97-743: Mosque of Omar , Masjid Umar , Masjid-e-Umar , Al-Omari Mosque or Mosque of Omar ibn al-Khattab is a name given to many mosques, usually referring to Omar , a companion of Muhammad and Caliph (579-644) recognized by Sunni Muslims in the succession to Muhammad . Masjid is the Arabic word for a place of worship, commonly translated as mosque in English. Notable ones include (alphabetically, by city): Omar Others In terms of Ihsan : Umar ibn al-Khattab ( Arabic : عُمَر بْن ٱلْخَطَّاب , romanized : ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb ; c. 582/583 – 644 ), also spelled Omar ,
194-438: A poet himself, he developed a love for poetry and literature . According to the tradition of Quraish , while still in his teenage years, Umar learned martial arts , horse riding and wrestling . He was tall, physically powerful and a renowned wrestler. He was also a gifted orator who succeeded his father as an arbitrator among the tribes. Umar became a merchant and made several journeys to Rome and Persia , where he
291-537: A Roman merchant named Lun reached southern China in 226 CE. Archaeologists have recovered Roman objects dating from the period 27 BCE to 37 CE from excavation sites as far afield as the Kushan and Indus ports. The Romans sold purple and yellow dyes, brass and iron; they acquired incense , balsam , expensive liquid myrrh and spices from the Near East and India, fine silk from China and fine white marble destined for
388-598: A book called Merchants in Motion: the art of Vietnamese Street Vendors. Although merchant halls were known in antiquity, they fell into disuse and were not reinvented until Europe's Medieval period. During the 12th century, powerful guilds which controlled the way that trade was conducted were established and were often incorporated into the charters granted to market towns . By the 13th and 14th centuries, merchant guilds had acquired sufficient resources to erect guild halls in many major market towns. Many buildings have retained
485-691: A diverse range of product types. These merchants were concentrated in the larger cities. They often provided high levels of credit financing for retail transactions. In the nineteenth century, merchants and merchant houses played a role in opening up China and the Pacific to Anglo-American trade interests. Note for example Jardine Matheson & Co. and the merchants of New South Wales . Other merchants profited from natural resources (the Hudson's Bay Company theoretically controlled much of North America, names like Rockefeller and Nobel dominated trade in oil in
582-691: A group of musical performers; and dream merchant , which refers to someone who peddles idealistic visionary scenarios. Broadly, merchants can be classified into two categories: However, the term 'merchant' is often used in a variety of specialised contexts such as in merchant banker , merchant navy or merchant services . Merchants have existed as long as humans have conducted business, trade or commerce. A merchant class operated in many pre-modern societies . Open-air, public markets, where merchants and traders congregated, functioned in ancient Babylonia and Assyria, China, Egypt, Greece, India, Persia, Phoenicia and Rome. These markets typically occupied
679-552: A lowly profession and it was often subject to legal discrimination or restrictions, although in a few areas its status began to improve. The modern era is generally understood to refer to period that started with the rise of consumer culture in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Europe. As standards of living improved in the 17th century, consumers from a broad range of social backgrounds began to purchase goods that were in excess of basic necessities. An emergent middle class or bourgeoisie stimulated demand for luxury goods, and
776-578: A number of former Phoenician cities and colonies around the Mediterranean, such as Byblos (in present-day Lebanon ) and Carthage in North Africa. The social status of the merchant class varied across cultures; ranging from high status (the members even eventually achieving titles such as that of Merchant Prince or Nabob ) to low status, as in China , Greece and Roman cultures, owing to
873-428: A place in the town's centre. Surrounding the market, skilled artisans, such as metal-workers and leather workers, occupied premises in alley ways that led to the open market-place. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, but also prepared goods for sale on market days. In ancient Greece markets operated within the agora (open space), and in ancient Rome in the forum . Rome's forums included
970-612: A political coup against Ali at the Saqifah. According to one version of narrations in primary sources , Umar and Abu Bakr are also said to have used force to try to secure the allegiance from Ali and his party. It has been reported in mainly Persian historical sources written 300 years later, such as in the History of al-Tabari , that after Ali's refusal to pay homage, Abu Bakr sent Umar with an armed contingent to Fatimah 's house where Ali and his supporters are said to have gathered. Umar
1067-483: A system of agents. Merchants specialised in financing, organisation and transport while agents were domiciled overseas and acted on behalf of a principal. These arrangements first appeared on the route from Italy to the Levant, but by the end of the thirteenth century merchant colonies could be found from Paris, London, Bruges, Seville, Barcelona and Montpellier. Over time these partnerships became more commonplace and led to
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#17327763342531164-518: A very particular kind of person. Monks out in the Judaean desert had long been casting themselves as warriors of God. The achievement of Umar was to take such language to a literal and previously unimaginable extreme." Due to the delicate political situation in Arabia , Umar initially opposed military operations against the rebel tribes there, hoping to gain their support in the event of an invasion by
1261-447: Is believed to be the first example of a merchant guild. The term, guild was first used for gilda mercatoria and referred to body of merchants operating out of St. Omer, France in the 11th century. Similarly, London's Hanse was formed in the 12th century. These guilds controlled the way that trade was to be conducted and codified rules governing the conditions of trade. Rules established by merchant guilds were often incorporated into
1358-626: Is generally viewed by historians to be one of the most powerful and influential Muslim caliphs in history. He is revered in the Sunni Islamic tradition as a great just ruler and paragon of Islamic virtues, and some hadiths identify him as the second greatest of the Sahabah after Abu Bakr. However, he is viewed negatively in the Twelver Shia tradition. Umar was born in Mecca to
1455-588: Is reported to have warned those in the House that unless Ali succumbed to Abu Bakr, he would set the House on fire and under these circumstances Ali was forced to capitulate. This version of events, fully accepted by Shia scholars, is generally rejected by Sunni scholars who, in view of other reports in their literature, believe that Ali gave an oath of alliance to Abu Bakr without any grievance. But then other Sunni and Shia sources say that Ali did not swear allegiance to Abu Bakr after his election but six months later after
1552-481: Is said to have met various scholars and analyzed Roman and Persian societies. As a merchant he was unsuccessful. Like others around him, Umar was fond of drinking in his pre-Islamic days. In 610, Muhammad started preaching the message of Islam. However, like many others in Mecca, Umar opposed Islam and even threatened to kill Muhammad. He resolved to defend the traditional polytheistic religion of Arabia . He
1649-681: The Banu Adi clan, which was responsible for arbitration among the tribes. His father was Khattab ibn Nufayl and his mother was Hantama bint Hisham, from the tribe of Banu Makhzum . In his youth he used to tend to his father's camels in the plains near Mecca. His merchant father was famed for his intelligence among his tribe. Umar himself said: "My father, al-Khattab, was a ruthless man. He used to make me work hard; if I didn't work he used to beat me and he used to work me to exhaustion." Despite literacy being uncommon in pre-Islamic Arabia , Umar learned to read and write in his youth. Though not
1746-611: The Banu Hashim , the tribe of Ali , delivered to the latter his disputed estates in Khayber. He followed Abu Bakr's decision over the disputed land of Fidak, continuing to treat it as state property. In the Ridda wars, thousands of prisoners from rebel and apostate tribes were taken away as slaves during the expeditions. Umar ordered a general amnesty for the prisoners, and their immediate emancipation. This made Umar quite popular among
1843-518: The Bedouin tribes . With the necessary public support on his side, Umar took the bold decision of recalling Khalid ibn Walid from supreme command on the Roman front. The government of Umar was a unitary government , where the sovereign political authority was the caliph. The empire of Umar was divided into provinces and some autonomous territories, e.g., Azerbaijan and Armenia , that had accepted
1940-823: The Forum Romanum , the Forum Boarium and Trajan's Forum . The Forum Boarium, one of a series of fora venalia or food markets, originated, as its name suggests, as a cattle market. Trajan's Forum was a vast expanse, comprising multiple buildings with shops on four levels. The Roman forum was arguably the earliest example of a permanent retail shop-front. In antiquity, exchange involved direct selling through permanent or semi-permanent retail premises such as stall-holders at market places or shop-keepers selling from their own premises or through door-to-door direct sales via merchants or peddlers . The nature of direct selling centred around transactional exchange, where
2037-561: The Kaaba as the Quraish chiefs, Abu Jahl and Abu Sufyan , reportedly watched in anger . This further helped the Muslims to gain confidence in practicing Islam openly. At this stage Umar even challenged anyone who dared to stop the Muslims from praying , although no one dared to interfere with Umar when he was openly praying. Umar's conversion to Islam granted power to the Muslims and to
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#17327763342532134-454: The Kaaba . Umar participated in almost all battles and expeditions under Muhammad, who bestowed the title al-Fārūq upon him, for his judgements. After Muhammad's death in June 632, Umar pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr ( r. 632–634 ) as the first caliph and served as the closest adviser to the latter until August 634, when the dying Abu Bakr nominated Umar as his successor. Under Umar,
2231-546: The Mediterranean , becoming a major trading power by the 9th century BCE. Phoenician merchant traders imported and exported wood, textiles, glass and produce such as wine, oil, dried fruit and nuts. Their trading necessitated a network of colonies along the Mediterranean coast, stretching from modern-day Crete through to Tangiers (in present-day Morocco ) and northward to Sardinia . The Phoenicians not only traded in tangible goods, but were also instrumental in transporting
2328-591: The 1530s. These included including Georg Giese of Danzig ; Hillebrant Wedigh of Cologne ; Dirk Tybis of Duisburg ; Hans of Antwerp , Hermann Wedigh, Johann Schwarzwald, Cyriacus Kale, Derich Born and Derick Berck. Paintings of groups of merchants, notably officers of the merchant guilds, also became subject matter for artists and documented the rise of important mercantile organisations. In 2022, Dutch photographer Loes Heerink spend hours on bridges in Hanoi to take pictures of Vietnamese street Merchants. She published
2425-537: The 17th century. They stood out in international trade due to their vast network – mostly built by Armenian migrants spread across Eurasia. Armenians had established prominent trade-relations with all big export players such as India, China, Persia, the Ottoman Empire, England, Venice, the Levant, etc. Soon they captured Eastern and Western Europe, Russia, the Levant, the Middle East, Central Asia, India, and
2522-477: The 18th century with governmental encouragement of nobles to invest in trade, and the lifting of old bans on nobles engaging in economic activities. As Britain continued colonial expansion , large commercial organisations came to provide a market for more sophisticated information about trading conditions in foreign lands. Daniel Defoe ( c. 1660–1731), a London merchant, published information on trade and economic resources of England, Scotland and India. Defoe
2619-469: The 21st century. Elizabeth Honig has argued that artists, especially the painters of Antwerp , developed a fascination with merchants from the mid-16th century. The wealthier merchants also had the means to commission artworks with the result that individual merchants and their families became important subject matter for artists. For instance, Hans Holbein the younger painted a series of portraits of Hanseatic merchants working out of London's Steelyard in
2716-551: The Ansar into their old warring factions of Aws and Khazraj tribes. Umar resolved the divisions by placing his hand on that of Abu Bakr as a unity candidate for those gathered in the Saqifah. Others at the Saqifah followed suit, with the exception of the Khazraj tribe and their leader, Sa'd ibn 'Ubada , who were ostracized as a result. The Khazraj tribe is said to have posed no significant threat as there were sufficient men of war from
2813-467: The European medieval period , a rapid expansion in trade and commerce led to the rise of a wealthy and powerful merchant class . The European Age of Discovery opened up new trading routes and gave European consumers access to a much broader range of goods. By the 18th century, a new type of manufacturer-merchant had started to emerge and modern business practices were becoming evident. The status of
2910-548: The Far East trade routes, carrying out mostly caravan -trade activities. A significant reason for Armenians' massive involvement in international trade was their geographic location – the Armenian lands stand at the crossroads between Asia and Europe. Another reason was their religion, as they were a Christian nation isolated between Muslim Iran and Muslim Turkey. European Christians preferred to carry out trade with Christians in
3007-580: The Islamic faith in Mecca. It was after this event that Muslims offered prayers openly in Masjid al-Haram for the first time. Abdullah ibn Masud said, Umar's embracing Islam was our victory, his migration to Medina was our success, and his reign a blessing from Allah. We didn't offer prayers in al-Haram Mosque until Umar had accepted Islam. When he accepted Islam, the Quraysh were compelled to let us pray in
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3104-727: The Medinan tribes such as the Banu Aws to immediately organize them into a military bodyguard for Abu Bakr. Wilferd Madelung summarises Umar's contribution: Umar judged the outcome of the Saqifa assembly to be a falta [translated by Madelung as 'a precipitate and ill-considered deal' ] because of the absence of most of the prominent Muhajirun, including the Prophet's own family and clan, whose participation he considered vital for any legitimate consultation (shura, mashwara). It was, he warned
3201-509: The Mediterranean; its fame travelled as far away as modern southern France. Other notable Roman merchants included Marcus Julius Alexander (16 – 44 CE), Sergius Orata (fl. c. 95 BCE) and Annius Plocamus (1st century CE). In the Roman world, local merchants served the needs of the wealthier landowners. While the local peasantry, who were generally poor, relied on open-air market places to buy and sell produce and wares, major producers such as
3298-632: The Middle English, marchant , which is derived from Anglo-Norman marchaunt , which itself originated from the Vulgar Latin mercatant or mercatans , formed from present participle of mercatare ('to trade, to traffic or to deal in'). The term refers to any type of reseller, but can also be used with a specific qualifier to suggest a person who deals in a given characteristic such as speed merchant , which refer to someone who enjoys fast driving; noise merchant , which refers to
3395-722: The Mosque. In 622 CE, due to the safety offered by Yathrib (later renamed Medīnat an-Nabī, or simply Medina ), Muhammad ordered his followers to migrate to Medina. Most Muslims migrated at night fearing Quraish resistance, but Umar is reported to have left openly during the day saying: "Any one who wants to make his wife a widow and his children orphans should come and meet me there behind that cliff." Umar migrated to Medina accompanied by his cousin and brother-in-law Saeed ibn Zaid. Campaigns Umar led during time of Muhammad Expedition of Umar ibn al-Khatab Campaigns Umar ordered During Umar's reign as caliph Muhammad ibn Muslamah
3492-523: The Muslim rear, turning the tide of battle, rumours of Muhammad's death were spread and many Muslim warriors were routed from the battlefield, Umar among them. However, hearing that Muhammad was still alive, he went to Muhammad at the mountain of Uhud and prepared for the defence of the hill. Later in the year Umar was a part of a campaign against the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir . In 625, Umar's daughter Hafsah
3589-502: The Muslims had given their pledge of loyalty to Umar, he was feared more than loved. According to Muhammad Husayn Haykal , the first challenge for Umar was to win over his subjects and the members of Majlis al Shura. Umar was a gifted orator, and he used his ability to improve his reputation among the people. Muhammad Husayn Haykal wrote that Umar's stress was on the well-being of the poor and underprivileged. In addition to this, Umar, in order to improve his reputation and relation with
3686-1086: The Quraish and decided to have Muhammad assassinated . Umar converted to Islam in 616, one year after the Migration to Abyssinia. The story was recounted in Ibn Ishaq 's Sīrah . On his way to murder Muhammad, Umar met his best friend Nu'aym ibn Abd Allah, who had secretly converted to Islam but had not told Umar. When Umar informed him that he had set out to kill Muhammad, Nu'aym said, “By God, you have deceived yourself, O Umar? Do you think that Banu Abd al-Manaf would let you run around alive once you had killed their son Muhammad? Why don't you return to your own house and at least set it straight?" Nu'aym then told him to inquire about his own house, where his sister, Fatima bint Al-Khattab , and his brother-in-law had converted to Islam and were taking lessons from Khabbab ibn Al-Aratt . Upon arriving at her house, Umar found Fatima and her husband Saeed bin Zaid (Umar's cousin) reciting
3783-580: The Quran in the form of a book after 300 huffāẓ (memorizers) of the Quran died in the Battle of Yamamah . Abu Bakr appointed Umar as his successor before dying in 634 CE. Due to his strict and autocratic nature, Umar was not a very popular figure among the notables of Medina and members of Majlis al Shura ; accordingly, high-ranking companions of Abu Bakr attempted to discourage him from naming Umar. Nevertheless, Abu Bakr decided to make Umar his successor. Umar
3880-469: The Roman wholesale market from Arabia. For Roman consumers, the purchase of goods from the East was a symbol of social prestige . Medieval England and Europe witnessed a rapid expansion in trade and the rise of a wealthy and powerful merchant class. Blintiff has investigated the early Medieval networks of market towns and suggests that by the 12th century there was an upsurge in the number of market towns and
3977-509: The Romans did not consider the activities of merchants "respectable". In the ancient cities of the Middle East, where the bazaar was the city's focal point and heartbeat, merchants who worked in bazaar enjoyed high social status and formed part of local elites. In Medieval Western Europe, the Christian church, which closely associated merchants' activities with the sin of usury , criticised
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4074-517: The Romans or the Persians. Later, however, he came to agree with Abu Bakr's strategy to crush the rebellion by force. By late 632 CE, Khalid ibn Walid had successfully united Arabia after consecutive victories against the rebels. During his own reign later, Umar would mostly adopt the policy of avoiding wars and consolidating his power in the incorporated lands rather than expanding his empire through continuous warfare. Umar advised Abu Bakr to compile
4171-581: The US and in the Russian Empire), while still others made fortunes from exploiting new inventions – selling space on and commodities carried by railways and steamships. In fully planned economies of the 20th century, planners replaced merchants in organising the distribution of goods and services . However, merchants, increasingly labelled with euphemisms such as "industrialists", "businessmen", "entrepreneurs" or "oligarchs" , continue their activities in
4268-404: The act of shopping came to be seen as a pleasurable pastime or form of entertainment. 16th century Spanish and 17th century English nobles had been enticed into participating in trade by the profitability of colonial expeditions. In the 17th century, members of the nobility in many European countries like France or Spain still disliked engaging in merchant activities, but such attitudes changed in
4365-423: The best man among your men. Abu Bakr was aware of Umar's power and ability to succeed him. His was perhaps one of the smoothest transitions of power from one authority to another in the Muslim lands. Before his death, Abu Bakr called Uthman to write his will in which he declared Umar his successor. In his will he instructed Umar to continue the conquests on Iraqi and Syrian fronts. Even though almost all of
4462-756: The caliphate expanded at an unprecedented rate, conquering the Sasanian Empire and more than two-thirds of the Byzantine Empire . His attacks against the Sasanian Empire resulted in the conquest of Persia in less than two years (642–644). According to Jewish tradition, Umar set aside the Christian ban on Jews and allowed them into Jerusalem and to worship. Umar was assassinated by the Persian slave Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz in 644. Umar
4559-437: The chances of corruption, Umar made it a point to pay high salaries to the staff. Provincial governors received as much as five to seven thousand dirham annually besides their shares of the spoils of war (if they were also the commander in chief of the army of their sector). Under Umar the empire was divided into the following provinces: Umar was first to establish a special department for the investigation of complaints against
4656-744: The charge. On occasion, the officers against whom complaints were received were summoned to Medina, and charged in Umar's administrative court. Umar was known for this intelligence service through which he made his officials accountable. This service was also said to have inspired fear in his subjects. Merchant A merchant is a person who trades in commodities produced by other people, especially one who trades with foreign countries. Merchants have been known for as long as humans have engaged in trade and commerce. Merchants and merchant networks operated in ancient Babylonia , Assyria , China , Egypt , Greece , India , Persia , Phoenicia and Rome . During
4753-604: The charters granted to market towns . In the early 12th century, a confederation of merchant guilds, formed out the German cities of Lübeck and Hamburg, known as "The Hanseatic League " came to dominate trade around the Baltic Sea . By the 13th and 14th centuries, merchant guilds had sufficient resources to have erected guild halls in many major market towns. During the thirteenth century, European businesses became more permanent and were able to maintain sedentary merchants and
4850-579: The community in the mosque, saying: "Whoever worshiped Muhammad, let them know that Muhammad has died, and whoever worshiped Allah, let them know that Allah is alive and never dies." Abū Bakr then recited these verses from the Qur'an 3:144 : " Muhammad is but a messenger; messengers (the like of whom) have passed away before him. If, then, he dies or is killed, will you turn back on your heel? " Hearing this, Umar fell on his knees in sorrow and acceptance. Sunni Muslims say that this denial of Muhammad's death
4947-460: The community, to be no precedent for the future. Yet he also defended the outcome, claiming that the Muslims were longing for Abu Bakr as for no one else. He apologized, moreover, that the Muhajirun present were forced to press for an immediate oath of allegiance since the Ansar could not have been trusted to wait for a legitimate consultation and might have proceeded to elect one of their own after
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#17327763342535044-503: The death of his wife Fatimah putting into question al-Tabari's account. Either way the Sunni and the Shia accounts both accept that Ali felt that Abu Bakr should have informed him before going into the meeting with the Ansar and that Ali did swear allegiance to Abu Bakr. Western scholars tend to agree that Ali believed he had a clear mandate to succeed Muhammad, but offer differing views as to
5141-540: The departure of the Mekkans. Another reason for Umar to censure the Saqifa meeting as a falta was no doubt its turbulent and undignified end, as he and his followers jumped upon the sick Khazraji leader Sa'd bin Ubada in order to teach him a lesson, if not to kill him, for daring to challenge the sole right of Quraysh to rule. This violent break-up of the meeting indicates, moreover, that the Ansar cannot all have been swayed by
5238-402: The development of large trading companies. These developments also triggered innovations such as double-entry book-keeping, commercial accountancy, international banking including access to lines of credit, marine insurance and commercial courier services. These developments are sometimes known as the commercial revolution. Luca Clerici has made a detailed study of Vicenza's food market during
5335-747: The eighteenth century, a new type of manufacturer-merchant was emerging and modern business practices were becoming evident. Many merchants held showcases of goods in their private homes for the benefit of wealthier clients. Samuel Pepys , for example, writing in 1660, describes being invited to the home of a retailer to view a wooden jack. McKendrick, Brewer and Plumb found extensive evidence of eighteenth-century English entrepreneurs and merchants using "modern" marketing techniques, including product differentiation , sales promotion and loss-leader pricing. English industrialists, Josiah Wedgewood (1730–1795) and Matthew Boulton (1728–1809), are often portrayed as pioneers of modern mass-marketing methods. Wedgewood
5432-460: The emergence of merchant circuits as traders bulked up surpluses from smaller regional, different day markets and resold them at the larger centralised market towns. Peddlers or itinerant merchants filled any gaps in the distribution system. From the 11th century, the Crusades helped to open up new trade routes in the Near East, while the adventurer and merchant, Marco Polo stimulated interest in
5529-549: The enemy. In 630, when Muslim armies rushed for the conquest of Mecca , he was part of that army. Later in 630, he fought in the Battle of Hunayn and the Siege of Ta'if . He was part of the Muslim army that contested the Battle of Tabouk under Muhammad's command and he was reported to have given half of his wealth for the preparation of this expedition. He also participated in the farewell Hajj of Muhammad in 632. When Muhammad died on 8 June 632 Umar initially disbelieved that he
5626-524: The error of conceit. Do not keep your doors shut in their faces, lest the more powerful of them eat up the weaker ones. And do not behave as if you were superior to them, for that is tyranny over them. Various other strict codes of conduct were to be obeyed by the governors and state officials. The principal officers were required to travel to Mecca on the occasion of the Hajj, during which people were free to present any complaint against them. In order to minimize
5723-458: The extent of use of force by Umar in an attempt to intimidate Ali and his supporters. For instance, Madelung discounts the possibility of the use of force and argues that: Isolated reports of use of force against Ali and Banu Hashim who unanimously refused to swear allegiance for six months are probably to be discounted. Abu Bakr no doubt was wise enough to restrain Umar from any violence against them, well realizing that this would inevitably provoke
5820-575: The far East in the 13th century. Medieval merchants began to trade in exotic goods imported from distant shores including spices, wine, food, furs, fine cloth (notably silk), glass, jewellery and many other luxury goods . Market towns began to spread across the landscape during the medieval period. Merchant guilds began to form during the Medieval period. A fraternity formed by the merchants of Tiel in Gelderland (in present-day Netherlands) in 1020
5917-526: The fine cloth imports while the Hanseatic League controlled most of the trade in the Baltic Sea. A detailed study of European trade between the thirteenth and fifteenth century demonstrates that the European age of discovery acted as a major driver of change. In 1600, goods travelled relatively short distances: grain 5–10 miles; cattle 40–70 miles; wool and wollen cloth 20–40 miles. However, in
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#17327763342536014-412: The floor of his atrium were decorated with images of amphorae bearing his personal brand and inscribed with quality claims. One of the inscriptions on the mosaic amphora reads "G(ari) F(los) SCO[m]/ SCAURI/ EX OFFI[ci]/NA SCAU/RI" which translates as "The flower of garum, made of the mackerel, a product of Scaurus, from the shop of Scaurus". Scaurus' fish sauce had a reputation for very high quality across
6111-439: The goods were on open display, allowing buyers to evaluate quality directly through visual inspection. Relationships between merchant and consumer were minimal often playing into public concerns about the quality of produce. The Phoenicians became well known amongst contemporaries as "traders in purple" – a reference to their monopoly over the purple dye extracted from the murex shell. The Phoenicians plied their ships across
6208-505: The great estates were sufficiently attractive for merchants to call directly at their farm-gates. The very wealthy landowners managed their own distribution, which may have involved exporting. Markets were also important centres of social life, and merchants helped to spread news and gossip. The nature of export markets in antiquity is well documented in ancient sources and in archaeological case-studies. Both Greek and Roman merchants engaged in long-distance trade. A Chinese text records that
6305-481: The ground, others claim Fatima was merely hit on accident and lost balance when trying to pull Umar off of Saeed. In both cases, however, his sister began to bleed from her mouth. Seeing what he had done, Umar calmed down out of guilt and asked Fatima to give him what she was reciting. She replied in the negative and said "You are unclean, and no unclean person can touch the Scripture." He insisted, but his sister
6402-515: The highest level of exchange, they transferred a more outward-looking mindset and system of values to their commercial-exchange transactions, and also helped to disseminate a more global awareness to broader society and therefore acted as agents of change for local society. Successful, open-minded cosmopolitan merchants began to acquire a more esteemed social position within the political elites. They were often sought as advisors for high-level political agents. The English nabobs belong to this era. By
6499-612: The meeting, presumably to head off the Ansars' plans for political separation. Arriving at the meeting, Umar was faced with a unified community of tribes from the Ansar who refused to accept the leadership of the Muhajirs. However, Umar was undeterred in his belief the caliphate should be under the control of the Muhajirs. Though the Khazraj were in disagreement, Umar, after strained negotiations lasting one or two days, brilliantly divided
6596-507: The merchant class, strongly influencing attitudes towards them. In Greco-Roman society, merchants typically did not have high social status, though they may have enjoyed great wealth. Umbricius Scauras, for example, was a manufacturer and trader of garum in Pompeii, circa 35 C.E. His villa, situated in one of the wealthier districts of Pompeii, was very large and ornately decorated in a show of substantial personal wealth. Mosaic patterns in
6693-487: The merchant has varied during different periods of history and among different societies. In modern times, the term merchant has occasionally been used to refer to a businessperson or someone undertaking activities (commercial or industrial) for the purpose of generating profit, cash flow, sales, and revenue using a combination of human, financial, intellectual and physical capital with a view to fueling economic development and growth. The English term, merchant comes from
6790-634: The nobility. This trading system supported various levels of pochteca – from very high status merchants through to minor traders who acted as a type of peddler to fill in gaps in the distribution system. The Spanish conquerors commented on the impressive nature of the local and regional markets in the 15th century. The Mexica ( Aztec ) market of Tlatelolco was the largest in all the Americas and said to be superior to those in Europe. In much of Renaissance Europe and even after, merchant trade remained seen as
6887-536: The officers of the State. This department acted as the Administrative court , where the legal proceedings were personally led by Umar. The department was under the charge of Muhammad ibn Maslamah , one of Umar's most trusted men. In important cases Muhammad ibn Maslamah was deputed by Umar to proceed to the spot, investigate the charge and take action. Sometimes an Inquiry Commission was constituted to investigate
6984-421: The people in the main mosque , and read the instrument of instructions before them. Umar's general instructions to his officers were: Remember, I have not appointed you as commanders and tyrants over the people. I have sent you as leaders instead, so that the people may follow your example. Give the Muslims their rights and do not beat them lest they become abused. Do not praise them unduly, lest they fall into
7081-401: The presumed distastefulness of profiting from "mere" trade rather than from labor or the labor of others as in agriculture and craftsmanship . The Romans defined merchants or traders in a very narrow sense. Merchants were those who bought and sold goods, while landowners who sold their own produce were not classed as merchants. Being a landowner was a "respectable" occupation. On the other hand,
7178-518: The provincial level were: In some districts there were separate military officers, though the Wali was, in most cases, the Commander-in-chief of the army quartered in the province. Every appointment was made in writing. At the time of appointment an instrument of instructions was issued with a view to regulating the Wali's conduct. On assuming office, the Wali was required to assemble
7275-491: The region. Eighteenth-century merchants who traded in foreign markets developed a network of relationships which crossed national boundaries, religious affiliations, family ties, and gender. The historian, Vannneste, has argued that a new " cosmopolitan merchant mentality" based on trust, reciprocity and a culture of communal support developed and helped to unify the early modern world. Given that these cosmopolitan merchants were embedded within their societies and participated in
7372-424: The sake of the publicity and kudos generated. Both Wedgewood and Boulton staged expansive showcases of their wares in their private residences or in rented halls. Eighteenth-century American merchants, who had been operating as importers and exporters, began to specialise in either wholesale or retail roles. They tended not to specialise in particular types of merchandise, often trading as general merchants, selling
7469-458: The sense of solidarity of the majority of Abdul Mannaf whose acquiescence he needed. His policy was rather not isolating Banu Hashim as far as possible. According to Tom Holland, Umar's historicity is beyond dispute. An Armenian bishop writing a decade or so after Qadisiyya describes Umar as a "mighty potentate coordinating the advance of the sons of Ismael from the depths of the desert". Tom Holland writes "What added incomparably to his prestige,
7566-431: The sixteenth century. He found that there were many different types of merchants operating out of the markets. For example, in the dairy trade, cheese and butter was sold by the members of two craft guilds (i.e., cheesemongers who were shopkeepers) and that of the so-called ‘resellers’ (hucksters selling a wide range of foodstuffs), and by other sellers who were not enrolled in any guild. Cheesemongers’ shops were situated at
7663-400: The suzerainty of the caliphate. The provinces were administered by the provincial governors or Wali , personally and fastidiously selected by Umar. Provinces were further divided into about 100 districts. Each district or main city was under the charge of a junior governor or Amir, usually appointed by Umar himself, but occasionally also appointed by the provincial governor. Other officers at
7760-595: The town hall and were very lucrative. Resellers and direct sellers increased the number of sellers, thus increasing competition, to the benefit of consumers. Direct sellers, who brought produce from the surrounding countryside, sold their wares through the central market place and priced their goods at considerably lower rates than cheesemongers. From 1300 through to the 1800s a large number of European chartered and merchant companies were established to exploit international trading opportunities. The Company of Merchant Adventurers of London , chartered in 1407, controlled most of
7857-524: The trappings of culture. The Phoenicians' extensive trade networks necessitated considerable book-keeping and correspondence. In around 1500 BCE, the Phoenicians developed a script which was much easier to learn than the pictographic systems used in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Phoenician traders and merchants were largely responsible for spreading their alphabet around the region. Phoenician inscriptions have been found in archaeological sites at
7954-450: The verses of the Quran from Surat Ta-Ha . He started quarreling with Saeed and physically attacking him. When his sister came to rescue her husband, he also started arguing with her. Yet still they kept on saying "you may kill us but we will not give up Islam". Sources differ on what happened next: While some say that upon hearing these words, Umar slapped his sister so hard that she fell to
8051-557: The wisdom and eloquence of Abu Bakr's speech and have accepted him as the best choice for the succession, as suggested by Caetani . There would have been no sense in beating up the Khazraji chief if everybody had come around to swearing allegiance to Umar's candidate. A substantial number of the Ansar, presumably of Khazraj in particular, must have refused to follow the lead of the Muhajirun. According to various Twelver Shia sources and Madelung, Umar and Abu Bakr had in effect mounted
8148-622: The years following the opening up of Asia and the discovery of the New World, goods were imported from very long distances: calico cloth from India, porcelain, silk and tea from China, spices from India and South-East Asia and tobacco, sugar, rum and coffee from the New World. In Mesoamerica, a tiered system of traders developed independently. The local markets, where people purchased their daily needs were known as tianguis while pochteca referred to long-distance, professional merchants traders who obtained rare goods and luxury items desired by
8245-543: Was a prolific pamphleteer. His many publications include titles devoted to trade, including: Trade of Britain Stated (1707); Trade of Scotland with France (1713); The Trade to India Critically and Calmly Considered (1720) and A Plan of the English Commerce (1731); all pamphlets that became highly popular with contemporary merchants and business houses. Armenians operated as a prominent trade nation during
8342-420: Was able to generate higher overall profits. Similarly, one of Wedgewood's contemporaries, Matthew Boulton, pioneered early mass-production techniques and product differentiation at his Soho Manufactory in the 1760s. He also practiced planned obsolescence and understood the importance of " celebrity marketing " – that is supplying the nobility, often at prices below cost – and of obtaining royal patronage , for
8439-468: Was adamant and cruel in opposing Muhammad, and very prominent in persecuting Muslims. He recommended Muhammad's death. He firmly believed in the unity of the Quraish and saw the new faith of Islam as a cause of division and discord. Due to persecution, Muhammad ordered some of his followers to migrate to Abyssinia. When a small group of Muslims migrated, Umar became worried about the future unity of
8536-460: Was assigned the office of Chief Inspector of Accountability. Muslims remained in peace in Medina for approximately a year before the Quraish raised an army to attack them. In 624, Umar participated in the first battle between Muslims and Quraish of Mecca i.e., the Battle of Badr . In 625, he took part in the Battle of Uhud . In the second phase of the battle, when Khalid ibn Walid 's cavalry attacked
8633-480: Was dead. It is said that Umar promised to strike the head of any man who would say that Muhammad died. Umar said: "He has not died but rather he has gone to his lord just as Moses went, remaining absent from his people for forty nights after which he has returned to them. By Allah, the messenger of Allah will indeed return just as Moses returned (to his people) and he will cut off the hands and legs of those men who claimed he has died." Abu Bakr then publicly spoke to
8730-506: Was hiding inside and said: "O, Umar! Glad tidings for you. Yesterday Muhammad prayed to Allah, 'O, Allah! Strengthen Islam with either Umar or Abu Jahl , whomsoever Thou likest.' It seems that his prayer has been answered in your favour." Umar then went to Muhammad with the same sword he intended to kill him with and accepted Islam in front of him and his companions. Umar was 39 years old when he accepted Islam. According to one account, after his conversion to Islam, Umar openly prayed at
8827-494: Was known to have used marketing techniques such as direct mail , travelling salesmen and catalogues in the eighteenth century. Wedgewood also carried out serious investigations into the fixed and variable costs of production and recognised that increased production would lead to lower unit-costs. He also inferred that selling at lower prices would lead to higher demand and recognised the value of achieving scale economies in production. By cutting costs and lowering prices, Wedgewood
8924-537: Was married to Muhammad. Later in 627, he participated in the Battle of the Trench and also in the Battle of Banu Qurayza . In 628, Umar witnessed the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah . In 628, he fought in the Battle of Khaybar . In 629, Muhammad sent Amr ibn al-A’as to Zaat-ul-Sallasal , after which, Muhammad sent Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah with reinforcements, including Abu Bakr and Umar, whereupon they attacked and defeated
9021-513: Was not prepared to allow him to touch the pages unless he washed his body. Umar at last gave in. He washed his body and then began to read the verses that were: Verily, I am Allah: there is no God but Me; so serve Me (only), and establish regular prayer for My remembrance (Quran 20:14). He wept and declared, "Surely this is the word of Allah. I bear witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah". On hearing this, Khabbab came out from where he
9118-642: Was occasioned by his deep love for him. Umar's political capacity first manifested as the architect of the caliphate after Muhammad died on 8 June 632. While the funeral of Muhammad was being arranged a group of Muhammad's followers who were natives of Medina, the Ansar (helpers), organised a meeting on the outskirts of the city, effectively locking out those companions known as Muhajirs (The Emigrants) including Umar. Umar found out about this meeting at Saqifah Bani Saadah , and, taking with him two other Muhajirs, Abu Bakr and Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah , proceeded to
9215-472: Was that his earth-shaking qualities as a generalissimo were combined with the most distinctive cast of virtues. Rather than ape the manner of a Caesar, as the Ghassanid kings had done, he drew on the example of a quite different kind of Christian. Umar's threadbare robes, his diet of bread, salt and water, and his rejection of worldly riches would have reminded anyone from the desert reaches beyond Palestine of
9312-426: Was the second Rashidun caliph , ruling from August 634, when he succeeded Abu Bakr ( r. 632–634 ) as the second caliph, until his assassination in 644. Umar was a senior companion and father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad . Umar initially opposed Muhammad, his distant Qurayshite kinsman and later son-in-law. Following his conversion to Islam in 616, he became the first Muslim to openly pray at
9409-445: Was well known for his extraordinary willpower, intelligence, political astuteness, impartiality, justice, and care for the poor. Abu Bakr is reported to have said to the high-ranking advisers: His (Umar's) strictness was there because of my softness when the weight of Caliphate will be over his shoulders he will remain no longer strict. If I will be asked by God to whom I have appointed my successor, I will tell him that I have appointed
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