102-526: Martial race was a designation which was created by army officials in British India after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , in which they classified each caste as belonging to one of two categories, the 'martial' caste and the 'non-martial' caste. The ostensible reason for this system of classification was the belief that a 'martial race' was typically brave and well-built for fighting, while
204-609: A baronet on 11 June 1881) was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Madras Army on 16 November 1881. Promoted to the substantive rank of lieutenant general on 26 July 1883, he became Commander-in-Chief, India , on 28 November 1885 and was advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (KCIE) on 15 February 1887 and to Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (GCIE) on reorganisation of
306-831: A Knight of Grace of the Order of St John on 11 March 1901 and then a Knight of Justice of that order on 3 July 1901. He was also awarded the German Order of the Black Eagle during the Kaiser's visit to the United Kingdom in February 1901. He was among the original recipients of the Order of Merit in the 1902 Coronation Honours list published on 26 June 1902, and received the order from King Edward VII at Buckingham Palace on 8 August 1902. Lord Roberts became
408-655: A chance to discuss hypothetical orders and to threaten to resign) and left a note for Hubert Gough to this effect. This note influenced the Gough brothers in being willing to remain in the Army, albeit with a written guarantee that the Army would not have to act against Ulster. After Roberts's lobbying, the King insisted that Asquith make no further troop movements in Ulster without consulting him. Roberts wrote to French (22 March) denying
510-730: A chief commissioner: At the time of independence in 1947, British India had 17 provinces: Upon the Partition of India into the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan , eleven provinces (Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Bihar, Bombay, Central Provinces and Berar, Coorg, Delhi, Madras, Panth-Piploda, Orissa, and the United Provinces) joined India, three (Baluchistan, North-West Frontier and Sindh) joined Pakistan, and three ( Punjab , Bengal and Assam ) were partitioned between India and Pakistan. In 1950, after
612-547: A dying John Nicholson amidst the chaos of the battle. He was then present at the relief of Lucknow where, as Deputy Assistant Quartermaster-General, he was attached to the staff of Sir Colin Campbell , Commander-in-Chief, India . He was awarded the Victoria Cross for actions on 2 January 1858 at Khudaganj . The citation reads: Lieutenant Roberts' gallantry has on every occasion been most marked. On following
714-500: A history of conflict. Others were excluded due to their 'ease of living' or branded as seditious agitators. The doctrine of 'martial races' postulated that the qualities that make a useful soldier are inherited in certain races by birth, and that the rest of the Indian races did not have the requisite traits that would make them warriors. British general and scholar Lieutenant-General George MacMunn (1869–1952) noted in his writings "It
816-432: A legislative power existed in such places. The same two kinds of management applied for districts. Thus Ganjam and Vizagapatam were non-regulation districts. Non-regulation provinces included: At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a governor or a lieutenant-governor. The following table lists their areas and populations (but does not include those of
918-663: A letter to the Prime Minister , urging him not to cause a split in the army. Roberts had asked the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS) John French to come and see him at Ascot on 19 March; French had been too busy but invited Roberts to visit him when next in London. On the morning of 21 March Roberts and French had an acrimonious telephone conversation in which Roberts told French that he would share
1020-511: A mass attack and reoccupied the city. In May 1880, Lieutenant General Sir Donald Stewart arrived in Kabul from Kandahar with a further 7,200 troops, taking over the Kabul command from Roberts. After the defeat of a British brigade at Maiwand near Kandahar on 27 July 1880, Roberts was appointed commander of the Kabul and Kandahar Field Force. He led his 10,000 troops across 300 miles of rough terrain to relieve Kandahar and defeat Ayub Khan at
1122-512: A report published by the Inter-Services Public Relations claimed success bringing the army's composition closer to national demographics; the proportion of Punjabis in the army had fallen from 71% in 2001 to 57% in 2007, and was expected to reach 54% by 2011. In turn, the proportion of Sindhis was expected to increase from 15% to 17%, and Balochis from 3.2% in 2007 to 4% in 2011. The report also projected an increase in
SECTION 10
#17327756224861224-484: A small part of Burma, and by 1886, almost two thirds of Burma had been made part of British India. This arrangement lasted until 1937, when Burma was reorganized as a separate British colony. British India did not apply to other countries in the region, such as Sri Lanka (then Ceylon ), which was a British Crown colony , or the Maldive Islands , which were a British protectorate . At its greatest extent, in
1326-793: A time when the British Empire reached the height of its power. He became a symbol for the British Army and in later life became an influential proponent of stronger defence in response to the increasing threat that the German Empire posed to Britain in the lead up to the First World War . Born at Cawnpore , India, on 30 September 1832, Roberts was the son of General Sir Abraham Roberts , who had been born into an Anglo-Irish family in County Waterford in
1428-463: Is only necessary for a feeling to arise that it is impious and disgraceful to serve the British, for the whole of our fabric to tumble like a house of cards without a shot being fired or a sword unsheathed". To this end, it became British policy to recruit only from those tribes whom they classified as members of the 'martial races', and the practice became an integral part of the recruitment manuals for
1530-639: Is the President's Bodyguard , the most senior and arguably the most prestigious unit of the Indian Army , which recruits exclusively from Sikhs, Jats and Rajputs in equal proportion. The Indian government has defended what it terms as "class composition" restrictions on the grounds of the "functional requirements" of the ceremonial detachment, namely its "ceremonial duties [which] demand common height, built, appearance and dress for reason of pomp and projection". Sikhs continue to be strongly over-represented in
1632-513: The insinuation that the German Government's views of international policy are less scrupulous and more cynical than those of other Governments...Prussia's character among nations is, in fact, not very different from the character which Lancashire men give to themselves as compared with other Englishmen. It is blunt, straightforward, and unsentimental. The Nation claimed Roberts had an "unimaginative soldier's brain" and that Germany
1734-660: The Anandpur Sahib Resolution called for "the present ratio of their strength in the Army should be maintained". Major General Jaswant Singh Bhullar complained that Sikhs were having trouble joining the armed forces due to religious quotas, which may have fueled the Sikh insurgency and Sikh migration abroad . Lieutenant General Joginder Singh Dhillon complained that migration abroad was leading an officer shortage, measured at 13,000, which may lead to lowering of education standards and test scores. At independence,
1836-671: The Battle of Buxar , the Company obtained the Diwani of Bengal, which included the right to administer and collect land-revenue (land tax) in Bengal , the region of present-day Bangladesh, West Bengal, Jharkhand and Bihar beginning from 1772 as per the treaty signed in 1765. By 1773, the Company obtained the Nizāmat of Bengal (the "exercise of criminal jurisdiction") and thereby full sovereignty of
1938-627: The Battle of Kandahar on 1 September 1880. For his services, Roberts again received the thanks of Parliament, and was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) on 21 September 1880 and appointed Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire (CIE) during 1880. After a very brief interval as Governor of Natal and Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the Transvaal Province and High Commissioner for South Eastern Africa with effect from 7 March 1881, Roberts (having become
2040-587: The Battle of Peiwar Kotal in December 1878, he received the thanks of Parliament , was promoted to the substantive rank of major general on 31 December 1878 and was advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) on 25 July 1879. The Treaty of Gandamak of May 1879 brought peace with Afghanistan. However, after the murder of Sir Louis Cavagnari , the British envoy in Kabul , in September 1879,
2142-707: The Bengalis of East Pakistan , who felt humiliated by the continued belief in the theory which continued to hold sway in West Pakistan , that they were not 'martially inclined' compared to the Punjabis and Pashtuns . Pakistani author Hasan-Askari Rizvi notes that the limited recruitment of Bengali personnel in the Pakistan Army was because the West Pakistanis "could not overcome the hangover of
SECTION 20
#17327756224862244-491: The British Indian Army had come from Punjab , with Sikhs and Punjabi Muslims particularly preferred, with the result that at independence over 90% of the new Indian Armed Forces ' senior officers came from East Punjab despite the fact that it made up just 5% of the new country's population. Recognizing the destabilising potential of an unrepresentative armed forces, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru soon urged
2346-623: The British Raj . One source calls this a "pseudo- ethnological " construction, which was popularised by Frederick Sleigh Roberts , and created serious deficiencies in troop levels during the World Wars , compelling them to recruit from 'non-martial races'. Winston Churchill was reportedly concerned that the theory was abandoned during the war and wrote to the Commander-in-Chief, India that he must, "rely as much as possible on
2448-521: The Commander-in-Chief, India and Defence Secretary to undertake "large scale reform to the armed forces”. However, while most caste or tribal bars on recruitment were lifted, recruitment in regions populated by the former "martial races" was progressively intensified, with the result that by the beginning of the 1970s, India had more than doubled the number of "martial class" units. The Punjab Regiment , which recruits mainly Sikhs and Dogras , had gone from five to 29 battalions since independence, while
2550-616: The East India Company Army as a second lieutenant with the Bengal Artillery on 12 December 1851. He became Aide-de-Camp to his father in 1852, transferred to the Bengal Horse Artillery in 1854 and was promoted to lieutenant on 31 May 1857. Roberts fought in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , seeing action during the siege and capture of Delhi where he was slightly wounded, and found
2652-571: The Indian Empire . India was divided into British India, regions that were directly administered by the British, with acts established and passed in the British parliament, and the princely states , ruled by local rulers of different ethnic backgrounds. These rulers were allowed a measure of internal autonomy in exchange for recognition of British suzerainty . British India constituted a significant portion of India both in area and population; in 1910, for example, it covered approximately 54% of
2754-759: The Lushai campaign of 1871–1872. He was promoted to the substantive rank of major on 5 July 1872, appointed Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) on 10 September 1872 and promoted to brevet colonel on 30 January 1875. That year he became Quartermaster-General of the Bengal Army. He was given command of the Kurram Valley Field Force in October 1878 and took part in the Second Anglo-Afghan War . For his success at
2856-749: The National Smallbore Rifle Association . In retirement he was a keen advocate of introducing compulsory military training in Britain, to prepare for a great European war. He campaigned for this as president of the National Service League , holding the post from 1905 until 1914. In 1907 a selection of his speeches was published under the title A Nation in Arms . Roberts provided William Le Queux with information for his novel The Invasion of 1910 and checked
2958-561: The Pakistan Army 's establishment in 1947, Punjab , with 25% of the new nation's population, accounted for 72% of the Army's headcount, while East Bengal , with 55% of the total population, was virtually unrepresented. In the Armoured Corps , there was not a single Muslim member from Sindh, Balochistan or Bengal, which together comprised 70% of Pakistan's total population. This imbalance created tensions, particularly amongst
3060-487: The Rajputana Rifles , which is mainly composed of Jats and Rajputs , increased from six to 21 battalions over the same time period. The three states that comprised the former East Punjab — Haryana , Himachal Pradesh , and Punjab —remain substantially over-represented in the contemporary Indian Armed Forces. In the 1968-1971 period, Haryana, which accounted for 2.2% of India's population, accounted for 7.82% of
3162-603: The Second Anglo-Afghan War , in which his exploits earned him widespread fame. Roberts would go on to serve as the Commander-in-Chief, India , before leading British Forces for a year during the Second Boer War . He also became the last Commander-in-Chief of the Forces before the post was abolished in 1904. A man of small stature, Roberts was affectionately known to his troops and the wider British public as "Bobs" and revered as one of Britain's leading military figures at
Martial race - Misplaced Pages Continue
3264-668: The Volunteer Force . His long list of honorary military posts included: honorary colonel of the 2nd London Corps from 24 September 1887, honorary colonel of the 5th Battalion, the Sherwood Foresters (Derbyshire Regiment) from 29 December 1888, honorary colonel of the 1st Newcastle upon Tyne (Western Division), Royal Artillery from 18 April 1894, honorary colonel of the Waterford Artillery (Southern Division) from 4 March 1896, colonel-commandant of
3366-697: The downhill ski race. The Kandahar Ski Club , founded by Lunn, was named after the Cup and subsequently lent its name to the Arlberg-Kandahar ski race . The name Kandahar is still used for the premier races of the FIS Alpine Ski World Cup circuit. He took part in the funeral processions following the deaths of Queen Victoria in January 1901 and King Edward VII in May 1910. Roberts
3468-581: The independence of Bangladesh . Furthermore, it has been alleged that the continued influence of the theory among the command of the Pakistan Armed Forces , whose rank and file had largely drawn from the martial races, contributed to an otherwise unjustified confidence that they would easily defeat India in a war, especially prior to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 . Based on this belief in martial supremacy numerical superiority of
3570-421: The kilted Scots, kukri -wielding Gurkhas and turbaned Sikhs in numerous paintings. Richard Schultz, an American author, has claimed the martial race concept as a supposedly clever British effort to divide and rule the people of India for their own political ends. British-declared martial races in the Indian subcontinent included some groups that were officially designated instead as "agricultural tribes" under
3672-524: The "swine and robbers" comment, although French's reply stressed his hurt that Roberts had thought so ill of him. Roberts died of pneumonia at St Omer , France, on 14 November 1914 while visiting Indian troops fighting in the First World War . His body was taken to Ascot by special train for a funeral service on 18 November before being taken to London. After lying in state in Westminster Hall (one of only two people who were not members of
3774-537: The 'non-martial races' were those races which the British considered unfit for battle because of their sedentary lifestyles . The British had a policy of recruiting the martial Indians from those who has less access to education as they were easier to control. According to modern historian Jeffrey Greenhut on military history, "The Martial Race theory had an elegant symmetry. Indians who were intelligent and educated were defined as cowards, while those defined as brave were uneducated and backward". According to Amiya Samanta,
3876-840: The 3rd (Dundee Highland) Volunteer Battalion, the Black Watch (Royal Highlanders) from 19 September 1903, honorary colonel of the North Somerset Yeomanry from 1 April 1908, honorary colonel of the 6th Battalion, the City of London (Rifles') Regiment from 1 April 1908, honorary colonel of the 1st Wessex Brigade from 1 April 1908, honorary colonel of 6th Battalion, The Gloucestershire Regiment from 1 April 1908, honorary colonel of The Waterford Royal Field Reserve Artillery from 2 August 1908 and honorary colonel of 1st (Hull) Battalion, The East Yorkshire Regiment from 11 November 1914 (three days before his death). Additionally he
3978-498: The Army in the British Raj. The British regarded the 'martial races' as valiant and strong but also intellectually inferior, lacking the initiative or leadership qualities to command large military formations. They were also regarded as politically subservient or docile to authority. For these reasons, the martial races theory did not lead to officers being recruited from them; recruitment was based on social class and loyalty to
4080-719: The Boer republics' main towns occupied, and the war apparently effectively over, on 12 December 1900 Roberts handed over command to Lord Kitchener . Roberts returned to England to receive yet more honours: he was made a Knight Companion of the Order of the Garter and also created Earl Roberts , of Kandahar in Afghanistan and Pretoria in the Transvaal Colony and of the City of Waterford , and Viscount St Pierre . He became
4182-622: The British Empire. The concept already had a precedent in Indian culture as one of the four orders ( varnas ) in the Vedic social system of Hinduism is known as the Kshatriya , literally "warriors". Brahmins were described as 'the oldest martial community', in the past having two of the oldest British Indian regiments, the 1st Brahmans and 3rd Brahmans . Now, except a clan known as Gaur whose habits are simpler, very few are found in
Martial race - Misplaced Pages Continue
4284-659: The East India Company Army to the Indian Army that year. Having been promoted to second captain on 12 November 1860 and to brevet major on 13 November 1860, Roberts transferred to the British Army in 1861 and served in the Umbeyla and Abyssinian campaigns of 1863 and 1867–1868 respectively. Having been promoted to brevet lieutenant colonel on 15 August 1868 and to the substantive rank of captain on 18 November 1868, Roberts also fought in
4386-429: The East India Company's victories at the Battle of Plassey (1757), and Battle of Buxar (1764)—both within the Bengal Presidency established in 1765—and the abolition of local rule (Nizamat) in Bengal in 1793, the company gradually began to formally expand its territories across India . By the mid-19th century, and after the three Anglo-Maratha Wars and the four Anglo-Mysore Wars , the East India Company had become
4488-410: The Indian Army model in the midst of the war. The resulting chaos and shortage of supplies contributed to a severe typhoid epidemic that inflicted far heavier losses on the British forces than they suffered in combat. On 3 May, Roberts resumed his offensive towards the Transvaal , capturing its capital Pretoria on 31 May. Having defeated the Boers at Diamond Hill and linked up with Buller, he won
4590-399: The King had recently spoken, had complained that Roberts was "at the bottom" of the matter, had incited Gough, and had called the politicians "swine and robbers" in his phone conversation with French. Roberts indignantly denied this, claiming that he had not been in contact with Gough for "years" and that he had advised officers not to resign. Roberts's claim may not be the whole truth as Gough
4692-440: The Madras Presidency (or the Presidency of Fort St. George), the Bombay Presidency, and the Bengal Presidency (or the Presidency of Fort William)—each administered by a governor. After Robert Clive 's victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the puppet government of a new Nawab of Bengal , was maintained by the East India Company. However, after the invasion of Bengal by the Nawab of Oudh in 1764 and his subsequent defeat in
4794-433: The Order on 21 June 1887. This was followed by his promotion to a supernumerary general on 28 November 1890 and to the substantive rank of general on 31 December 1891. On 23 February 1892, he was created Baron Roberts , of Kandahar in Afghanistan and of the City of Waterford . After relinquishing his Indian command and becoming Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India (GCSI) on 3 June 1893, Roberts
4896-454: The RMS Dunottar Castle to take overall command of British forces in the Second Boer War , subordinating the previous commander, General Redvers Buller . He arrived in Cape Town on 10 January 1900. His appointment was a response to a string of defeats in the early weeks of the war and was accompanied by the despatch of huge reinforcements. For his headquarters staff, he appointed military men from far and wide: Kitchener (Chief of Staff) from
4998-501: The Royal Artillery from 7 October 1896, honorary colonel of the 3rd Battalion, Loyal North Lancashire Regiment from 1 January 1898, honorary colonel of the City of London Imperial Volunteers from 10 March 1900, honorary colonel of the 3rd Volunteer Battalion, the Gloucestershire Regiment from 5 September 1900, colonel of the Irish Guards from 17 October 1900, honorary colonel of the 2nd Hampshire (Southern Division), Royal Garrison Artillery from 15 August 1901, honorary colonel of
5100-402: The Sudan, Frederick Burnham (Chief of Scouts), the American scout, from the Klondike, George Henderson from the Staff College, Neville Chamberlain from Afghanistan and William Nicholson (Military Secretary) from Calcutta. Roberts launched a two-pronged offensive, personally leading the advance across the open veldt into the Orange Free State , while Buller sought to eject the Boers from
5202-401: The Thirties". Roberts became vice-president of the Public Schools Alpine Sports Club during 1903. Eight years later on 11 January 1911, the Roberts of Kandahar Challenge Cup (so named because Roberts donated the trophy cup ) was organised at Crans-Montana (Crans-sur-Sierre) by winter sports pioneer Arnold Lunn . An important part of the history of skiing , the races was a forerunner of
SECTION 50
#17327756224865304-401: The VC. Today, their Victoria Crosses are in the National Army Museum . His barony and baronetcy became extinct, but, by the special remainder granted with them, he was succeeded in the earldom and viscountcy by his elder surviving daughter, Aileen. She was succeeded by her younger sister, Ada Edwina. In March 1898, a statue of Lord Roberts, sculpted by Harry Bates , was unveiled on
5406-454: The ability of the small British force to cope. The camps lacked space, food, sanitation, medicine, and medical care, leading to rampant disease and a very high death rate for those Boers who entered. By the war's end, 26,370 women and children (81% were children) had died in the concentration camps. For a brief period in 1900, Roberts also authorised the army's use of civilian hostages for the protection of trains from Boer guerrilla units. With
5508-543: The administrative divisions of British governance on the Indian subcontinent . Collectively, they have been called British India . In one form or another, they existed between 1612 and 1947, conventionally divided into three historical periods: "British India" did not include the many princely states which continued to be ruled by Indian princes, though by the 19th century under British suzerainty —their defence, foreign relations, and communications relinquished to British authority and their internal rule closely monitored. At
5610-418: The adoption of free trade had not happened. He further warned of the threat posed by Germany: In the year 1912, just as in 1866 and just as in 1870 , war will take place the instant the German forces by land and sea are, by their superiority at every point, as certain of victory as anything in human calculation can be made certain...We may stand still. Germany always advances and the direction of her advance,
5712-410: The area and included over 77% of the population. In addition, there were Portuguese and French exclaves in India. Independence from British rule was achieved in 1947 with the formation of two nations, the Dominions of India and Pakistan , the latter including East Bengal , present-day Bangladesh . The term British India also applied to Burma for a shorter time period: beginning in 1824,
5814-417: The armed forces despite the discontinuation of the marital race theory. While religious data of soldiers is not collected, the number of religious preachers for each group in the Army was disclosed by the government to the Lok Sabha in early 1997, a number believed to proportionate to the number of each religion's adherents in the army, and indicated that over 10% of the Army was Sikh as opposed to under 2% of
5916-522: The armed forces' headcount; the figures for Himachal Pradesh were 0.6% of the population, and 4.68% of the armed forces, and for Punjab, 2.6% of the population and 15.3% of the armed forces. By the 1996-97 period, the proportion of the armed forces coming from each state had fallen from 4.7% to 4.4% to Himachal Pradesh, from 7.8% to 5.1% in Haryana, and from 15.3% to 7.6% in Punjab. Explicit ethnic- or caste-based requirements have nevertheless persisted amongst some military formations. The most notable instance
6018-562: The army. Following the transfer of the British Indian Armed forces to the Indian Armed forces, these communities continued to have a high representation. Following Indian independence, the Indian government in February 1949 abolished the official application of "martial race" principles with regard to military recruitment, although it has continued to be applied formally and informally in certain circumstances. In Pakistan, such principles, although no longer rigidly enforced, have continued to hold considerable sway and have had major consequences for
6120-476: The blame if he collaborated with the Cabinet's "dastardly" attempt to coerce Ulster, and then, after French told him that he would "do his duty as a soldier" and obey lawful orders, put the phone down on him. Soon after, Roberts received a telegram from Hubert Gough , purporting to ask for advice, although possibly designed to goad him into further action. Roberts requested an audience with King George V , who told him that Seely (Secretary of State for War), to whom
6222-422: The company established its first factory at Hoogly in 1640. Almost a half-century later, after Mughal Emperor Aurengzeb forced the company out of Hooghly for its tax evasion, Job Charnock was tenant of three small villages, later renamed Calcutta , in 1686, making it the company's new headquarters. By the mid-18th century, the three principal trading settlements including factories and forts, were then called
SECTION 60
#17327756224866324-470: The daughter of Captain John Bews on 17 May 1859. The couple suffered repeated "great sorrow" with the deaths of their first three children, two daughters and a son, in infancy, but two more daughters and a son survived to adulthood. Roberts' surviving son, The Hon. Frederick Roberts , VC, was killed in action on 17 December 1899 at the Battle of Colenso during the Boer War. Roberts and his son were one of only three pairs of fathers and sons to be awarded
6426-417: The defeat of Tipu Sultan in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War more of his territory was annexed to the Madras Presidency. In 1801, Carnatic , which had been under the suzerainty of the company, began to be directly administered by it as a part of the Madras Presidency. By 1851, the East India Company's vast and growing holdings across the sub-continent were still grouped into just four main territories: By
6528-438: The dependent native states): During the partition of Bengal (1905–1912), a new lieutenant-governor's province of Eastern Bengal and Assam existed. In 1912, the partition was partially reversed, with the eastern and western halves of Bengal re-united and the province of Assam re-established; a new lieutenant-governor's province of Bihar and Orissa was also created. In addition, there were a few provinces that were administered by
6630-451: The early 20th century, the territory of British India extended as far as the frontiers of Persia in the west; Afghanistan in the northwest; Nepal in the north, Tibet in the northeast; and China, French Indochina and Siam in the east. It also included the Aden Province in the Arabian Peninsula . The East India Company , which was incorporated on 31 December 1600, established trade relations with Indian rulers in Masulipatam on
6732-452: The east coast in 1611 and Surat on the west coast in 1612. The company rented a small trading outpost in Madras in 1639. Bombay, which was ceded to the British Crown by Portugal as part of the wedding dowry of Catherine of Braganza in 1661, was in turn granted to the East India Company to be held in trust for the Crown. Meanwhile, in eastern India , after obtaining permission from the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to trade with Bengal,
6834-438: The expanded Bengal Presidency . During the period, 1773 to 1785, very little changed; the only exceptions were the addition of the dominions of the Raja of Banares to the western boundary of the Bengal Presidency, and the addition of Salsette Island to the Bombay Presidency . Portions of the Kingdom of Mysore were annexed to the Madras Presidency after the Third Anglo-Mysore War ended in 1792. Next, in 1799, after
6936-444: The foe could be overcome. Defence writers in Pakistan have noted that the 1971 defeat was partially attributable to the flawed 'martial races' theory which led to wishful thinking that it was possible to defeat the Bengali Rebel Forces based on the theory alone. Author Stephen P. Cohen notes that "Elevating the 'martial races' theory to the level of an absolute truth had domestic implications for Pakistani politics and contributed to
7038-400: The general population. Notably, the Sikh Regiment and Sikh Light Infantry are largely homogenous regiments with around 20 battalions highly used as a strike force, with the Sikh Regiment being the most decorated regiment in the Indian Army. Sikhs compose up to 20% of the Indian Army officer corps. Nonetheless, Sikhs have alleged that their proportion in the armed forces has been dropping, and
7140-479: The hills of Natal – during which Lord Roberts's son was killed, earning a posthumous V.C. Having raised the Siege of Kimberley , at the Battle of Paardeberg on 27 February 1900 Roberts forced the Boer General Piet Cronjé to surrender with some 4,000 men. After another victory at Poplar Grove , Roberts captured the Free State capital Bloemfontein on 13 March. His further advance was delayed by his disastrous attempt to reorganise his army's logistic system on
7242-453: The last Commander-in-Chief of the Forces on 3 January 1901. During his time in office he introduced the Short Magazine Lee Enfield Rifle and the 18-pounder Gun and provided improved education and training for soldiers. In September 1902, Lord Roberts and St John Brodrick , Secretary of State for War, visited Germany to attend the German army manoeuvres as guest of the Emperor Wilhelm. He served as Commander-in-Chief for three years before
7344-400: The last victory of his career at Bergendal on 27 August. Strategies devised by Roberts, to force the Boer commandos to submit, included concentration camps and the burning of farms. Conditions in the concentration camps, which had been conceived by Roberts as a form of control of the families whose farms he had destroyed, began to degenerate rapidly as the large influx of Boers outstripped
7446-611: The line along which she is moving, is now most manifest. It is towards...complete supremacy by land and sea. He claimed that Germany was making enormous efforts to prepare for war and ended his speech by saying: Gentlemen, only the other day I completed my eightieth year...and the words I am speaking to-day are, therefore, old words—the result of years of earnest thought and practical experience. But, Gentlemen, my fellow-citizens and fellow-Britishers, citizens of this great and sacred trust, this Empire, if these were my last words, I still should say to you—"arm yourselves" and if I put to myself
7548-512: The martial race theory". As a result, in 1955, out of the Pakistan Army's 908-strong officer corps, 894 hailed from West Pakistan and a mere 14 from East Pakistan. Thus, following the coup d'état of 1958 , the exclusion of East Pakistani Bengalis from military leadership translated into their exclusion from the nation's political leadership. This deepened the alienation of East Pakistanis from the Pakistani government, which would eventually lead to
7650-522: The martial race was chosen from people of mercenary spirit (a soldier who fights for any group or country that will pay him), as these groups lacked nationalism as a trait. British-trained Indian soldiers were among those who had rebelled in 1857 and thereafter, the Bengal Army abandoned or diminished its recruitment of soldiers who came from the catchment area and enacted a new recruitment policy which favoured castes whose members had remained loyal to
7752-602: The martial races". Critics of the theory state that the Indian rebellion of 1857 may have played a role in reinforcing the British belief in it. During this event the troops from the Bengal Native Infantry led by sepoy Mangal Pandey mutinied against the British. Similarly, the Revolt of Rajab Ali from Chittagong also caused trouble with British forces. However, the loyal Rajputs , Jats , Pashtuns , Sikhs , Gurkhas , Kumaunis and Garhwalis did not join
7854-452: The mutiny, and fought on the side of the British Army. From then on, this theory was used to the hilt to accelerate recruitment from among these 'races', whilst discouraging enlistment of 'disloyal' troops and high-caste Hindus who had sided with the rebel army during the war. Some authors, such as Heather Streets, argue that the military authorities puffed up the images of the martial soldiers by writing regimental histories, and by extolling
7956-531: The nation's political life—the most extreme case being the Bangladesh Liberation War , following decades of continued Bengali exclusion from the armed forces. In their attempts to assert control after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , the British faced fierce resistance in some regions while easily subduing others. British officials sought 'martial races' accustomed to hunting, or from agricultural cultures from hilly or mountainous regions with
8058-683: The neglect of other aspects of security.". In contemporary Pakistan, army recruitment still reflects the biases of "martial races" theory, with a considerable over-representation of ethnic Pashtuns and Punjabis , particularly from the Salt Range , and under-representation of Balochis and Sindhis . In the past few decades there have been some efforts to rectify these imbalances and make the Armed Forces more representative, in part by relaxing recruitment standards in Sindh and Balochistan. In 2007
8160-642: The new Indian constitution was adopted, the provinces in India were replaced by redrawn states and union territories. Pakistan, however, retained its five provinces, one of which, East Bengal , was renamed East Pakistan in 1956 and became the independent nation of Bangladesh in 1971. Frederick Sleigh Roberts Field Marshal Frederick Sleigh Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts , VC , KG , KP , GCB , OM , GCSI , GCIE , VD , PC , FRSGS (30 September 1832 – 14 November 1914),
8262-464: The new Pakistan Armed Forces likewise reflected the institutional legacy of the "martial races" theory, although it was no longer formally applied there as well. The British preference of Punjabis, combined with the fact that Bengalis (who were the single largest group in the new nation) had been disfavored ever since the Revolt of 1857, led to an even more ethnically lopsided army corps than in India. At
8364-728: The paramount political and military power in south Asia, its territory held in trust for the British Crown . Company rule in Bengal (after 1793) was terminated by the Government of India Act 1858 , following the events of the Bengal Rebellion of 1857 . Henceforth known as British India, it was thereafter directly ruled as a colonial possession of the United Kingdom , and India was officially known after 1876 as
8466-596: The post was abolished as recommended by Lord Esher in the Esher Report in February 1904. He was the initial president of the Pilgrims Society during 1902. Following his return from the Boer War, he was instrumental in promoting the mass training of civilians in rifle shooting skills through membership of shooting clubs, and a facsimile of his signature appears to this day on all official targets of
8568-650: The proofs. In 1910 Roberts' friend Ian Hamilton , in co-operation with the Secretary of State for War, Richard Haldane , published Compulsory Service in which he attacked Roberts' advocacy of compulsory military training. This caused much hurt to Roberts. He replied, with the help of Leo Amery and J. A. Cramb , with Fallacies and Facts (1911). In a speech in Manchester's Free Trade Hall on 22 October 1912 Roberts pointed out that Cobden and Bright 's prediction that peace and universal disarmament would follow
8670-493: The provisions of the Punjab Land Alienation Act of 1900 . These terms were considered to be synonymous when the administration compiled a list in 1925. Among the communities listed as martial were: Communities that were at various times classified as martial races include: India was quick to formally disclaim the martial races theory after gaining independence. The largest single source of recruitment for
8772-522: The question, How can I, even at this late and solemn hour, best help England,—England that to me has been so much, England that for me has done so much—again I say, "Arm and prepare to acquit yourselves like men, for the day of your ordeal is at hand". The historian A. J. A. Morris claimed that this speech caused a sensation due to Roberts' warnings about Germany. It was much criticised by the Liberal and Radical press. The Manchester Guardian condemned
8874-435: The retreating enemy on 2 January 1858, at Khodagunge, he saw in the distance two Sepoys going away with a standard. Lieutenant Roberts put spurs to his horse, and overtook them just as they were about to enter a village. They immediately turned round, and presented their muskets at him, and one of the men pulled the trigger, but fortunately the caps snapped, and the standard-bearer was cut down by this gallant young officer, and
8976-621: The royal family to do so during the 20th century, the other being Sir Winston Churchill ), he was given a state funeral and was then buried in St. Paul's Cathedral. Roberts had lived at Englemere House at Ascot in Berkshire . His estate was probated during 1915 at £77,304 (equivalent to £9.37 million as of 2022). On 28 February 1908 he was awarded the Volunteer Officers' Decoration in recognition of his honorary service in
9078-557: The second phase of the war began. Roberts was put in command of the Kabul Field Force and despatched to Kabul to seek retribution. After victory at the Battle of Charasiab on 6 October 1879, Roberts occupied Kabul, and was given the local rank of lieutenant-general on 11 November 1879. In December 1879, Roberts' force was besieged in the Sherpur Cantonment outside Kabul until, on 23 December, he repulsed
9180-499: The soldiers from Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan from 0% to 9% by 2011. However, noting that, for instance, a disproportionately large share of new recruits from Sindh are ethnic Pathans (Pashtuns) rather than Sindhis, critics have alleged that such figures, in measuring provincial origin rather than ethnicity per se , mask continued biases in recruiting. British India The provinces of India , earlier presidencies of British India and still earlier, presidency towns , were
9282-494: The south-east of Ireland . At the time, Sir Abraham was commanding the 1st Bengal European Regiment . Roberts was named Sleigh in honour of the garrison commander, Major General William Sleigh. His mother was Edinburgh -born Isabella Bunbury, daughter of Major Abraham Bunbury from Kilfeacle in County Tipperary . Roberts was educated at Eton , Sandhurst , and Addiscombe Military Seminary before entering
9384-563: The standard taken possession of by him. He also, on the same day, cut down another Sepoy who was standing at bay, with musket and bayonet, keeping off a Sowar . Lieutenant Roberts rode to the assistance of the horseman, and, rushing at the Sepoy, with one blow of his sword cut him across the face, killing him on the spot. He was also mentioned in despatches for his service at Lucknow in March 1858. In common with other officers, he transferred from
9486-637: The state of Gujarat ), and this became the company's first headquarters town. It was followed in 1611 by a permanent factory at Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast , and in 1612 the company joined other already established European trading companies in Bengal in trade. However, the power of the Mughal Empire declined from 1707, first at the hands of the Marathas and later due to invasion from Persia (1739) and Afghanistan (1761); after
9588-588: The time of Indian Independence, in 1947 , there were officially 565 princely states, a few being very large although most were very small. They comprised a quarter of the population of the British Raj and two fifths of its land area, with the provinces comprising the remainders. In 1608, the Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar issued a royal farman to the East India Company to establish a small trading settlement at Surat (now in
9690-434: The time of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , and the end of Company rule, the developments could be summarised as follows: The British Raj began with the idea of the presidencies as the centres of government. Until 1834, when a General Legislative Council was formed, each presidency under its governor and council was empowered to enact a code of so-called 'regulations' for its government. Therefore, any territory or province that
9792-492: Was "a friendly Power" who since 1870 "has remained the most peaceful and the most self-contained, though doubtless not the most sympathetic, member of the European family". The historian John Terraine , writing in 1993, said: "At this distance of time the verdict upon Lord Robert's Manchester speech must be that, in speaking out clearly on the probability of war, he was doing a patriotic service comparable to Churchill 's during
9894-669: Was Colonel of the National Reserve from 5 August 1911. Lord Roberts received civic honours from a number of universities, cities and livery companies, including: In 1893 he was made an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society (FRSGS). Note: the Orders of the Garter, the Thistle, and St. Patrick do not have corresponding ribbon bars. Roberts married Nora Henrietta Bews,
9996-475: Was a British Victorian era general who became one of the most successful British military commanders of his time. Born in India to an Anglo-Irish family, Roberts joined the East India Company Army and served as a young officer in the Indian Rebellion during which he was awarded the Victoria Cross for gallantry. He was then transferred to the British Army and fought in the Expedition to Abyssinia and
10098-482: Was added by conquest or treaty to a presidency came under the existing regulations of the corresponding presidency. However, in the case of provinces that were acquired but were not annexed to any of the three presidencies, their official staff could be provided as the governor-general pleased, and was not governed by the existing regulations of the Bengal, Madras, or Bombay presidencies. Such provinces became known as 'non-regulation provinces' and up to 1833 no provision for
10200-716: Was approached for advice about the Ulster Volunteer Force , formed in January 1913 by Ulstermen who had no wish to be part of a Home Rule Ireland . Too old himself to take active command, Roberts recommended Lieutenant General Sir George Richardson , formerly of the Indian Army, as commander. On the morning of 20 March – the morning of Paget 's speech which provoked the Curragh incident , in which Hubert Gough and other officers threatened to resign rather than coerce Ulster – Roberts, aided by Wilson , drafted
10302-517: Was on first name terms with Roberts's daughter and later gave her copies of key documents relating to the Incident. Roberts also had an interview with Seely (he was unable to locate French, who was in fact himself having an audience with the King at the time) but came away thinking him "drunk with power", although he learned that Paget had been acting without authority (in talking of "commencing active operations" against Ulster and in offering officers
10404-592: Was relocated to Ireland as Commander-in-Chief of British forces there from 1 October 1895. He was promoted field marshal on 25 May 1895 and created a knight of the Order of St Patrick in 1897. While in Ireland, Roberts completed a memoir of his years in India, which was published in 1897 as Forty-one Years in India: from Subaltern to Commander-in-chief . On 23 December 1899 Roberts left England to return to South Africa with his chief of staff Lord Kitchener on
#485514