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122-491: Historically, the language was spoken by various constituent groups of the Muscogee or Maskoki in what are now Alabama and Georgia . It is related to but not mutually intelligible with the other primary language of the Muscogee confederacy, Hitchiti - Mikasuki , which is spoken by the kindred Mikasuki, as well as with other Muskogean languages. The Muscogee first brought the Muscogee and Miccosukee languages to Florida in

244-497: A v after a u is geminated by most people: ruuvi 'screw' /ruːʋːi/ , vauva 'baby' [ʋauʋːa] . In the Tampere dialect, if a word receives gemination of v after u , the u is often deleted ( ruuvi [ruʋːi] , vauva [ʋaʋːa] ), and lauantai 'Saturday', for example, receives a medial v [lauʋantai] , which can in turn lead to deletion of u ( [laʋːantai] ). Distinctive consonant length

366-491: A poll tax and literacy test . The 1901 constitution required racial segregation of public schools. By 1903 only 2,980 African Americans were registered in Alabama, although at least 74,000 were literate . This compared to more than 181,000 African Americans eligible to vote in 1900. The numbers dropped even more in later decades. The state legislature passed additional racial segregation laws related to public facilities into

488-496: A 3-to-1 ratio, compared with around 2-to-1 (or lower) in Japanese, Italian, and Turkish. Gemination of consonants is distinctive in some languages and then is subject to various phonological constraints that depend on the language. In some languages, like Italian, Swedish, Faroese , Icelandic , and Luganda , consonant length and vowel length depend on each other. A short vowel within a stressed syllable almost always precedes

610-570: A casa ('I am going home') [ˈvaːdo a kˈkaːsa] . All consonants except / z / can be geminated. This word-initial gemination is triggered either lexically by the item preceding the lengthening consonant (e.g. by preposition a 'to, at' in [a kˈkaːsa] a casa 'homeward' but not by definite article la in [la ˈkaːsa] la casa 'the house'), or by any word-final stressed vowel ([ parˈlɔ ffranˈtʃeːze ] parlò francese 's/he spoke French' but [ ˈparlo franˈtʃeːze ] parlo francese 'I speak French'). In Latin , consonant length

732-472: A diacritic ( ḥaraka ) shaped like a lowercase Greek omega or a rounded Latin w , called the شَدَّة shadda : ّ  . Written above the consonant that is to be doubled, the shadda is often used to disambiguate words that differ only in the doubling of a consonant where the word intended is not clear from the context. For example, in Arabic, Form I verbs and Form II verbs differ only in

854-672: A few days, it joined the Confederate States of America . The Confederacy's capital was initially at Montgomery. Alabama was heavily involved in the American Civil War . Although comparatively few battles were fought in the state, Alabama contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the war effort. A company of cavalry soldiers from Huntsville, Alabama, joined Nathan Bedford Forrest 's battalion in Hopkinsville, Kentucky . The company wore new uniforms with yellow trim on

976-410: A geminated consonant is always preceded by a short vowel, while an ungeminated consonant is preceded by a long vowel. Lengthened fricatives , nasals , laterals , approximants and trills are simply prolonged. In lengthened stops , the obstruction of the airway is prolonged, which delays release, and the "hold" is lengthened. In terms of consonant duration, Berber and Finnish are reported to have

1098-415: A grammatical ablaut , which indicates intensification through lengthening and nasalization of a vowel ( likoth- 'warm' with the nasalizing grade intensifies the word to likŏ:th-os-i: 'nice and warm'). Nasal vowels may also appear as part of a suffix that indicates a question ( o:sk-ihá: 'I wonder if it's raining'). There are three phonemic tones in Muscogee; they are generally unmarked except in

1220-517: A hideout of Jesse James ; Stephens Gap Cave, in Jackson County , which has a 143-foot pit and two waterfalls and is one of the most photographed wild cave scenes in America; Little River Canyon, near Fort Payne, one of the nation's longest mountaintop rivers; Rickwood Caverns , near Warrior , which has an underground pool, blind cave-fish, and 260-million-year-old limestone formations; and

1342-565: A lawsuit and court order. Beginning in the 1940s, when the courts started taking the first steps to recognize the voting rights of black voters, the Alabama legislature took several counter-steps designed to disfranchise black voters. The legislature passed, and the voters ratified [as these were mostly white voters], a state constitutional amendment that gave local registrars greater latitude to disqualify voter registration applicants. Black citizens in Mobile successfully challenged this amendment as

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1464-571: A local aerospace industry. Alabama's economy in the 21st century is based on automotive, finance, tourism, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, and technology. The name of the Alabama River and state is derived from the Alabama people , a Muskogean-speaking tribe whose members lived just below the confluence of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers on

1586-491: A long consonant or a consonant cluster, and a long vowel must be followed by a short consonant. In Classical Arabic , a long vowel was lengthened even more before permanently-geminate consonants . In other languages, such as Finnish , consonant length and vowel length are independent of each other. In Finnish, both are phonemic; taka /taka/ 'back', takka /takːa/ 'fireplace' and taakka /taːkːa/ 'burden' are different, unrelated words. Finnish consonant length

1708-712: A long consonant to a short one, which is called degemination . It is a pattern in Baltic-Finnic consonant gradation that the strong grade (often the nominative ) form of the word is degeminated into a weak grade (often all the other cases) form of the word: taakka > taakan (burden, of the burden). As a historical restructuring at the phonemic level , word-internal long consonants degeminated in Western Romance languages: e.g. Spanish /ˈboka/ 'mouth' vs. Italian /ˈbokka/, both of which evolved from Latin /ˈbukka/. Written Arabic indicates gemination with

1830-406: A long vowel ( fóː 'bee') or a two-syllable word ending with a short vowel ( ací 'corn'). There are three long vowels in Muscogee ( /iː ɑː oː/ ), which are slightly longer than short vowels and are never centralized. Long vowels are rarely followed by a sonorant in the same syllable. Therefore, when syllables are created (often from suffixation or contractions) in which a long vowel is followed by

1952-591: A significant minority in the state, they had been unable to elect any representatives in most of the at-large jurisdictions. As part of settlement of this case, five Alabama cities and counties, including Chilton County , adopted a system of cumulative voting for election of representatives in multi-seat jurisdictions. This has resulted in more proportional representation for voters. In another form of proportional representation, 23 jurisdictions use limited voting , as in Conecuh County . In 1982, limited voting

2074-399: A single sentence at once, such as the direct object, indirect object, and adverbial nouns. Despite the distinction in verbal affixes between the agent and patient of the verb, the clitic -t marks subject of both transitive and intransitive verbs. In some situations, case marking is omitted. This is especially true of sentences with only one noun where the role of the noun is obvious from

2196-582: A slight majority of those disenfranchised by these laws: 600,000 whites vs. 520,000 African Americans. Nearly all Blacks had lost the ability to vote. Despite numerous legal challenges which succeeded in overturning certain provisions, the state legislature would create new ones to maintain disenfranchisement. The exclusion of blacks from the political system persisted until after passage of federal civil rights legislation in 1965 to enforce their constitutional rights as citizens. The rural-dominated Alabama legislature consistently underfunded schools and services for

2318-404: A sonorant, the vowel is shortened: In Muscogee, there are three diphthongs, generally realized as [əɪ ʊj əʊ] . Both long and short vowels can be nasalized (the distinction between acces and ącces below ), but long nasal vowels are more common. Nasal vowels usually appear as a result of a contraction, as the result of a neighboring nasal consonant, or as the result of nasalizing grade,

2440-453: A verb in a clause marks that the verb's subject is the same as that of the next clause. The clitic -n marks that verb's subject is different from the next clause. In some languages, a special form of the noun, the genitive case , is used to show possession . In Muscogee this relationship is expressed in two quite different ways, depending on the nature of the noun. A body part or family member cannot be named in Muscogee without mentioning

2562-600: A violation of the Fifteenth Amendment . The legislature also changed the boundaries of Tuskegee to a 28-sided figure designed to fence out blacks from the city limits. The Supreme Court unanimously held that this racial " gerrymandering " violated the Constitution. In 1961,   ... the Alabama legislature also intentionally diluted the effect of the black vote by instituting numbered place requirements for local elections. Industrial development related to

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2684-489: Is Alabama's largest metropolitan area and its economic center. Politically, as part of the Deep South , or " Bible Belt ", Alabama is a predominantly conservative state, and is known for its Southern culture . Within Alabama, American football , particularly at the college level, plays a major part of the state's culture. Originally home to many native tribes, present-day Alabama was a Spanish territory beginning in

2806-664: Is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States. It borders Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama is the 30th largest by area and the 24th-most populous of the 50 U.S. states . Alabama is nicknamed the Yellowhammer State , after the state bird . Alabama is also known as the "Heart of Dixie " and

2928-487: Is also affected by consonant gradation . Another important phenomenon is sandhi , which produces long consonants at word boundaries when there is an archiphonemic glottal stop |otaʔ se| > otas se 'take it ( imperative )!'. In addition, in some Finnish compound words, if the initial word ends in an e , the initial consonant of the following word is geminated: jätesäkki 'trash bag' [jætesːækːi] , tervetuloa 'welcome' [terʋetːuloa] . In certain cases,

3050-883: Is an articulation of a consonant for a longer period of time than that of a singleton consonant. It is distinct from stress . Gemination is represented in many writing systems by a doubled letter and is often perceived as a doubling of the consonant. Some phonological theories use 'doubling' as a synonym for gemination, while others describe two distinct phenomena. Consonant length is a distinctive feature in certain languages, such as Japanese . Other languages, such as Greek , do not have word-internal phonemic consonant geminates. Consonant gemination and vowel length are independent in languages like Arabic, Japanese, Finnish and Estonian; however, in languages like Italian, Norwegian , and Swedish , vowel length and consonant length are interdependent. For example, in Norwegian and Swedish,

3172-578: Is common in the U.S.; an estimated 26 states have names of Native American origin. Sources disagree on the word's meaning. Some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw alba (meaning 'plants' or 'weeds') and amo (meaning 'to cut', 'to trim', or 'to gather'). The meaning may have been 'clearers of the thicket' or 'herb gatherers', referring to clearing land for cultivation or collecting medicinal plants. The state has numerous place names of Native American origin . An 1842 article in

3294-590: Is distinctive (as is vowel length). Gemination in the syllabary is represented with the sokuon , a small tsu : っ for hiragana in native words and ッ for katakana in foreign words. For example, 来た ( きた , kita ) means 'came; arrived', while 切った ( きった , kitta ) means 'cut; sliced'. With the influx of gairaigo ('foreign words') into Modern Japanese, voiced consonants have become able to geminate as well: バグ ( bagu ) means '(computer) bug', and バッグ ( baggu ) means 'bag'. Distinction between voiceless gemination and voiced gemination

3416-622: Is distinctive in Punjabi, for example: In Russian , consonant length (indicated with two letters, as in ва нн а [ˈva nn ə] 'bathtub') may occur in several situations. Minimal pairs (or chronemes ) exist, such as по д ержать [pə d ʲɪrˈʐatʲ] 'to hold' vs по дд ержать [pə dʲː ɪrˈʐatʲ] 'to support', and their conjugations, or дли н а [dlʲɪˈ n a] 'length' vs дли нн а [dlʲɪˈ nː a] 'long' adj. f. There are phonetic geminate consonants in Caribbean Spanish due to

3538-473: Is indicated with two identical letters. Examples: Consonant length is distinctive and sometimes is necessary to distinguish words: Double consonants are common on morpheme borders where the initial or final sound of the suffix is the same as the final or initial sound of the stem (depending on the position of the suffix), after devoicing . Examples: Punjabi is written in two scripts, namely, Gurmukhi and Shahmukhi . Both scripts indicate gemination through

3660-552: Is less common than the Mikasuki language. The most distinct dialect of the language is said to be that of the Florida Seminole, which is described as "rapid", "staccato" and "dental", with more loan words from Spanish and Mikasuki as opposed to English. Florida Seminole Creek is the most endangered register of the Muscogee language. Alabama Alabama ( / ˌ æ l ə ˈ b æ m ə / AL -ə- BAM -ə )

3782-813: Is lexically contrastive. The distinction between single and geminate consonants is attested in medial position as well as in absolute initial and final positions. In addition to lexical geminates, Berber also has phonologically-derived and morphologically-derived geminates. Phonological alternations can surface by concatenation (e.g., [fas sin] 'give him two!') or by complete assimilation (e.g. /rad = k i-sli/ [rakk isli] 'he will touch you'). Morphological alternations include imperfective gemination, with some Berber verbs forming their imperfective stem by geminating one consonant in their perfective stem (e.g., [ftu] 'go! PF', [fttu] 'go! IMPF'), as well as quantity alternations between singular and plural forms (e.g., [afus] 'hand', [ifassn] 'hands'). Austronesian languages in

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3904-581: Is mostly mountainous, with the Tennessee River cutting a large valley and creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes. Alabama is bordered by the states of Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama has coastline at the Gulf of Mexico, in the extreme southern edge of the state. The state ranges in elevation from sea level at Mobile Bay to more than 2,000 feet (610 m) in

4026-543: Is no longer distinctive. In Nepali , all consonants have geminate counterparts except for /w, j, ɦ/ . Geminates occur only medially. Examples: In Norwegian , gemination is indicated in writing by double consonants. Gemination often differentiates between unrelated words. As in Italian, Norwegian uses short vowels before doubled consonants and long vowels before single consonants. There are qualitative differences between short and long vowels: In Polish , consonant length

4148-467: Is not distinctive within root words . For instance, baggage is pronounced / ˈ b æ ɡ ɪ dʒ / , not */bæɡːɪdʒ/ . However, phonetic gemination does occur marginally. Gemination is found across words and across morphemes when the last consonant in a given word and the first consonant in the following word are the same fricative , nasal , or stop . For instance: With affricates , however, this does not occur. For instance: In most instances,

4270-746: Is phonemically /ˈbevve/ and pronounced [ˈbevːe] , while beve ('he/she drinks/is drinking') is /ˈbeve/ , pronounced [ˈbeːve] . Tonic syllables are bimoraic and are therefore composed of either a long vowel in an open syllable (as in beve ) or a short vowel in a closed syllable (as in bevve ). In varieties with post-vocalic weakening of some consonants (e.g. /raˈdʒone/ → [raˈʒoːne] 'reason'), geminates are not affected ( /ˈmaddʒo/ → [ˈmad͡ʒːo] 'May'). Double or long consonants occur not only within words but also at word boundaries, and they are then pronounced but not necessarily written: chi + sa = chissà ('who knows') [kisˈsa] and vado

4392-557: Is represented by the Shadda diacritic, which is usually omitted from writings, and mainly written to clear ambiguity. In Hindi, gemination is represented by doubling the geminated consonant, enjoined with the Virama diacritic. Gemination of aspirated consonants in Hindi are formed by combining the corresponding non-aspirated consonant followed by its aspirated counterpart. In vocalised Urdu,

4514-600: Is the stative verbs , which express no action, imply no duration, and provide only description of a static condition. In some languages, such as English, they are expressed as adjectives. In Muscogee, the verbs behave like adjectives but are classed and treated as verbs. However, they are not altered for the person of the subject by an affix , as above; instead, the prefix changes: Prefixes are also used in Muscogee for shades of meaning of verbs that are expressed, in English, by adverbs in phrasal verbs . For example, in English,

4636-429: Is the second person singular ending for verbs. Wiketv means "to stop:" the verb for "you are stopping" may be written in Muscogee as wikeckes or wiketskes . Both are pronounced the same. The -eck- transliteration is preferred by Innes (2004), and the -etsk- transliteration has been used by Martin (2000) and Loughridge (1964). While vowel length in Muscogee is distinctive, it is somewhat inconsistently indicated in

4758-534: Is today southern Clarke County , northernmost Mobile County , and most of Washington County . What are now Baldwin and Mobile counties became part of Spanish West Florida in 1783, part of the independent Republic of West Florida in 1810, and finally part of the Mississippi Territory in 1812. Most of what is now the northern two-thirds of Alabama was known as the Yazoo lands beginning during

4880-437: Is usually restricted to certain consonants and environments. There are very few languages that have initial consonant length; among those that do are Pattani Malay , Chuukese , Moroccan Arabic , a few Romance languages such as Sicilian and Neapolitan , as well as many High Alemannic German dialects, such as that of Thurgovia . Some African languages, such as Setswana and Luganda , also have initial consonant length: it

5002-547: Is very common in Luganda and indicates certain grammatical features. In colloquial Finnish and Italian , long consonants occur in specific instances as sandhi phenomena. The difference between singleton and geminate consonants varies within and across languages. Sonorants show more distinct geminate-to-singleton ratios while sibilants have less distinct ratios. The bilabial and alveolar geminates are generally longer than velar ones. The reverse of gemination reduces

Muscogee language - Misplaced Pages Continue

5124-544: Is visible in pairs of words such as キット ( kitto , meaning 'kit') and キッド ( kiddo , meaning 'kid'). In addition, in some variants of colloquial Modern Japanese, gemination may be applied to some adjectives and adverbs (regardless of voicing) in order to add emphasis: すごい ( sugoi , 'amazing') contrasts with すっごい ( suggoi , ' really amazing'); 思い切り ( おもいきり , omoikiri , 'with all one's strength') contrasts with 思いっ切り ( おもいっきり , omoikkiri , ' really with all one's strength'). In Turkish gemination

5246-729: Is widely spoken among the Muscogee people. The Muscogee Nation offers free language classes and immersion camps to Muscogee children. The College of the Muscogee Nation offers a language certificate program. Tulsa public schools, the University of Oklahoma and Glenpool Library in Tulsa and the Holdenville, Okmulgee, and Tulsa Muscogee Communities of the Muscogee Nation offer Muscogee Creek language classes. In 2013,

5368-427: Is word-final. Initial vowels can be deleted in Muscogee, mostly applying to the vowel /i/ . The deletion will affect the pitch of the following syllable by creating a higher-than-expected pitch on the new initial syllable. Furthermore, initial vowel deletion in the case of single-morpheme, short words such as ifa 'dog' or icó 'deer' is impossible, as the shortest a Muscogee word can be is a one-syllable word ending in

5490-462: Is written above the geminated consonant. In the cases of aspirated consonants in the Shahmukhi script , the shadda remains on the consonant, not on the do-cashmī he . Gemination is specially characteristic of Punjabi compared to other Indo-Aryan languages like Hindi-Urdu, where instead of the presence of consonant lengthening, the preceding vowel tends to be lengthened. Consonant length

5612-629: The Blaine Amendment , prohibiting public money from being used to finance religious-affiliated schools. The same year, legislation was approved that called for racially segregated schools. Railroad passenger cars were segregated in 1891. The new 1901 Constitution of Alabama included provisions for voter registration that effectively disenfranchised large portions of the population, including nearly all African Americans and Native Americans, and tens of thousands of poor European Americans, through making voter registration difficult, requiring

5734-551: The Jacksonville Republican proposed it meant 'Here We Rest'. This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of Alexander Beaufort Meek . Experts in the Muskogean languages have not found any evidence to support such a translation. Indigenous peoples of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent of European colonization. Trade with the northeastern tribes by

5856-658: The Montgomery bus boycott (1955–1956), Freedom Rides in 1961, and 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches. These contributed to Congressional passage and enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 by the U.S. Congress. Legal segregation ended in the states in 1964, but Jim Crow customs often continued until specifically challenged in court. According to The New York Times , by 2017, many of Alabama's African Americans were living in Alabama's cities such as Birmingham and Montgomery. Also,

5978-508: The Muskogee tribes developed distinct cultures and languages. The Spanish were the first Europeans to reach Alabama during their exploration of North America in the 16th century. The expedition of Hernando de Soto passed through Mabila and other parts of the state in 1540. More than 160 years later, the French founded the region's first European settlement at Old Mobile in 1702. The city

6100-751: The Natchez Trace Parkway , the Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail , and the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail . Natural wonders include the "Natural Bridge" rock, the longest natural bridge east of the Rockies , just south of Haleyville ; Cathedral Caverns , in Marshall County , named for its cathedral-like appearance, which features one of the largest cave entrances and one of

6222-742: The Ohio River began during the Burial Mound Period (1000   BCE – 700   CE) and continued until European contact . The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 CE, with one of its major centers built at what is now the Moundville Archaeological Site in Moundville, Alabama . This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after Cahokia in present-day Illinois , which

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6344-756: The Philippines , Micronesia , and Sulawesi are known to have geminate consonants. The Formosan language Kavalan makes use of gemination to mark intensity, as in sukaw 'bad' vs. sukkaw 'very bad'. Word-initial gemination occurs in various Malay dialects, particularly those found on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula such as Kelantan-Pattani Malay and Terengganu Malay . Gemination in these dialects of Malay occurs for various purposes such as: The Polynesian language Tuvaluan allows for word-initial geminates, such as mmala 'overcooked'. In English phonology , consonant length

6466-633: The Sapulpa Creek Community Center graduated a class of 14 from its Muscogee language class. In 2018, 8 teachers graduated from a class put on by the Seminole nation at Seminole State College to try and reintroduce the Muscogee language to students in elementary and high school in several schools around the state. The phoneme inventory of Muscogee consists of thirteen consonants and three vowel qualities , which distinguish length , tone and nasalization . It also makes use of

6588-595: The Upper South brought slaves with them as the cotton plantations in Alabama expanded. The economy of the central Black Belt (named for its dark, productive soil) was built around large cotton plantations whose owners' wealth grew mainly from slave labor. The area also drew many poor, disenfranchised people who became subsistence farmers . Alabama had an estimated population of under 10,000 people in 1810, but it increased to more than 300,000 people by 1830. Most Native American tribes were completely removed from

6710-639: The Walls of Jericho canyon, on the Alabama–Tennessee border. A 5-mile (8 km)-wide meteorite impact crater is located in Elmore County , just north of Montgomery. This is the Wetumpka crater , the site of "Alabama's greatest natural disaster". A 1,000-foot (300 m)-wide meteorite hit the area about 80 million years ago. The hills just east of downtown Wetumpka showcase the eroded remains of

6832-488: The gemination of stops , fricatives and sonorants . There are four voiceless stops in Muscogee: /p t t͡ʃ k/ . /t͡ʃ/ is a voiceless palatal affricate and patterns as a single consonant and so with the other voiceless stops. /t͡ʃ/ has an alveolar allophone [ t͡s ] before /k/ . The obstruent consonants /p t t͡ʃ k/ are voiced to [b d d͡ʒ ɡ] between sonorants and vowels but remain voiceless at

6954-1101: The northeast , to Mount Cheaha at 2,413 ft (735 m). Alabama's land consists of 22 million acres (89,000 km ) of forest or 67% of the state's total land area. Suburban Baldwin County , along the Gulf Coast, is the largest county in the state in both land area and water area. Areas in Alabama administered by the National Park Service include Horseshoe Bend National Military Park near Alexander City ; Little River Canyon National Preserve near Fort Payne ; Russell Cave National Monument in Bridgeport ; Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site in Tuskegee; and Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site near Tuskegee. Additionally, Alabama has four National Forests : Conecuh , Talladega , Tuskegee , and William B. Bankhead . Alabama also contains

7076-551: The shadda is placed on the unaspirated consonant followed by the short vowel diacritic , followed by the do-cashmī hē , which aspirates the preceding consonant. There are few examples where an aspirated consonant is truly doubled. Italian is notable among the Romance languages for its extensive geminated consonants. In Standard Italian , word-internal geminates are usually written with two consonants, and geminates are distinctive. For example, bevve , meaning 'he/she drank',

7198-474: The standard and most other varieties , with the exception of Cypriot (where it might carry over from Ancient Greek or arise from a number of synchronic and diachronic assimilatory processes, or even spontaneously), some varieties of the southeastern Aegean, and Italy . Gemination is common in both Hindi and Urdu . It does not occur after long vowels and is found in words of both Indic and Arabic origin, but not in those of Persian origin. In Urdu, gemination

7320-423: The "Cotton State". The state has diverse geography, with the north dominated by the mountainous Tennessee Valley and the south by Mobile Bay , a historically significant port. Alabama's capital is Montgomery , and its largest city by population and area is Huntsville . Its oldest city is Mobile , founded by French colonists ( Alabama Creoles ) in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana . Greater Birmingham

7442-405: The "Magic City". By 1920, Birmingham was the 36th-largest city in the United States. Heavy industry and mining were the basis of its economy. Its residents were under-represented for decades in the state legislature, which refused to redistrict after each decennial census according to population changes, as it was required by the state constitution. This did not change until the late 1960s following

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7564-583: The (approximately) equivalent sounds using familiar English words and the IPA : There are also three vowel sequences whose spellings match their phonetic makeup: As mentioned above, certain consonants in Muscogee, when they appear between two sonorants (a vowel or m , n , l , w , or y ), become voiced . They are the consonants represented by p , t , k , c , and s : In addition, certain combinations of consonants sound differently from English, giving multiple possible transcriptions . The most prominent case

7686-404: The 1950s: jails were segregated in 1911; hospitals in 1915; toilets, hotels, and restaurants in 1928; and bus stop waiting rooms in 1945. While the planter class had persuaded poor whites to vote for this legislative effort to suppress black voting, the new restrictions resulted in their disenfranchisement as well, due mostly to the imposition of a cumulative poll tax. By 1941, whites constituted

7808-501: The Alabama Territory on March 3, 1817. St. Stephens , now abandoned, served as the territorial capital from 1817 to 1819. Alabama was admitted as the 22nd state on December 14, 1819, with Congress selecting Huntsville as the site for the first Constitutional Convention . From July   5 to August 2, 1819, delegates met to prepare the new state constitution. Huntsville served as temporary capital from 1819 to 1820, when

7930-530: The Alabama legislature." In the United States Supreme Court cases of Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the court ruled that the principle of " one man, one vote " needed to be the basis of both houses of state legislatures, and that their districts had to be based on population rather than geographic counties. African Americans continued to press in the 1950s and 1960s to end disenfranchisement and segregation in

8052-642: The Black Belt region across central Alabama "is home to largely poor counties that are predominantly African-American. These counties include Dallas, Lowndes , Marengo and Perry ." In 1972, for the first time since 1901, the legislature completed the congressional redistricting based on the decennial census. This benefited the urban areas that had developed, as well as all in the population who had been underrepresented for more than sixty years. Other changes were made to implement representative state house and senate districts. Alabama has made some changes since

8174-702: The British colonial period. It was claimed by the Province of Georgia from 1767 onwards. Following the Revolutionary War, it remained a part of Georgia, although heavily disputed. With the exception of the area around Mobile and the Yazoo lands, what is now the lower one-third of Alabama was made part of the Mississippi Territory when it was organized in 1798. The Yazoo lands were added to

8296-563: The Knight of Elvas and Rodrigo Ranjel wrote Alibamu and Limamu , respectively, in transliterations of the term. As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the Alibamon , with French maps identifying the river as Rivière des Alibamons . Other spellings of the name have included Alibamu , Alabamo , Albama , Alebamon , Alibama , Alibamou , Alabamu , and Allibamou . The use of state names derived from Native American languages

8418-608: The Mississippian peoples; it is one of the primary means by which their religion is understood. Among the historical tribes of Native American people living in present-day Alabama at the time of European contact were the Cherokee , an Iroquoian language people; and the Muskogean-speaking Alabama ( Alibamu ), Chickasaw , Choctaw , Creek, and Koasati . While part of the same large language family,

8540-564: The United States with 52,419 square miles (135,760 km ) of total area: 3.2% of the area is water, making Alabama 23rd in the amount of surface water, also giving it the second-largest inland waterway system in the United States. About three-fifths of the land area is part of the Gulf Coastal Plain , a gentle plain with a general descent towards the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico. The North Alabama region

8662-431: The absence of this doubling does not affect the meaning, though it may confuse the listener momentarily. The following minimal pairs represent examples where the doubling does affect the meaning in most accents: Note that whenever [(ɹ)] appears (in brackets), non-rhotic dialects of English don't have the gemination, but rather lengthen the preceding vowel. In some dialects gemination is also found for some words when

8784-619: The area, such as Georgia and Florida. In 2001, Alabama Supreme Court chief justice Roy Moore installed a statue of the Ten Commandments in the capitol in Montgomery. In 2002, the 11th US Circuit Court ordered the statue removed, but Moore refused to follow the court order, which led to protests around the capitol in favor of keeping the monument. The monument was removed in August 2003. A few natural disasters have occurred in

8906-415: The articulation of /s/ is more laminal , resulting in /s/ being realized as [ ʃ ] , but for most speakers, /s/ is a voiceless apico-alveolar fricative [ s ] . Like /k/ , the glottal /h/ is sometimes realized as the uvular [ χ ] when it is preceded by [o] or when syllable-final: The sonorants in Muscogee are two nasals ( /m/ and /n/ ), two semivowels ( /w/ and /j/ ), and

9028-626: The assimilation of /l/ and /ɾ/ in syllabic coda to the following consonant. Examples of Cuban Spanish: Luganda (a Bantu language ) is unusual in that gemination can occur word-initially, as well as word-medially. For example, kkapa /kːapa/ 'cat', /ɟːaɟːa/ jjajja 'grandfather' and /ɲːabo/ nnyabo 'madam' all begin with geminate consonants. There are three consonants that cannot be geminated: /j/ , /w/ and /l/ . Whenever morphological rules would geminate these consonants, /j/ and /w/ are prefixed with /ɡ/ , and /l/ changes to /d/ . For example: In Japanese , consonant length

9150-441: The conditional (and possibly the future tense) from the imperfect: courrais 'would run' /kuʁ.ʁɛ/ vs. courais 'ran' /ku.ʁɛ/ ; or the indicative from the subjunctive: croyons 'we believe' /kʁwa.jɔ̃/ vs. croyions 'we believed' /kʁwaj.jɔ̃/ . In Ancient Greek , consonant length was distinctive, e.g., μέ λ ω [mélɔː] 'I am of interest' vs. μέ λλ ω [mélːɔː] 'I am going to'. The distinction has been lost in

9272-530: The construction costs. The fund required the local community and state to raise matching funds to pay the rest. Black residents effectively taxed themselves twice, by raising additional monies to supply matching funds for such schools, which were built in many rural areas. They often donated land and labor as well. Beginning in 1913, the first 80 Rosenwald Schools were built in Alabama for African American children. A total of 387 schools, seven teachers' houses, and several vocational buildings were completed by 1937 in

9394-438: The demands of World War II brought a level of prosperity to the state not seen since before the civil war. Rural workers poured into the largest cities in the state for better jobs and a higher standard of living. One example of this massive influx of workers occurred in Mobile. Between 1940 and 1943, more than 89,000 people moved into the city to work for war-related industries. Cotton and other cash crops faded in importance as

9516-524: The disenfranchised African Americans, but it did not relieve them of paying taxes. Partially as a response to chronic underfunding of education for African Americans in the South, the Rosenwald Fund began funding the construction of what came to be known as Rosenwald Schools . In Alabama, these schools were designed, and the construction partially financed with Rosenwald funds, which paid one-third of

9638-417: The doubling of the middle consonant of the triliteral root in the latter form, e. g. , درس darasa (with full diacritics: دَرَسَ ) is a Form I verb meaning to study , whereas درّس darrasa (with full diacritics: دَرَّسَ ) is the corresponding Form II verb, with the middle r consonant doubled, meaning to teach . In Berber , each consonant has a geminate counterpart, and gemination

9760-663: The early 18th century. Combining with other ethnicities there, they emerged as the Seminole . During the 1830s, however, the US government forced most Muscogee and Seminole to relocate west of the Mississippi River , with most forced into Indian Territory . The language is today spoken by fewer than 400 people, most of whom live in Oklahoma and are members of the Muscogee Nation and the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma . Muscogee

9882-466: The early decades of the 20th century as part of the Great Migration out of the South. Reflecting this emigration, the population growth rate in Alabama (see "historical populations" table below) dropped by nearly half from 1910 to 1920. At the same time, many rural people migrated to the city of Birmingham to work in new industrial jobs. Birmingham experienced such rapid growth it was called

10004-472: The end of a syllable . Between instances of [ o ] , or after [o] at the end of a syllable, the velar /k/ is realized as the uvular [ q ] or [ ɢ ] . For example: There are four voiceless fricatives in Muscogee: /f s ɬ h/ . /f/ can be realized as either labiodental [ f ] or bilabial [ ɸ ] in place of articulation . Predominantly among speakers in Florida,

10126-564: The first (1860) grammar of the Muscogee language, persisted in the Hichiti , Muscogee proper, and Koasati languages at least into the first half of the 20th century. The forms of Muscogee used by the Seminoles of Oklahoma and Florida are separate dialects from the ones spoken by Muscogee people. Oklahoma Seminole speak a dialect known as Oklahoma Seminole Creek. Florida Seminole Creek is one of two languages spoken among Florida Seminoles; it

10248-641: The freedmen and Republicans. These groups included The Ku Klux Klan , the Pale Faces, Knights of the White Camellia , Red Shirts , and the White League . Reconstruction in Alabama ended in 1874, when the Democrats regained control of the legislature and governor's office through an election dominated by fraud and violence. They wrote another constitution in 1875, and the legislature passed

10370-736: The impact crater that was blasted into the bedrock, with the area labeled the Wetumpka crater or astrobleme ("star-wound") because of the concentric rings of fractures and zones of shattered rock that can be found beneath the surface. In 2002, Christian Koeberl with the Institute of Geochemistry University of Vienna published evidence and established the site as the 157th recognized impact crater on Earth. Gemination In phonetics and phonology , gemination ( / ˌ dʒ ɛ m ɪ ˈ n eɪ ʃ ən / ; from Latin geminatio 'doubling', itself from gemini 'twins' ), or consonant lengthening ,

10492-570: The largest stalagmites in the world; Ecor Rouge, in Fairhope , the highest coastline point between Maine and Mexico; DeSoto Caverns , in Childersburg , the first officially recorded cave in the United States; Noccalula Falls , in Gadsden , which has a 90-foot waterfall; Dismals Canyon , near Phil Campbell , which is home to two waterfalls and six natural bridges and is said to have been

10614-546: The late 19th century up until the 1960s. High-profile events such as the Selma to Montgomery marches made the state a major focal point of the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s. During and after World War II , Alabama grew as the state's economy diversified with new industries. In 1960, the establishment of NASA 's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville helped boost Alabama's economic growth by developing

10736-430: The late 20th century and has used new types of voting to increase representation. In the 1980s, an omnibus redistricting case, Dillard v. Crenshaw County , challenged the at-large voting for representative seats of 180 Alabama jurisdictions, including counties and school boards. At-large voting had diluted the votes of any minority in a county, as the majority tended to take all seats. Despite African Americans making up

10858-436: The lateral /l/ , all voiced . Nasal assimilation occurs in Muscogee: /n/ becomes [ ŋ ] before /k/ . Sonorants are devoiced when followed by /h/ in the same syllable and results in a single voiceless consonant: All plosives and fricatives in Muscogee can be geminated (lengthened). Some sonorants may also be geminated, but [hh] and [mm] are less common than other sonorant geminates, especially in roots. For

10980-564: The linguistic orthography: high (marked in the linguistic orthography with an acute accent : á , etc.), low (unmarked: a , etc.), and falling (marked with a circumflex : â , etc.). The traditional Muscogee alphabet was adopted by the tribe in the late 1800s and has 20 letters . Although it is based on the Latin alphabet , some sounds are vastly different from those in English like those represented by c , e , i , r , and v . Here are

11102-425: The locations are actually nouns. These are possessed just like parts of the body and family members were above. Claudio Saunt , writing about the language of the later 18th century, said that there were different feminine and masculine versions, which he also calls dialects, of the Muscogee language. Males "attach[ed] distinct endings to verbs", while Females "accent[ed] different syllables". These forms, mentioned in

11224-462: The majority of speakers, except for those influenced by the Alabama or Koasati languages, the geminate [ww] does not occur. The vowel phonemes of Muscogee are as follows: There are three short vowels /i ɑ o/ and three long vowels /iː ɑː oː/ . There are also the nasal vowels /ĩ ɑ̃ õ ĩː ɑ̃ː õː/ (in the linguistic orthography, they are often written with an ogonek under them or a following superscript "n"). Most occurrences of nasal vowels are

11346-408: The pattern subject–object–verb . The subject or object may be a noun or a noun followed by one or more adjectives . Adverbs tend to occur either at the beginning of the sentence (for time adverbs) or immediately before the verb (for manner adverbs). Case is marked on noun phrases using the clitics -t for subjects, and -n for non-subjects. The clitic -n can appear on multiple noun phrases in

11468-527: The personal marking on the verb. Case marking is also omitted on fixed phrases that use a noun, e.g. "go to town " or "build a fire ". In Muscogee, a single verb can translate into an entire English sentence. The root infinitive form of the verb is altered for: Some Muscogee verbs, especially those involving motion, have highly irregular plurals: letketv = to run, with a singular subject, but tokorketv = to run of two subjects and pefatketv = to run of three or more. Another entire class of Muscogee verbs

11590-420: The possessor, which is an integrated part of the word. A set of changeable prefixes serves this function: Even if the possessor is mentioned specifically, the prefix still must be part of the word: Toskē enke = Toske's hand. It is not redundant in Muscogee ("Toske his_hand"). All other nouns are possessed through a separate set of pronouns . Again, even though the construction in English would be redundant,

11712-438: The proper way to form the possessive in Muscogee must include the correct preposition: Toskē em efv = Toske's dog. That is grammatically correct in Muscogee, unlike the literal English translation "Toske his dog". A final distinctive feature, related to the above, is the existence of locational nouns . In English, speakers have prepositions to indicate location, for example, behind , around , beside , and so on. In Muscogee,

11834-442: The result of nasal assimilation or the nasalizing grade, but there are some forms that show contrast between oral and nasal vowels: The three short vowels /i ɑ o/ can be realized as the lax and centralized ( [ɪ ə ʊ] ) when a neighboring consonant is coronal or in closed syllables. However, /ɑ/ will generally not centralize when it is followed by /h/ or /k/ in the same syllable, and /o/ will generally remain noncentral if it

11956-628: The seat of government moved to Cahaba in Dallas County . Cahaba , now a ghost town , was the first permanent state capital from 1820 to 1825. The Alabama Fever land rush was underway when the state was admitted to the Union, with settlers and land speculators pouring into the state to take advantage of fertile land suitable for cotton cultivation. Part of the frontier in the 1820s and 1830s, its constitution provided for universal suffrage for white men. Southeastern planters and traders from

12078-501: The sixteenth century until the French acquired it in the early eighteenth century. The British won the territory in 1763 until losing it in the American Revolutionary War . Spain held Mobile as part of Spanish West Florida until 1813. In December 1819, Alabama was recognized as a state. During the antebellum period, Alabama was a major producer of cotton , and widely used African American slave labor . In 1861,

12200-621: The sleeves, collar and coattails. This led to them being greeted with "Yellowhammer", and the name later was applied to all Alabama troops in the Confederate Army. Alabama's slaves were freed by the 13th Amendment in 1865. Alabama was under military rule from the end of the war in May 1865 until its official restoration to the Union in 1868. From 1867 to 1874, with most white citizens barred temporarily from voting and freedmen enfranchised, many African Americans emerged as political leaders in

12322-414: The state developed a manufacturing and service base. Despite massive population changes in the state from 1901 to 1961, the rural-dominated legislature refused to reapportion House and Senate seats based on population, as required by the state constitution to follow the results of decennial censuses. They held on to old representation to maintain political and economic power in agricultural areas. One result

12444-458: The state in the twenty-first century. In 2004, Hurricane Ivan , a category 3 storm upon landfall, struck the state and caused over $ 18 billion of damage. It was among the most destructive storms to strike the state in its modern history. A super outbreak of 62 tornadoes hit the state in April 2011 and killed 238 people, devastating many communities. Alabama is the thirtieth-largest state in

12566-513: The state seceded from the United States to become part of the Confederate States of America , with Montgomery acting as its first capital, and rejoined the Union in 1868. Following the American Civil War , Alabama would suffer decades of economic hardship, in part due to agriculture and a few cash crops being the main driver of the state's economy. Similar to other former slave states, Alabamian legislators employed Jim Crow laws from

12688-461: The state through the civil rights movement, including legal challenges. In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that public schools had to be desegregated , but Alabama was slow to comply. During the 1960s, under Governor George Wallace , Alabama resisted compliance with federal demands for desegregation. The civil rights movement had notable events in Alabama, including

12810-623: The state within a few years of the passage of the Indian Removal Act by Congress in 1830. From 1826 to 1846, Tuscaloosa served as Alabama's capital. On January 30, 1846, the Alabama legislature announced it had voted to move the capital city from Tuscaloosa to Montgomery. The first legislative session in the new capital met in December 1847. A new capitol building was erected under the direction of Stephen Decatur Button of Philadelphia . The first structure burned down in 1849, but

12932-521: The state, particularly Huntsville, benefited from the opening of the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center in 1960, a major facility in the development of the Saturn rocket program and the space shuttle. Technology and manufacturing industries, such as automobile assembly, replaced some the state's older industries in the late twentieth century, but the state's economy and growth lagged behind other states in

13054-689: The state. Alabama was represented in Congress during this period by three African-American congressmen: Jeremiah Haralson , Benjamin S. Turner , and James T. Rapier . Following the war, the state remained chiefly agricultural, with an economy tied to cotton. During Reconstruction, state legislators ratified a new state constitution in 1868 which created the state's first public school system and expanded women's rights. Legislators funded numerous public road and railroad projects, although these were plagued with allegations of fraud and misappropriation . Organized insurgent , resistance groups tried to suppress

13176-484: The state. Several of the surviving school buildings in the state are now listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Continued racial discrimination and lynchings , agricultural depression, and the failure of the cotton crops due to boll weevil infestation led tens of thousands of African Americans from rural Alabama and other states to seek opportunities in northern and midwestern cities during

13298-604: The suffix -ly follows a root ending in -l or -ll, as in: but not In some varieties of Welsh English , the process takes place indiscriminately between vowels, e.g. in money [ˈmɜn.niː] but it also applies with graphemic duplication (thus, orthographically dictated), e.g. butter [ˈbɜt̚.tə] In French, gemination is usually not phonologically relevant and therefore does not allow words to be distinguished: it mostly corresponds to an accent of insistence ( c'est terrifiant realised [ˈtɛʁ.ʁi.fjɑ̃] ), or meets hyper-correction criteria: one "corrects" one's pronunciation, despite

13420-739: The surrender of the Spanish garrison at Mobile to U.S. forces on April 13, 1813. Thomas Bassett, a loyalist to the British monarchy during the Revolutionary era, was one of the earliest white settlers in the state outside Mobile. He settled in the Tombigbee District during the early 1770s. The district's boundaries were roughly limited to the area within a few miles of the Tombigbee River and included portions of what

13542-576: The territory in 1804, following the Yazoo land scandal . Spain kept a claim on its former Spanish West Florida territory in what would become the coastal counties until the Adams–Onís Treaty officially ceded it to the U.S. in 1819. Before Mississippi's admission to statehood on December 10, 1817, the more sparsely settled eastern half of the territory was separated and named the Alabama Territory . The United States Congress created

13664-551: The traditional orthography. The following basic correspondences can be noted: However, the correspondences do not always apply, and in some words, short /a/ is spelled a , long /iː/ is spelled e , and short /o/ is spelled o . Muscogee words carry distinctive tones and nasalization of their vowels. These features are not marked in the traditional orthography, only in dictionaries and linguistic publications. The following additional markers have been used by Martin (2000) and Innes (2004): The general sentence structure fits

13786-478: The upper reaches of the river. In the Alabama language , the word for a person of Alabama lineage is Albaamo (or variously Albaama or Albàamo in different dialects; the plural form is Albaamaha ). The word's spelling varies significantly among historical sources. The first usage appears in three accounts of the Hernando de Soto expedition of 1540: Garcilaso de la Vega used Alibamo , while

13908-432: The uses of diacritics. In Gurmukhi the diacritic is called the áddak which is written before the geminated consonant and is mandatory. In contrast, the shadda , which is used to represent gemination in the Shahmukhi script , is not necessarily written, retaining the tradition of the original Arabic script and Persian language , where diacritics are usually omitted from writing, except to clear ambiguity, and

14030-453: The usual phonology, to be closer to a realization that one imagines to be more correct: thus, the word illusion is sometimes pronounced [il.lyˈzjɔ̃] by influence of the spelling. However, gemination is distinctive in a few cases. Statements such as elle a dit ('she said') ~ elle l'a dit ('she said it') /ɛl a di/ ~ /ɛl l‿a di/ can commonly be distinguished by gemination. In a more sustained pronunciation, gemination distinguishes

14152-461: The verb to go can be changed to to go up , to go in , to go around , and other variations. In Muscogee, the same principle of shading a verb's meaning is handled by locative prefixes: Example: However, for verbs of motion, Muscogee has a large selection of verbs with a specific meaning: ossetv = to go out; ropottetv = to go through. Clauses in a sentence use switch-reference clitics to co-ordinate their subjects. The clitic -t on

14274-986: Was distinctive, as in a n us 'old woman' vs. a nn us 'year'. Vowel length was also distinctive in Latin until about the fourth century, and was reflected in the orthography with an apex . Geminates inherited from Latin still exist in Italian , in which [ˈanno] anno and [ˈaːno] ano contrast with regard to /nn/ and /n/ as in Latin. It has been almost completely lost in French and completely in Romanian . In West Iberian languages , former Latin geminate consonants often evolved to new phonemes, including some instances of nasal vowels in Portuguese and Old Galician as well as most cases of /ɲ/ and /ʎ/ in Spanish, but phonetic length of both consonants and vowels

14396-535: Was first tested in Conecuh County. Together use of these systems has increased the number of African Americans and women being elected to local offices, resulting in governments that are more representative of their citizens. Beginning in the 1960s, the state's economy shifted away from its traditional lumber, steel, and textile industries because of increased foreign competition. Steel jobs, for instance, declined from 46,314 in 1950 to 14,185 in 2011. However,

14518-508: Was moved to the current site of Mobile in 1711. This area was claimed by the French from 1702 to 1763 as part of La Louisiane . After the French lost to the British in the Seven Years' War , it became part of British West Florida from 1763 to 1783. After the U.S. victory in the American Revolutionary War , the territory was divided between the United States and Spain. The latter retained control of this western territory from 1783 until

14640-494: Was rebuilt on the same site in 1851. This second capitol building in Montgomery remains to the present day. It was designed by Barachias Holt of Exeter, Maine . By 1860, the population had increased to 964,201 people, of which nearly half, 435,080, were enslaved African Americans, and 2,690 were free people of color . On January 11, 1861, Alabama declared its secession from the Union . After remaining an independent republic for

14762-413: Was that Jefferson County , containing Birmingham's industrial and economic powerhouse, contributed more than one-third of all tax revenue to the state, but did not receive a proportional amount in services. Urban interests were consistently underrepresented in the legislature. A 1960 study noted that because of rural domination, "a minority of about 25% of the total state population is in majority control of

14884-544: Was the center of the culture. Analysis of artifacts from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars' formulating the characteristics of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC). Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no direct links to Mesoamerican culture but developed independently. The Ceremonial Complex represents a major component of the religion of

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