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157-560: Narrowly, mass communication is the transmission of messages to many recipients at a time. However, mass communication can be broadly understood as the process of extensive circulation of information within regions and across the globe. Through mass communication, information can be transmitted quickly to many people who do not necessarily live near the source. Mass communication is practiced through various channels known as mediums, which include radio , television , social networking , billboards , newspapers , magazines , books , film , and

314-471: A directional antenna transmits radio waves in a beam in a particular direction, or receives waves from only one direction. Radio waves travel at the speed of light in vacuum and at slightly lower velocity in air. The other types of electromagnetic waves besides radio waves, infrared , visible light , ultraviolet , X-rays and gamma rays , can also carry information and be used for communication. The wide use of radio waves for telecommunication

471-418: A microphone , a video signal representing moving images from a video camera , or a digital signal consisting of a sequence of bits representing binary data from a computer. The modulation signal is applied to a radio transmitter . In the transmitter, an electronic oscillator generates an alternating current oscillating at a radio frequency , called the carrier wave because it serves to generate

628-497: A radar screen . Doppler radar can measure a moving object's velocity, by measuring the change in frequency of the return radio waves due to the Doppler effect . Radar sets mainly use high frequencies in the microwave bands, because these frequencies create strong reflections from objects the size of vehicles and can be focused into narrow beams with compact antennas. Parabolic (dish) antennas are widely used. In most radars

785-632: A transmitter connected to an antenna which radiates oscillating electrical energy, often characterized as a wave . They can be received by other antennas connected to a radio receiver ; this is the fundamental principle of radio communication. In addition to communication, radio is used for radar , radio navigation , remote control , remote sensing , and other applications. In radio communication , used in radio and television broadcasting , cell phones, two-way radios , wireless networking , and satellite communication , among numerous other uses, radio waves are used to carry information across space from

942-474: A " push to talk " button on their radio which switches off the receiver and switches on the transmitter. Or the radio link may be full duplex , a bidirectional link using two radio channels so both people can talk at the same time, as in a cell phone. One way, unidirectional radio transmission is called simplex . This is radio communication between a spacecraft and an Earth-based ground station, or another spacecraft. Communication with spacecraft involves

1099-413: A "radical challenge to the professionalized and institutionalized practices of the mainstream media". According to Flew, there have been three elements critical to the rise of citizen journalism: open publishing, collaborative editing, and distributed content. Mark Glaser said in 2006: …people without professional journalism training can use the tools of modern technology and the global distribution of

1256-408: A Peek-A-Boo World effect in which the constant flow and availability of information causes certain events become very popular but quickly fizzle out. This method of perception was coined by communications scholar George Gerbner and is associated with the impact of mass communication on one's thoughts of the world they live in. It was characterized to explain how people who are constantly subjected to

1413-627: A Service Regulation specifying that "Radiotelegrams shall show in the preamble that the service is 'Radio ' ". The switch to radio in place of wireless took place slowly and unevenly in the English-speaking world. Lee de Forest helped popularize the new word in the United States—in early 1907, he founded the DeForest Radio Telephone Company, and his letter in the 22 June 1907 Electrical World about

1570-412: A controller device control the actions of a remote device. The existence of radio waves was first proven by German physicist Heinrich Hertz on 11 November 1886. In the mid-1890s, building on techniques physicists were using to study electromagnetic waves, Italian physicist Guglielmo Marconi developed the first apparatus for long-distance radio communication, sending a wireless Morse Code message to

1727-446: A different refereed academic journal that reflects the research that is being performed in the field of mass communication and offers resources for researchers and academics within the field. Radio Radio is the technology of communicating using radio waves . Radio waves are electromagnetic waves of frequency between 3  hertz (Hz) and 300  gigahertz (GHz). They are generated by an electronic device called

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1884-512: A former reporter for The Baltimore Sun and writer-producer of the television series The Wire , criticized the concept of citizen journalism, claiming that unpaid bloggers who write as a hobby cannot replace trained, professional, seasoned journalists. "I am offended to think that anyone, anywhere believes American institutions as insulated, self-preserving and self-justifying as police departments, school systems, legislatures and chief executives can be held to gathered facts by amateurs pursuing

2041-421: A given bandwidth than analog modulation , by using data compression algorithms, which reduce redundancy in the data to be sent, and more efficient modulation. Other reasons for the transition is that digital modulation has greater noise immunity than analog, digital signal processing chips have more power and flexibility than analog circuits, and a wide variety of types of information can be transmitted using

2198-715: A global scale. The circulation of information and news does not fully divulge the accurate perceptions of what is going on in the world. For instance, On Our Radar contains reporting mechanisms and trained residents that reveal their voices while questioning the reluctance journalism has when considering what voices are heard and are not, based in London. On Our Radar has undertaken in making the voices in Sierra Leone heard in regards to Ebola, revealing that it contained easy access to vital sources of  information and opened more opportunities for questions and reports. Depending on

2355-548: A government license, such as the general radiotelephone operator license in the US, obtained by taking a test demonstrating adequate technical and legal knowledge of safe radio operation. Exceptions to the above rules allow the unlicensed operation by the public of low power short-range transmitters in consumer products such as cell phones, cordless phones , wireless devices , walkie-talkies , citizens band radios , wireless microphones , garage door openers , and baby monitors . In

2512-429: A higher entity. The various forms citizen journalism is formed has outdated many news and media sources as result of the authentic approach citizen journalists carry out. During the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests , fraudulent pictures encouraging people to pose as reporters and abuse freedom of press regulations to obstruct the police were widely circulated on social media with the aim to discredit citizen journalists. In

2669-533: A huge tsunami in Banda Aceh Indonesia and across the Indian Ocean, a weblog-based virtual network of previously unrelated bloggers emerged that covered the news in real-time, and became a vital source for the traditional media for the first week after the tsunami. A large amount of news footage from many people who experienced the tsunami was widely broadcast, as well as a good deal of "on

2826-587: A large economic cost, but it can also be life-threatening (for example, in the case of interference with emergency communications or air traffic control ). To prevent interference between different users, the emission of radio waves is strictly regulated by national laws, coordinated by an international body, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which allocates bands in the radio spectrum for different uses. Radio transmitters must be licensed by governments, under

2983-411: A live audience and then uploaded, enabling the public to listen to their favorite podcast hosts live. With the introduction of podcasts in the 2000s, people can now share niche interests, news, and conversations to a larger audience than was possible using traditional radio. Convergence refers to the coming together of telecommunications as forms of mass communication in a digital media environment. There

3140-443: A mainstream term, people have begun to wonder how and why it continues to happen. Nev Schulman , host of the show, has said, "I think people will always be looking to fall in love. People will always hope for things to get better. For better or worse, there will always be people who may or may not look to take advantage of that." Recordings, developed in the 1870s, became the first non-print form of mass communication. The invention of

3297-595: A metal conductor called an antenna . As they travel farther from the transmitting antenna, radio waves spread out so their signal strength ( intensity in watts per square meter) decreases (see Inverse-square law ), so radio transmissions can only be received within a limited range of the transmitter, the distance depending on the transmitter power, the antenna radiation pattern , receiver sensitivity, background noise level, and presence of obstructions between transmitter and receiver . An omnidirectional antenna transmits or receives radio waves in all directions, while

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3454-427: A more limited information-carrying capacity and so work best with audio signals (speech and music), and the sound quality can be degraded by radio noise from natural and artificial sources. The shortwave bands have a greater potential range but are more subject to interference by distant stations and varying atmospheric conditions that affect reception. In the very high frequency band, greater than 30 megahertz,

3611-656: A playlist for its users with tracks and podcast segments based on any artist or playlist they wish. Podcasts A podcast is an audio file that is recorded and digitally uploaded to an online platform in order to be downloaded and listened to by the general public. Podcasting, as a form of mass communication, has steadily rose in popularity over the past few years. From 2014 to 2019, podcasts have doubled in listeners and podcasting itself has grown by 122%. Following trends in radio and recorded music, podcasts are available to stream on numerous online platforms such as Spotify, Youtube, and Apple Music. Some podcasts are recorded in front of

3768-470: A primitive spark-gap transmitter . Experiments by Hertz and physicists Jagadish Chandra Bose , Oliver Lodge , Lord Rayleigh , and Augusto Righi , among others, showed that radio waves like light demonstrated reflection, refraction , diffraction , polarization , standing waves , and traveled at the same speed as light, confirming that both light and radio waves were electromagnetic waves, differing only in frequency. In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi developed

3925-701: A profound political impact. Due to the availability of technology, citizens often can report breaking news more quickly than traditional media reporters. Notable examples of citizen journalism reporting from major world events are, the 2010 Haiti earthquake , the Arab Spring , the Occupy Wall Street movement, the 2013 protests in Turkey , the Euromaidan events in Ukraine , and Syrian Civil War ,

4082-420: A public audience. Analog audio is the earliest form of radio broadcast. AM broadcasting began around 1920. FM broadcasting was introduced in the late 1930s with improved fidelity . A broadcast radio receiver is called a radio . Most radios can receive both AM and FM. Television broadcasting is the transmission of moving images by radio, which consist of sequences of still images, which are displayed on

4239-459: A radio signal is usually concentrated in narrow frequency bands called sidebands ( SB ) just above and below the carrier frequency. The width in hertz of the frequency range that the radio signal occupies, the highest frequency minus the lowest frequency, is called its bandwidth ( BW ). For any given signal-to-noise ratio , an amount of bandwidth can carry the same amount of information ( data rate in bits per second) regardless of where in

4396-489: A receiver that is typically colocated with the transmitter. In radio navigation systems such as GPS and VOR , a mobile navigation instrument receives radio signals from multiple navigational radio beacons whose position is known, and by precisely measuring the arrival time of the radio waves the receiver can calculate its position on Earth. In wireless radio remote control devices like drones , garage door openers , and keyless entry systems , radio signals transmitted from

4553-533: A recipient over a kilometer away in 1895, and the first transatlantic signal on 12 December 1901. The first commercial radio broadcast was transmitted on 2 November 1920, when the live returns of the Harding-Cox presidential election were broadcast by Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company in Pittsburgh, under the call sign KDKA . The emission of radio waves is regulated by law, coordinated by

4710-673: A reference to the radiotelegraph and radiotelegraphy . The use of radio as a standalone word dates back to at least 30 December 1904, when instructions issued by the British Post Office for transmitting telegrams specified that "The word 'Radio'... is sent in the Service Instructions." This practice was universally adopted, and the word "radio" introduced internationally, by the 1906 Berlin Radiotelegraphic Convention, which included

4867-446: A screen on a television receiver (a "television" or TV) along with a synchronized audio (sound) channel. Television ( video ) signals occupy a wider bandwidth than broadcast radio ( audio ) signals. Analog television , the original television technology, required 6 MHz, so the television frequency bands are divided into 6 MHz channels, now called "RF channels". The current television standard, introduced beginning in 2006,

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5024-465: A situation like that at all . ... The people formerly known as the audience are simply the public made realer, less fictional, more able, less predictable." Abraham Zapruder , who filmed the assassination of President John Fitzgerald Kennedy with a home-movie camera, is sometimes presented as an ancestor to citizen journalists. Egyptian citizen Wael Abbas was awarded several international reporting prizes for his blog Misr Digital (Digital Egypt) and

5181-441: A smaller bandwidth than the old analog channels, saving scarce radio spectrum space. Therefore, each of the 6 MHz analog RF channels now carries up to 7 DTV channels – these are called "virtual channels". Digital television receivers have different behavior in the presence of poor reception or noise than analog television, called the " digital cliff " effect. Unlike analog television, in which increasingly poor reception causes

5338-416: A television (video) signal has a greater data rate than an audio signal . The radio spectrum , the total range of radio frequencies that can be used for communication in a given area, is a limited resource. Each radio transmission occupies a portion of the total bandwidth available. Radio bandwidth is regarded as an economic good which has a monetary cost and is in increasing demand. In some parts of

5495-400: A transmitter to a receiver, by modulating the radio signal (impressing an information signal on the radio wave by varying some aspect of the wave) in the transmitter. In radar, used to locate and track objects like aircraft, ships, spacecraft and missiles, a beam of radio waves emitted by a radar transmitter reflects off the target object, and the reflected waves reveal the object's location to

5652-652: A transmitter to control the actions of a device at a remote location. Remote control systems may also include telemetry channels in the other direction, used to transmit real-time information on the state of the device back to the control station. Uncrewed spacecraft are an example of remote-controlled machines, controlled by commands transmitted by satellite ground stations . Most handheld remote controls used to control consumer electronics products like televisions or DVD players actually operate by infrared light rather than radio waves, so are not examples of radio remote control. A security concern with remote control systems

5809-435: A variety of license classes depending on use, and are restricted to certain frequencies and power levels. In some classes, such as radio and television broadcasting stations, the transmitter is given a unique identifier consisting of a string of letters and numbers called a call sign , which must be used in all transmissions. In order to adjust, maintain, or internally repair radiotelephone transmitters, individuals must hold

5966-480: A video he publicized of two policemen beating a bus driver helped lead to their conviction. During 9/11 many eyewitness accounts of the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center came from citizen journalists. Images and stories from citizen journalists close to the World Trade Center offered content that played a major role in the story. In 2004, when the 9.1-magnitude underwater earthquake caused

6123-413: Is amplified in the transmitter and applied to a transmitting antenna which radiates the energy as radio waves. The radio waves carry the information to the receiver location. At the receiver, the radio wave induces a tiny oscillating voltage in the receiving antenna which is a weaker replica of the current in the transmitting antenna. This voltage is applied to the radio receiver , which amplifies

6280-703: Is spoofing , in which an unauthorized person transmits an imitation of the control signal to take control of the device. Examples of radio remote control: Radio jamming is the deliberate radiation of radio signals designed to interfere with the reception of other radio signals. Jamming devices are called "signal suppressors" or "interference generators" or just jammers. During wartime, militaries use jamming to interfere with enemies' tactical radio communication. Since radio waves can pass beyond national borders, some totalitarian countries which practice censorship use jamming to prevent their citizens from listening to broadcasts from radio stations in other countries. Jamming

6437-445: Is a digital format called high-definition television (HDTV), which transmits pictures at higher resolution, typically 1080 pixels high by 1920 pixels wide, at a rate of 25 or 30 frames per second. Digital television (DTV) transmission systems, which replaced older analog television in a transition beginning in 2006, use image compression and high-efficiency digital modulation such as OFDM and 8VSB to transmit HDTV video within

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6594-472: Is a form of communication technique that refers to services on digital computer-based systems. This requires two or more parties who respond to each other through text, moving images, animation, video, audio, and video games. The ethics in interactive media mainly focus on violence in video games in addition to advertising being influenced in different ways and behavioral targeting . The violence of video games relates to ethics in interactive media because it has

6751-418: Is a specific form of both citizen media and user-generated content (UGC). By juxtaposing the term "citizen", with its attendant qualities of civic-mindedness and social responsibility, with that of "journalism", which refers to a particular profession, Courtney C. Radsch argues that this term best describes this particular form of online and digital journalism conducted by amateurs because it underscores

6908-447: Is about influencing and building a relationship between an organization and its viewers across various media platforms. Public relations differs from advertising in that it is less obtrusive and is aimed at providing a more comprehensive opinion to a large audience in order to shape public opinion . Unlike advertising, public relations professionals only have control until the message is relayed to media gatekeepers, who decide where to pass

7065-441: Is advertising in everything we view. eBooks have changed how people read. People are able to download books onto their devices, allowing consumers to track what they read, to annotate, and to search for definitions of words on the internet. Through the use of eBooks in education, the increased demand for mobile access to course materials and eBooks for students corresponds with the increased number of smartphones. E-readers, such as

7222-433: Is an audio transceiver , a receiver and transmitter in the same device, used for bidirectional person-to-person voice communication with other users with similar radios. An older term for this mode of communication is radiotelephony . The radio link may be half-duplex , as in a walkie-talkie , using a single radio channel in which only one radio can transmit at a time, so different users take turns talking, pressing

7379-445: Is based upon members of the community playing an active role in the process of collecting, reporting, analyzing, and disseminating news and information. Courtney C. Radsch defines citizen journalism "as an alternative and activist form of news gathering and reporting that functions outside mainstream media institutions, often as a response to shortcomings in the professional journalistic field, that uses similar journalistic practices but

7536-410: Is called "tuning". The oscillating radio signal from the desired station causes the tuned circuit to resonate , oscillate in sympathy, and it passes the signal on to the rest of the receiver. Radio signals at other frequencies are blocked by the tuned circuit and not passed on. A modulated radio wave, carrying an information signal, occupies a range of frequencies . The information ( modulation ) in

7693-427: Is called an uplink , while a link that transmits data from the spacecraft to the ground is called a downlink. Radar is a radiolocation method used to locate and track aircraft, spacecraft, missiles, ships, vehicles, and also to map weather patterns and terrain. A radar set consists of a transmitter and receiver. The transmitter emits a narrow beam of radio waves which is swept around the surrounding space. When

7850-659: Is commonly associated with media studies. In the United States, the study of mass communication is often associated with the practical applications of journalism , television and radio broadcasting , film , public relations , corporate , or advertising . With the diversification of media forms, the study of mass communication has extended to include social media and new media , which both have stronger feedback models than traditional media sources. The history of communication stretches from prehistoric forms of art and writing to modern communication methods such as

8007-487: Is defined by a set of game play challenges; genres are classified independently of when and where the game takes place. Video games have massed a huge audience, with the industry grossing over 90 billion dollars in 2021. Not only are videos games a channel for mass communication but also the online platforms used in part with the game. Streamers can now go online and broadcast their games on Twitch and Youtube, allowing players to reach over 140 million users. Interactive media

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8164-413: Is driven by different objectives and ideals and relies on alternative sources of legitimacy than traditional or mainstream journalism". Jay Rosen offers a simpler definition: "When the people formerly known as the audience employ the press tools they have in their possession to inform one another." The underlying principle of citizen journalism is that ordinary people, not professional journalists, can be

8321-565: Is in radio clocks and watches, which include an automated receiver that periodically (usually weekly) receives and decodes the time signal and resets the watch's internal quartz clock to the correct time, thus allowing a small watch or desk clock to have the same accuracy as an atomic clock. Government time stations are declining in number because GPS satellites and the Internet Network Time Protocol (NTP) provide equally accurate time standards. A two-way radio

8478-417: Is mainly due to their desirable propagation properties stemming from their longer wavelength. In radio communication systems, information is carried across space using radio waves. At the sending end, the information to be sent is converted by some type of transducer to a time-varying electrical signal called the modulation signal. The modulation signal may be an audio signal representing sound from

8635-415: Is no clear definition of convergence and its effects; however, it can be viewed through three lenses: technological convergence , cultural convergence, and economic convergence. Technological convergence is the action of two or more media companies merging in a digital platform and can lead to companies developing new commodities or becoming part of new sectors and/or economies. Cultural convergence deals with

8792-415: Is often politically neutral and unaffiliated, at least in the claim if not in the actuality". The idea that every citizen can engage in acts of journalism has a long history in the United States. "As early as the 1920s, journalist and political commentator Walter Lippman and American philosopher John Dewey debated the role of journalism in democracy, including the extent that the public should participate in

8949-416: Is related to communication studies , but has its roots in sociology . Mass communication is "the process by which a person, group of people or organization creates a message and transmits it through some type of medium to a large, anonymous, heterogeneous audience." This implies that the audience of mass communication is mostly made up of different cultures and behavior and belief systems . Mass communication

9106-434: Is still considered as proof to expose and communicate. Photography establishes the basic roles: recording great historic events, documenting sociological and journalistic researches, and dynamically influencing the mobilization of public opinion toward social and legislative reforms. Camera obscura was one of the first techniques that led to creating photos. It could create an image on a wall or piece of paper. Joseph Niepce

9263-405: Is the base of the two theories of citizenship. The classical model is rooted in the ideology of informed citizens and places emphasis on the role of journalists rather than on citizens. The classical model has four main characteristics: The first characteristic upholds the theory that journalism is for citizens. One of the main issues with this is that there is a normative judgement surrounding

9420-524: Is the one-way transmission of information from a transmitter to receivers belonging to a public audience. Since the radio waves become weaker with distance, a broadcasting station can only be received within a limited distance of its transmitter. Systems that broadcast from satellites can generally be received over an entire country or continent. Older terrestrial radio and television are paid for by commercial advertising or governments. In subscription systems like satellite television and satellite radio

9577-521: Is through catfishing . The term catfish refers to a person who uses a false online profile on a social media platform. Most commonly, a catfish communicates with another online profile to get them to fall in love with the false persona they created. The MTV reality show Catfish: The TV Show has brought mainstream attention to this issue. The goal of these episodes is to keep track of people who have fallen in love with someone they interacted with online but who have never met in person. As catfishing has become

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9734-425: Is unregulated, amateur, and haphazard in quality and coverage. Furthermore, citizen journalists, due to their lack of professional affiliation, are thought to lack resources as well as focus on how best to serve the public. A research team of citizen journalists created an OER library that contains video interviews to provide access to reliable sources. Citizen journalism, as a form of alternative media , presents

9891-491: Is used by citizens for citizenship and conversely, journalists serve citizens. The second theory considers journalism as citizenship. This theory focuses on the different aspects of citizen identity and activity and understands citizen journalism as directly constituting citizenship. The term "liquid citizenship" (coined by Zizi Papacharissi ) depicts how the lifestyles that individuals engage in allow them to interact with other individuals and organizations, which thus remaps

10048-662: Is usually accomplished by a powerful transmitter which generates noise on the same frequency as the target transmitter. US Federal law prohibits the nonmilitary operation or sale of any type of jamming devices, including ones that interfere with GPS, cellular, Wi-Fi and police radars. ELF 3 Hz/100 Mm 30 Hz/10 Mm SLF 30 Hz/10 Mm 300 Hz/1 Mm ULF 300 Hz/1 Mm 3 kHz/100 km Citizen journalism Citizen journalism , also known as collaborative media , participatory journalism , democratic journalism , guerrilla journalism , grassroots journalism , or street journalism ,

10205-504: Is very common as the multitude of sources permit us to only take things at face value. Mass communication began as a term covering radio, print, and television, but it was coined before the creation of the Internet, or the “Universal Medium.” The Internet has taken all the risks and complications of the three aforementioned mediums and has incorporated and built further upon them. The ability to have infinite sources of information has created

10362-520: Is very much controlled. The interconnection built from citizen journalism and mainstream journalism in China has allotted politically and socially charged information to be distributed to promote progressive changes and serves as national sentiments. In doing so, the mass public of China has the opportunities to move around the controlled and monitored online presence and the information it contains. Citizen journalists face many repercussions when unpackaging

10519-577: The 2008 Mumbai attacks is an example of citizen journalism in India. In 2004 Daylight Magazine sent a box of disposable cameras to be distributed to civilians living in Baghdad and Fallujah. These were published in May 2004 along with the work of seminal documentarians such as Susan Meiselas, Roger Hutchings, etc. In June 2004 Fred Ritchen and Pixel Press teamed up with Daylight to create a touring exhibition of

10676-538: The 2009 Iranian election protests , after foreign journalists had effectively been "barred from reporting". Twitter delayed scheduled maintenance during the protests that would have shut down coverage in Iran due to the role it played in public communication. Social media platforms such as blogs , YouTube , and Twitter encourage and facilitate engagement with other citizens who participate in creating content through commenting, liking, linking, and sharing. The majority of

10833-577: The 2014 Ferguson unrest , the Black Lives Matter movement, and the Russian Invasion of Ukraine. Being that citizen journalism is yet to develop a conceptual framework and guiding principles, it can be heavily opinionated and subjective, making it more supplemental than primary in terms of forming public opinion . Critics of the phenomenon , including professional journalists and news organizations, claim that citizen journalism

10990-598: The Amazon Kindle , have advanced over the years — since its launch in 2007, the Kindle has expanded its memory from 4 GB to 8 GB. In addition, the Kindle has added accessories including games, movies, and music. Communication researchers have identified several major theories associated with the study of mass communication. Communication theory addresses the processes and mechanisms that enable communication. Contemporary studies have developed to complicate and critique

11147-595: The International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which allocates frequency bands in the radio spectrum for various uses. The word radio is derived from the Latin word radius , meaning "spoke of a wheel, beam of light, ray". It was first applied to communications in 1881 when, at the suggestion of French scientist Ernest Mercadier  [ fr ] , Alexander Graham Bell adopted radiophone (meaning "radiated sound") as an alternate name for his photophone optical transmission system. Following Hertz's discovery of

11304-508: The Internet . In this modern era, mass communication is used to disperse information at an accelerated rate, often regarding politics and other polarizing topics. There are major connections between the media that is consumed through mass communication and our culture, which contributes to polarization and dividing people based on consequential issues. mass communication is a one way communication process In social science, mass communication

11461-418: The Internet . Mass communication began when humans could transmit messages from a single source to multiple receivers. Mass communication has moved from theories including the hypodermic needle model (or magic bullet theory) to more modern theories such as computer-mediated communication . Advertising, in relation to mass communication, is marketing a product or service in a persuasive manner that encourages

11618-504: The ionosphere without refraction , and at microwave frequencies the high-gain antennas needed to focus the radio energy into a narrow beam pointed at the receiver are small and take up a minimum of space in a satellite. Portions of the UHF , L , C , S , k u and k a band are allocated for space communication. A radio link that transmits data from the Earth's surface to a spacecraft

11775-537: The phonograph by Thomas Edison in the late 19th century, the graphophone by Alexander Graham Bell and Charles Tainter , and the gramophone by The Victor Talking Machine Company were the first competing mass media forms that brought recorded music to the masses. Recording changed once again in the 1950s with the invention of the LP (long play) vinyl record, followed eight track-tapes, then vinyl, and finally cassettes in 1965. Compact discs (CDs) followed and were seen as

11932-400: The radio spectrum into 12 bands, each beginning at a wavelength which is a power of ten (10 ) metres, with corresponding frequency of 3 times a power of ten, and each covering a decade of frequency or wavelength. Each of these bands has a traditional name: It can be seen that the bandwidth , the range of frequencies, contained in each band is not equal but increases exponentially as

12089-531: The 1920s with the introduction of broadcasting. Electromagnetic waves were predicted by James Clerk Maxwell in his 1873 theory of electromagnetism , now called Maxwell's equations , who proposed that a coupled oscillating electric field and magnetic field could travel through space as a wave, and proposed that light consisted of electromagnetic waves of short wavelength . On 11 November 1886, German physicist Heinrich Hertz , attempting to confirm Maxwell's theory, first observed radio waves he generated using

12246-474: The Earth's atmosphere has less of an effect on the range of signals, and line-of-sight propagation becomes the principal mode. These higher frequencies permit the great bandwidth required for television broadcasting. Since natural and artificial noise sources are less present at these frequencies, high-quality audio transmission is possible, using frequency modulation . Radio broadcasting means transmission of audio (sound) to radio receivers belonging to

12403-464: The Internet to create, augment or fact-check media on their own or in collaboration with others. In What is Participatory Journalism? (2003), J. D. Lasica classifies media for citizen journalism into the following types: The literature of citizen, alternative, and participatory journalism is most often situated in a democratic context and theorized as a response to corporate news media dominated by an economic logic. Some scholars have sought to extend

12560-533: The Lumiere brothers debuted a series of 60-second clips screened outdoors to a Parisian audience. Despite the ever-growing popularity of moving images, the Lumiere brothers did not seek to revolutionize the style of the film but instead stuck to documenting daily life in France . This set the grounds for future film revolutionaries, including Georges Méliès , who sought to create narrative sequences in his films through

12717-596: The US, these fall under Part 15 of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations. Many of these devices use the ISM bands , a series of frequency bands throughout the radio spectrum reserved for unlicensed use. Although they can be operated without a license, like all radio equipment these devices generally must be type-approved before the sale. Below are some of the most important uses of radio, organized by function. Broadcasting

12874-525: The Voice, rather than having everything filtered through the views of a small group of reporters and editors." According to Jay Rosen , citizen journalists are "the people formerly known as the audience," who " were on the receiving end of a media system that ran one way, in a broadcasting pattern, with high entry fees and a few firms competing to speak very loudly while the rest of the population listened in isolation from one another— and who today are not in

13031-450: The ability to bring on aggressive attitude and behavior that impacts the social lives of people playing these video games. Furthermore, behavioral targeting ties into the ethics of interactive media as these websites and apps on our phones contain personal information which allow the owners or those running the companies to receive and use the information. Interactive media influences advertising because social media and websites show that there

13188-405: The air simultaneously without interfering with each other because each transmitter's radio waves oscillate at a different rate, in other words, each transmitter has a different frequency , measured in hertz (Hz), kilohertz (kHz), megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). The receiving antenna typically picks up the radio signals of many transmitters. The receiver uses tuned circuits to select

13345-713: The amount and nature of information that citizens should have as well as what the relationship between the two should be. One branch of journalism for citizens is the "monitorial citizen" (coined by Michael Schudson ). The "monitorial citizen" suggests that citizens appropriately and strategically select what news and information they consume. The "monitorial citizen" along with other forms of this ideology conceive individuals as those who do things with information to enact change and citizenship. However, this production of information does not equal to an act of citizenship, but instead an act of journalism. Therefore, citizens and journalists are portrayed as distinctive roles whereas journalism

13502-663: The article, the sites with the weakest editorial content were able to expand aggressively because they had stronger financial resources. Another article published on Pressthink examined Backfence, a citizen journalism site with three initial locations in the D.C. area, which reveals that the site has only attracted limited citizen contributions. The author concludes that, "in fact, clicking through Backfence's pages feels like frontier land – remote, often lonely, zoned for people but not home to any. The site recently launched for Arlington, Virginia . However, without more settlers, Backfence may wind up creating more ghost towns." David Simon ,

13659-465: The audience to buy the product or use the service. Because advertising generally takes place through some form of mass media, such as television, studying the effects and methods of advertising is relevant to the study of mass communication. Advertising is the paid, impersonal, one-way marketing of persuasive information from a sponsor. Through mass communication channels, the sponsor promotes the adoption of products or ideas. Advertisers have full control of

13816-414: The beam strikes a target object, radio waves are reflected back to the receiver. The direction of the beam reveals the object's location. Since radio waves travel at a constant speed close to the speed of light , by measuring the brief time delay between the outgoing pulse and the received "echo", the range to the target can be calculated. The targets are often displayed graphically on a map display called

13973-447: The biggest invention in recorded arts since Thomas Edison. Nowadays, recorded music is usually listened to using streaming platforms such as Apple Music , YouTube Music , Soundcloud , and Spotify , which are becoming the primary sources of music recordings. Even with the progression into digital music, vinyl and cassettes remain popular physical forms of music. Radio is considered the most widely accessible form of mass communication in

14130-807: The blending of different beliefs, values, and traditions between groups of people and may occur through the globalization of content. Sex and the City , an American television show set in New York City, was viewed internationally and became popular among female workers in Thailand. A study conducted on the consumption of YouTube by the Information Technology Department and Sociology Department at Cornell University concluded that cultural convergence occurs more frequently in advanced cosmopolitan areas. Integrated communication refers to

14287-677: The capacity to communicate one's meaning around the world, are held by, or readily available to, at least many hundreds of millions of users around the globe." Professor Mary-Rose Papandrea, a constitutional law professor at UNC School of Law , notes in her article, "Citizen Journalism and the Reporter's Privilege", that: A 2004 trend of citizen journalism has been the emergence of what blogger Jeff Jarvis terms hyperlocal journalism , as online news sites invite contributions from local residents of their subscription areas, who often report on topics that conventional newspapers tend to ignore. "We are

14444-462: The communities they write about. This has drawn some criticism from traditional media institutions such as The New York Times , which have accused proponents of public journalism of abandoning the traditional goal of objectivity . Researchers have also criticized this practice as not having access to real time fact checking. Many traditional journalists view citizen journalism with some skepticism, believing that only trained journalists can understand

14601-734: The conceptual periphery of civic, political, and social. This "liquid citizenship" allows the interactions and experiences that individuals face to become citizen journalism where they create their own forms of journalism. An alternative approach of journalism as citizenship rests between the distinction between "dutiful" citizens and "actualizing" citizens. "Dutiful" citizens engage in traditional citizenship practices, while "actualizing" citizens engage in non-traditional citizenship practices. This alternative approach suggests that "actualizing" citizens are less likely to use traditional media and more likely to use online and social media as sources of information, discussion, and participation. Thus, journalism in

14758-551: The content produced by these amateur news bloggers was not original content, but curated information monitored and edited by these various bloggers. There has been a decline in the amateur news blogger due to social media platforms that are much easier to run and maintain, allowing individuals to easily share and create and content. Wikimedia Foundation hosts a participatory journalism web site, Wikinews . The 2021 Pulitzer Prize Winner in Special Citations and Awards

14915-406: The context of China and the national pandemic rooted from the coronavirus, many voices were censored and limited when it came to citizen journalists. This occurred in the process of visually and vocally documenting the social climate of China in regards to the coronavirus. For instance, a Chinese citizen journalist posted videos of Wuhan , China as the outbreak had been spreading globally. As a result

15072-668: The continuous waves which were needed for audio modulation , so radio was used for person-to-person commercial, diplomatic and military text messaging. Starting around 1908 industrial countries built worldwide networks of powerful transoceanic transmitters to exchange telegram traffic between continents and communicate with their colonies and naval fleets. During World War I the development of continuous wave radio transmitters, rectifying electrolytic, and crystal radio receiver detectors enabled amplitude modulation (AM) radiotelephony to be achieved by Reginald Fessenden and others, allowing audio to be transmitted. On 2 November 1920,

15229-508: The country one resides in, as societies evolve, grow, and depend more on online media outlets there is an increase of informed individuals, especially with topics regarding politics and government news. Through such evolution, citizen journalism has the capability to reach an audience that has not had the privilege of receiving higher education and still remain informed about what is surrounding them and their respective country. As demonstrated in light of demanding and distorted information given to

15386-466: The customer pays a monthly fee. In these systems, the radio signal is encrypted and can only be decrypted by the receiver, which is controlled by the company and can be deactivated if the customer does not pay. Broadcasting uses several parts of the radio spectrum, depending on the type of signals transmitted and the desired target audience. Longwave and medium wave signals can give reliable coverage of areas several hundred kilometers across, but have

15543-509: The development and preliminary testing of messages and materials, the selection of communication channels: print, broadcast, or digital, and communication categories: earned, paid, or social or digital media. This further includes providing training for the spokesperson and conducting audience research. Communication researchers study communication through various methods that have been verified through repetitive, cumulative processes. Both quantitative and qualitative methods have been used in

15700-434: The development of digital photography as phones and digital cameras have made film-based cameras a niche product. Kodak discontinued making a color film in 1999 and declared bankruptcy in 2012. Other companies, such as Fujifilm , have adapted, despite a downturn in sales. Video game genres are classifications assigned to video games based on their game play rather than visual or storytelling differences. A video game genre

15857-426: The distribution of news by the public, often through the Internet or social media. A 2014 study revealed that 40% of participants rely on social media for news and for collecting information. Public relations is the strategic communication process of providing information to the public in order to present a specific view of a product or organization . According to Public Relations Society of America , public relations

16014-480: The economy), and then they would recruit a cross-section of citizens and chronicle their points of view. Since not all reporters and editors bought into this form of public journalism, and some outright opposed it, reaching out to the people from the newsroom was never an easy task." By 2003, in fact, the movement seemed to be petering out, with the Pew Center for Civic Journalism closing its doors. Traditionally,

16171-471: The entirety of the freelance and publishing communities to develop adequate ethical standards within this field. The National Communication Association is another major professional organization, which aids scholars and researchers within the field by promoting free and ethical communication, and recognizing the study of all forms of communication through inquiry rooted in humanist , social science-based, and aesthetic means. Each of these organizations publishes

16328-408: The evils of the world, now made readily available through mass communication, have the belief that the world is only evil. Gerbner specifies that the context of violence within a story is also important; it is not the quantity that is the issue but rather how it adds up to tell said story. This conditioning can provoke a reaction of displeasure with the world as it can alter world views and it represents

16485-695: The exactitude and ethics involved in reporting news. See, e.g., Nicholas Lemann , Vincent Maher, and Tom Grubisich. An academic paper by Vincent Maher, the head of the New Media Lab at Rhodes University, outlined several weaknesses in the claims made by citizen journalists, in terms of the "three deadly E's", referring to ethics, economics, and epistemology . An analysis by language and linguistics professor, Patricia Bou-Franch, found that some citizen journalists resorted to abuse-sustaining discourses naturalizing violence against women. She found that these discourses were then challenged by others who questioned

16642-570: The existence of radio waves in 1886, the term Hertzian waves was initially used for this radiation. The first practical radio communication systems, developed by Marconi in 1894–1895, transmitted telegraph signals by radio waves, so radio communication was first called wireless telegraphy . Up until about 1910 the term wireless telegraphy also included a variety of other experimental systems for transmitting telegraph signals without wires, including electrostatic induction , electromagnetic induction and aquatic and earth conduction , so there

16799-535: The field, offering regional and national conferences and refereed publications. It is a non-profit, educational association for educators, students, and media professionals with annual conferences that specialize in education, research, and public services of various facets of journalism and mass communication. The American Society of Journalists and Authors is the largest organization of independent nonfiction authors, and offers professional development services: which include benefits, conferences, workshops, and advocacy for

16956-413: The first commercial radio broadcast was transmitted by Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company in Pittsburgh, under the call sign KDKA featuring live coverage of the Harding-Cox presidential election . Radio waves are radiated by electric charges undergoing acceleration . They are generated artificially by time-varying electric currents , consisting of electrons flowing back and forth in

17113-592: The first radio communication system, using a spark-gap transmitter to send Morse code over long distances. By December 1901, he had transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean. Marconi and Karl Ferdinand Braun shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy". During radio's first two decades, called the radiotelegraphy era, the primitive radio transmitters could only transmit pulses of radio waves, not

17270-399: The form of online and social media practices become a form of citizenship for actualizing citizens. Criticisms have been made against citizen journalism, especially from among professionals in the field. Citizen journalists are often portrayed as unreliable, biased and untrained – as opposed to professionals who have "recognition, paid work, unionized labour and behaviour that

17427-618: The frequency increases; each band contains ten times the bandwidth of the preceding band. The term "tremendously low frequency" (TLF) has been used for wavelengths from 1–3 Hz (300,000–100,000 km), though the term has not been defined by the ITU. The airwaves are a resource shared by many users. Two radio transmitters in the same area that attempt to transmit on the same frequency will interfere with each other, causing garbled reception, so neither transmission may be received clearly. Interference with radio transmissions can not only have

17584-475: The gendered ideologies of male violence against women. An article in 2005 by Tom Grubisich reviewed ten new citizen journalism sites and found many of them lacking in quality and content. Grubisich followed up a year later with, "Potemkin Village Redux." He found that the best sites had improved editorially and were even nearing profitability, but only by not expensing editorial costs. Also according to

17741-481: The images and captions which went to various institutions around the United States including: The Council on Foreign Relations, The Center for Photography Woodstock, New York University, Union College, Michigan University, and Central Michigan University before being donated to the Archive of Documentary Art at Duke University. Citizen Journalism provides a platform for individuals to be considered and acknowledged on

17898-493: The information on to the audience. Social media , in its modern use, refers to platforms used on both mobile devices and home computers that allow users to interact through the use of words, images, sounds, and video. Social media includes popular sites such as Instagram , TikTok , Twitter , and Facebook as well as sites that can aid in business networking, such as LinkedIn . The use and importance of social media in communications and public relations has grown drastically over

18055-407: The interests of those excluded from the mainstream. Civic journalism (also known as "public journalism") is the idea of integrating journalism into the democratic process. The media not only informs the public but it also works toward engaging citizens and creating public debate. Citizen journalism is based upon public citizens actively producing news and information. Citizen journalism deals with

18212-485: The invention of the kinetoscope by Thomas Edison . His failure to patent it resulted in two brothers, Louis and Auguste Lumiere , creating a portable camera that could process film and project images. The first public kinetoscope demonstration took place in 1893. By 1894, the Kinetoscope had become a commercial success, with public parlours established around the world. The invention quickly gained notoriety when

18369-455: The issue with this alternative term is that it eliminates the potential civic virtues of citizen journalism and considers it to be stunted and proprietorial. With today's technology the citizen journalist movement has found new life as the average person can capture news and distribute it globally. As Yochai Benkler has noted, "the capacity to make meaning – to encode and decode humanly meaningful statements – and

18526-438: The journalist was stopped and detained by the police and was not released for two months. In sharing their experience being detained after being released the tone it was expressed in was marketed. This citizen journalist experience is one amongst more of who were similarly detained and censored. In 2023 after Mahsa Amini protests government criminalized Iranians filming police. Citizen journalists also may be activists within

18683-430: The largest number of viewers. Its audience is greater in size than that of any other media audience. Since television is able to attract the audiences of all age groups, literate and illiterate and of all strata of society, it has attracted an enormous audience. Photography plays a role in the field of technology and mass communication by demonstrating facts or reinforcing ideas. Although photos can be altered digitally, it

18840-516: The leading global social media platforms. With more platforms targeting younger generations, audiences are growing. TikTok alone announced that it has over 1 billion active global users and receives over 18 million views; this number has been growing exponentially every year. With content reaching more audiences than ever, brands, companies, and individuals are able to communicate with millions of people all at once. Social media have introduced new difficulties into relationships. One way this has occurred

18997-460: The link between the practice of journalism and its relation to the political and public sphere. Citizen journalism was made more feasible by the development of various online internet platforms. New media technology, such as social networking and media-sharing websites , in addition to the increasing prevalence of cellular telephones, have made citizen journalism more accessible to people worldwide. Recent advances in new media have started to have

19154-402: The longest transmission distances of any radio links, up to billions of kilometers for interplanetary spacecraft . In order to receive the weak signals from distant spacecraft, satellite ground stations use large parabolic "dish" antennas up to 25 metres (82 ft) in diameter and extremely sensitive receivers. High frequencies in the microwave band are used, since microwaves pass through

19311-457: The main creators and distributors of news. Citizen journalism should not be confused with community journalism or civic journalism , both of which are practiced by professional journalists; collaborative journalism , which is the practice of professional and non-professional journalists working together; and social journalism , which denotes a digital publication with a hybrid of professional and non-professional journalism. Citizen journalism

19468-665: The mass public and cleared by strong demonstrations of the capabilities of citizen journalism. Citizen journalism is a platform that provides a solution to the mistrust the public has towards the government as discrepancies arise from governmental statements and actions. In 2020, a network of local Citizen Journalist publications, the Bylines Network, was founded, and has since spread to include 7 regional branches. Citizen journalism has created much change and influence within Chinese media and society in which its online activity

19625-430: The media. The study of journalism involves analyzing the dissemination of information to the public through media outlets such as newspapers, news channels, radio stations , and television stations . Alternative journalism deviates from established or dominant types of media in terms of their content, production, or distribution. Alternative journalism utilizes the same media outlets as mainstream journalism to advocate

19782-470: The message being sent to their audience. Advertising includes the use of paid, earned, or owned media. Paid media is directly through advertising and various business sponsorship campaigns. Earned media occurs through word of mouth and online social media posts or trends. Owned media includes brand websites and other owned content by the business producing the product. Journalism is the production and distribution of reports on events for presentation through

19939-399: The multitude of mass communication outlets increases daily, the availability of very niche and broad outlets has also increased. This availability and the countless opinions being accessed can lead to a skimming activity where authors such as Nicholas Carr have noticed that they have a shorter attention span and are more prone to only skimming an outlet rather than being attentive. This habit

20096-472: The need for legal restrictions warned that "Radio chaos will certainly be the result until such stringent regulation is enforced." The United States Navy would also play a role. Although its translation of the 1906 Berlin Convention used the terms wireless telegraph and wireless telegram , by 1912 it began to promote the use of radio instead. The term started to become preferred by the general public in

20253-595: The news-gathering and production processes." According to research conducted by Blaagaard (2018), citizen journalism in St. Croix, between 1915 and 1925, provided a platform for colonized communities. Helping them express their perspectives and address certain social injustices that were overlooked at the time by colonial authorities. Local publications, for example The Herald , became a pathway for unheard voices to challenge dominant narratives. The contemporary citizen journalist movement emerged after journalists began to question

20410-505: The picture quality to gradually degrade, in digital television picture quality is not affected by poor reception until, at a certain point, the receiver stops working and the screen goes black. Government standard frequency and time signal services operate time radio stations which continuously broadcast extremely accurate time signals produced by atomic clocks , as a reference to synchronize other clocks. Examples are BPC , DCF77 , JJY , MSF , RTZ , TDF , WWV , and YVTO . One use

20567-499: The power and darker side of mass communication. The ability to have any form of information to reach anybody around the world in minutes through the Internet has only amplified this lens. Mass communication is necessary for improving awareness and education surrounding public health issues. Amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, mass communication has been crucial for educating the general public regarding precautionary measures needed to combat

20724-419: The predictability of their coverage of events such as the 1988 U.S. presidential election . Those journalists became part of the public, or civic, journalism movement, which sought to counter the erosion of trust in the news media and the widespread disillusionment with politics and civic affairs. Initially, discussions of public journalism focused on promoting journalism that was "for the people" by changing

20881-471: The process of bringing together several types of mass communication to function across the mediascape. Integrated communication unifies all mass communication elements, such as social media, public relations, and advertising. This ensures that the ways in which a company communicates follow the company's business goals and remain consistent across all media channels. This brings value to brand loyalty and to maintaining brand identity. The film industry began with

21038-451: The radio frequency spectrum it is located, so bandwidth is a measure of information-carrying capacity . The bandwidth required by a radio transmission depends on the data rate of the information (modulation signal) being sent, and the spectral efficiency of the modulation method used; how much data it can transmit in each kilohertz of bandwidth. Different types of information signals carried by radio have different data rates. For example,

21195-409: The radio signal desired out of all the signals picked up by the antenna and reject the others. A tuned circuit (also called resonant circuit or tank circuit) acts like a resonator , similar to a tuning fork . It has a natural resonant frequency at which it oscillates. The resonant frequency of the receiver's tuned circuit is adjusted by the user to the frequency of the desired radio station; this

21352-451: The radio spectrum, the right to use a frequency band or even a single radio channel is bought and sold for millions of dollars. So there is an incentive to employ technology to minimize the bandwidth used by radio services. A slow transition from analog to digital radio transmission technologies began in the late 1990s. Part of the reason for this is that digital modulation can often transmit more information (a greater data rate) in

21509-456: The radio waves that carry the information through the air. The modulation signal is used to modulate the carrier, varying some aspect of the carrier wave, impressing the information in the modulation signal onto the carrier. Different radio systems use different modulation methods: Many other types of modulation are also used. In some types, a carrier wave is not transmitted but just one or both modulation sidebands . The modulated carrier

21666-481: The same digital modulation. Because it is a fixed resource which is in demand by an increasing number of users, the radio spectrum has become increasingly congested in recent decades, and the need to use it more effectively is driving many additional radio innovations such as trunked radio systems , spread spectrum (ultra-wideband) transmission, frequency reuse , dynamic spectrum management , frequency pooling, and cognitive radio . The ITU arbitrarily divides

21823-561: The scene" citizen reporting and blogger analysis that was subsequently picked up by the major media outlets worldwide. Subsequent to the citizen journalism coverage of the disaster and aftermath, researchers have suggested that citizen journalists may, in fact, play a critical role in the disaster warning system itself, potentially with higher reliability than the networks of tsunami warning equipment based on technology alone which then require interpretation by disinterested third parties. The microblog Twitter played an important role during

21980-519: The sitcom All in the Family premiered on CBS , covering the issues of the time and portraying a bigot named Archie Bunker . By 1972, the sales of color television sets surpassed that of black-and-white sets. In the 1980s, television became geared towards what has become known as the MTV Generation, with a surge in the number of cable channels. Of all the mass media today, television attracts

22137-410: The societal impact of mass communication. Theorists such as Neil Postman and George Gerbner as well as authors such as Nicholas Carr have argued that the overindulged and over-reliant have become consumed by mass communication and the mediums it utilizes. This reliance, they continue, produces notable complications and issues that have seeped into an increasingly technical and connected society. As

22294-500: The spread of illness. Mass communication methods surrounding the establishment of effective public health programs include news stories, paid media, and social and digital media. Components for an effective communications campaign, as per the CDC 's requirements, include specific individualized training, guidance, and technical assistance. Included in those is the development of a plan for communication, analysis and awareness of key audiences,

22451-627: The study of citizen journalism beyond the developed Western world, including Sylvia Moretzsohn, Courtney C. Radsch , and Clemencia Rodríguez. Radsch, for example, wrote that "Throughout the Arab world, citizen journalists have emerged as the vanguard of new social movements dedicated to promoting human rights and democratic values." According to Vincent Campbell, theories of citizenship can be categorized into two core groups: those that consider journalism for citizenship, and those that consider journalism as citizenship. The classical model of citizenship

22608-470: The study of mass communication. The main focus of mass communication research is to learn how the content of mass communication affects the attitudes, opinions, emotions, and ultimately behaviors of the people who receive the message. Several prominent methods of study are as follows: The Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication is the major membership organization for academics in

22765-415: The task without compensation, training or, for that matter, sufficient standing to make public officials even care to whom it is they are lying." An editorial published by The Digital Journalist web magazine expressed a similar position, advocating to abolish the term "citizen journalist" and replace it with "citizen news gatherer". "Professional journalists cover fires, floods, crime, the legislature, and

22922-435: The term "citizen journalism" has had a history of struggle with deliberating on a concise and mutually agreed upon definition. Even today, the term lacks a clear form of conceptualization. Although the term lacks conceptualization, alternative names of the term are unable to comprehensively capture the phenomenon. For example, one of the interchangeable names with "citizen journalism" is " user-generated content " (UGC). However,

23079-529: The traditional journalism model turned upside down," explains Mary Lou Fulton, the publisher of the Northwest Voice in Bakersfield, California . "Instead of being the gatekeeper, telling people that what's important to them 'isn't news,' we're just opening up the gates and letting people come on in. We are a better community newspaper for having thousands of readers who serve as the eyes and ears for

23236-431: The transmitting antenna also serves as the receiving antenna; this is called a monostatic radar . A radar which uses separate transmitting and receiving antennas is called a bistatic radar . Radiolocation is a generic term covering a variety of techniques that use radio waves to find the location of objects, or for navigation. Radio remote control is the use of electronic control signals sent by radio waves from

23393-478: The truth and reach domestic and global audiences. Most if not all of these repercussions result from government officials and law enforcement from the journalists respective countries. Citizen journalists are needed and depended on by the mass public but are viewed as an imminent threat to their governments. The public has had the resources to pursue this level of journalism from their surroundings and based on real life perspectives that lack censorship and influence from

23550-550: The use of special effects. The first 30 years of cinema were characterized by the growth and consolidation of an industrial base, the establishment of the narrative form, and refinement of the technology. In the 1970s, television began to change to include more complicated and three-dimensional characters and plots. PBS launched in 1970, becoming the home for programming that would not be suitable for network television. It operates primarily on donations, with little government funding, rather than having commercials. On January 12, 1971,

23707-425: The way professional reporters did their work. According to Leonard Witt, however, early public journalism efforts were "often part of 'special projects' that were expensive, time-consuming, and episodic. Too often these projects dealt with an issue and moved on. Professional journalists were driving the discussion. They would have the goal of doing a story on welfare-to-work (or the environment, or traffic problems, or

23864-510: The weak radio signal so it is stronger, then demodulates it, extracting the original modulation signal from the modulated carrier wave. The modulation signal is converted by a transducer back to a human-usable form: an audio signal is converted to sound waves by a loudspeaker or earphones, a video signal is converted to images by a display , while a digital signal is applied to a computer or microprocessor, which interacts with human users. The radio waves from many transmitters pass through

24021-404: The world and the medium used to the greatest degree in the United States. Internet radio has now become increasingly more popular as radio stations are streaming content through their websites and other applications. Music streaming services such as Apple Music and Spotify have also integrated radio features into their platforms. Spotify Radio is a feature that allows Spotify to continuously create

24178-512: The years and is now a staple in advertisements to mass audiences. For many newer companies and businesses geared towards young people, social media is a tool for advertising purposes and for growing brands. Social media provides additional ways to connect and reach out to a specific, targeted audience. Social media platforms have completely changed the way people communicate. Over the past twenty years, social media has drastically changed with TikTok and Instagram joining Facebook and Twitter as some of

24335-598: Was a need for a more precise term referring exclusively to electromagnetic radiation. The French physicist Édouard Branly , who in 1890 developed the radio wave detecting coherer , called it in French a radio-conducteur . The radio- prefix was later used to form additional descriptive compound and hyphenated words, especially in Europe. For example, in early 1898 the British publication The Practical Engineer included

24492-551: Was awarded to Darnella Frazier , who recorded the murder of George Floyd on her phone. I don't believe in citizen journalists. I say give me citizen doctors and citizen lawyers and I'll give you citizen journalists. Shekhar Gupta India has a broad media landscape expanding at "double-digit growth rates" in comparison to the West. Issues surrounding human rights violations , violence against women and everyday witness accounts. Most notably, images shared on Twitter during

24649-421: Was the French inventor who took the first photo in 1827; the photo required 8 hours of exposure. In 1839, Louis Daguerre introduced the daguerreotype , which reduced exposure time to about thirty minutes. Over time, photography techniques progressed, including the advancement of image quality, the ability to add color to an image, and reductions in exposure time. The modern industry has dramatically changed with

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