntsˌhɑːvə] ; Russian : Баренцево море , romanized :  Barentsevo More ) is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean , located off the northern coasts of Norway and Russia and divided between Norwegian and Russian territorial waters . It

12600-528: The protected object. In the past, such operations were carried out primarily in North America, but today Arctic offshore drilling and oil production is also going on in various parts of the Russian Arctic. The United States Coast Guard uses icebreakers to help conduct search and rescue missions in the icy, polar oceans. United States icebreakers serve to defend economic interests and maintain

12726-504: The record for transit traffic in the waters of the Northern Sea Route was also broken; more than 2.1 million tons of cargo were transported. The growing importance of the NSR as an additional route and source of stability in the global logistics chain may increase significantly due to the fact that more and more of the world's largest shipping companies are avoiding the Red Sea due to the situation with Houthi missile attacks According to

12852-488: The route to gather data on operational feasibility, though they did not currently see it as commercially attractive. Escort assistance was required for three days from the Russian nuclear-powered icebreaker 50 Let Pobedy . In June 2019 Dubai-based DP World signed agreements with the Russian Direct Investment Fund , ROSATOM, and Norilsk Nickel aiming to develop the Northern Sea Route. As

12978-462: The savings on the EU ETS from reducing emissions could be in addition to the economic benefits for shippers. The route was first conquered by Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld 's Vega expedition with a single wintering in 1878–79. The Northern Sea Route is one of several Arctic shipping routes . Since the mid-1930s the Northern Sea Route has been an officially managed and administered shipping route along

13104-439: The search for bioactive molecules and compounds from marine sources that have new, unique properties and the potential for commercial applications. Amongst others, applications include medicines, food and feed, textiles, cosmetics and the process industry. The Norwegian government strategically supports the development of marine bioprospecting as it has the potential to contribute to new and sustainable wealth creation. Tromsø and

13230-399: The shell plating is stiffened with frames placed about 400 to 1,000 millimetres (1 to 3 ft) apart as opposed to longitudinal framing used in longer ships. Near the waterline, the frames running in vertical direction distribute the locally concentrated ice loads on the shell plating to longitudinal girders called stringers, which in turn are supported by web frames and bulkheads that carry

13356-489: The ship was launched in 1993 as NS Ural . This icebreaker is intended to be the sixth and last of the Arktika class. Today, most icebreakers are needed to keep trade routes open where there are either seasonal or permanent ice conditions. While the merchant vessels calling ports in these regions are strengthened for navigation in ice , they are usually not powerful enough to manage the ice by themselves. For this reason, in

13482-511: The shore. Countries such as Argentina and South Africa , which do not require icebreakers in domestic waters, have research icebreakers for carrying out studies in the polar regions. As offshore drilling moves to the Arctic seas, icebreaking vessels are needed to supply cargo and equipment to the drilling sites and protect the drillships and oil platforms from ice by performing ice management, which includes for example breaking drifting ice into smaller floes and steering icebergs away from

13608-455: The so-called h - v -curve to determine the icebreaking capability of the vessel. It shows the speed ( v ) that the ship is able to achieve as a function of ice thickness ( h ). This is done by calculating the velocity at which the thrust from the propellers equals the combined hydrodynamic and ice resistance of the vessel. An alternative means to determine the icebreaking capability of a vessel in different ice conditions such as pressure ridges

13734-654: The south, the shelf edge towards the Norwegian Sea to the west, the archipelagos of Svalbard to the northwest, Franz Josef Land to the northeast and Novaya Zemlya to the east. The islands of Novaya Zemlya, an extension of the northern end of the Ural Mountains , separate the Barents Sea from the Kara Sea . Although part of the Arctic Ocean, the Barents Sea has been characterised as "turning into

13860-425: The steel used in the hull structures of an icebreaker must be capable of resisting brittle fracture in low ambient temperatures and high loading conditions, both of which are typical for operations in ice-filled waters. If built according to the rules set by a classification society such as American Bureau of Shipping , Det Norske Veritas or Lloyd's Register , icebreakers may be assigned an ice class based on

13986-474: The stern. Nozzles may be used to increase the thrust at lower speeds, but they may become clogged by ice. Until the 1980s, icebreakers operating regularly in ridged ice fields in the Baltic Sea were fitted with first one and later two bow propellers to create a powerful flush along the hull of the vessel. This considerably increased the icebreaking capability of the vessels by reducing the friction between

14112-523: The summer navigation season by several weeks. Inspired by the success of Pilot , Mikhail Britnev built a second similar vessel Boy ("Breakage" in Russian) in 1875 and a third Booy ("Buoy" in Russian) in 1889. The cold winter of 1870–1871 caused the Elbe River and the port of Hamburg to freeze over, causing a prolonged halt to navigation and huge commercial losses. Carl Ferdinand Steinhaus reused

14238-538: The term usually refers to ice-breaking ships , it may also refer to smaller vessels, such as the icebreaking boats that were once used on the canals of the United Kingdom . For a ship to be considered an icebreaker, it requires three traits most normal ships lack: a strengthened hull , an ice-clearing shape, and the power to push through sea ice . Icebreakers clear paths by pushing straight into frozen-over water or pack ice . The bending strength of sea ice

14364-490: The torque variations resulting from propeller-ice interaction. The 1969-built Canadian polar icebreaker CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent was one of the few icebreakers fitted with steam boilers and turbogenerators that produced power for three electric propulsion motors. It was later refitted with five diesel engines, which provide better fuel economy than steam turbines. Later Canadian icebreakers were built with diesel-electric powertrain. Two Polar-class icebreakers operated by

14490-406: The vessel moves forward at a relatively high and constant speed. When an icebreaker is designed, one of the main goals is to minimize the forces resulting from crushing and breaking the ice, and submerging the broken floes under the vessel. The average value of the longitudinal components of these instantaneous forces is called the ship's ice resistance. Naval architects who design icebreakers use

14616-490: The vessel. The external components of the ship's propulsion system ( propellers , propeller shafts , etc.) are at greater risk of damage than the vessel's hull, so the ability of an icebreaker to propel itself onto the ice, break it, and clear the debris from its path successfully is essential for its safety. Prior to ocean-going ships, ice breaking technology was developed on inland canals and rivers using laborers with axes and hooks. The first recorded primitive icebreaker ship

14742-498: The world's only transport vessel with nuclear power plant : the Sevmorput (1988). The last three nuclear icebreakers are the latest of Project 22220 . Rosatom also provides navigation and hydrographic support in the waters of the Northern Sea Route, develops the infrastructure of sea harbors, and manages the state property of these ports. In August 2018 Maersk Line sent the new "ice-class" container ship Venta Maersk through

14868-590: Was a barge used by the Belgian town of Bruges in 1383 to help clear the town moat. The efforts of the ice-breaking barge were successful enough to warrant the town purchasing four such ships. Ice breaking barges continued to see use during the colder winters of the Little Ice Age with growing use in the Low Country where significant amounts of trade and transport of people and goods took place. In

14994-506: Was built for the city of Philadelphia by Vandusen & Birelyn in 1837. The ship was powered by two 250- horsepower (190 kW) steam engines and her wooden paddles were reinforced with iron coverings. With a rounded shape and strong metal hull, the Russian Pilot of 1864 was an important predecessor of modern icebreakers with propellers. The ship was built on the orders of merchant and shipbuilder Mikhail Britnev . She had

15120-471: Was ceded to the Soviet Union . There are three main types of water masses in the Barents Sea: Warm, salty Atlantic water (temperature >3 °C, salinity >35) from the North Atlantic drift ; cold Arctic water (temperature <0 °C, salinity <35) from the north; and warm, but not very salty, coastal water (temperature >3 °C, salinity <34.7). Between the Atlantic and Polar waters,

15246-452: Was completed at Lauzon, Quebec. A considerably bigger and more powerful ship than Labrador , John A.Macdonald was an ocean-going icebreaker able to meet the most rigorous polar conditions. Her diesel-electric machinery of 15,000 horsepower (11,000 kW) was arranged in three units transmitting power equally to each of three shafts. Canada's largest and most powerful icebreaker, the 120-metre (390 ft) CCGS  Louis S. St-Laurent ,

15372-452: Was completed in 1933; the first full map was produced by Russian marine geologist Maria Klenova . The Barents Sea was the site of a notable World War II engagement which later became known as the Battle of the Barents Sea . Under the command of Oskar Kummetz , German warships sank minelayer HMS Bramble and destroyer HMS  Achates but lost destroyer Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt . Also,

15498-471: Was delivered in 1969. Her original three steam turbine, nine generator, and three electric motor system produces 27,000 shaft horsepower (20,000 kW). A multi-year mid-life refit project (1987–1993) saw the ship get a new bow, and a new propulsion system. The new power plant consists of five diesels, three generators, and three electric motors, giving about the same propulsion power. On 22 August 1994 Louis S. St-Laurent and USCGC  Polar Sea became

15624-530: Was known earlier among Russians as the Northern Sea, Pomorsky Sea or Murman Sea ("Norse Sea"); the current name of the sea is after the historical Dutch navigator Willem Barentsz . The Barents Sea is a rather shallow shelf sea with an average depth of 230 metres (750 ft), and it is an important site for both fishing and hydrocarbon exploration . It is bordered by the Kola Peninsula to

15750-581: Was launched in 1957 and entered operation in 1959, before being officially decommissioned in 1989. It was both the world's first nuclear-powered surface ship and the first nuclear-powered civilian vessel . The second Soviet nuclear icebreaker was NS Arktika , the lead ship of the Arktika class . In service since 1975, she was the first surface ship to reach the North Pole , on August 17, 1977. Several nuclear-powered icebreakers were also built outside

15876-452: Was protected by a belt of ice-floe resistant flush skin-planking along the variable water-line, and had a false keel for on-ice portage . If a koch became squeezed by the ice-fields, its rounded bodylines below the water-line would allow for the ship to be pushed up out of the water and onto the ice with no damage. In the 19th century, similar protective measures were adopted to modern steam-powered icebreakers. Some notable sailing ships in

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