The Massachusett were a Native American tribe from the region in and around present-day Greater Boston in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts . The name comes from the Massachusett language term for "At the Great Hill," referring to the Blue Hills overlooking Boston Harbor from the south.
138-521: As some of the first people to make contact with European explorers in New England, the Massachusett and fellow coastal peoples were severely decimated from an outbreak of leptospirosis circa 1619, which had mortality rates as high as 90 percent in these areas. This was followed by devastating impacts of virgin soil epidemics such as smallpox , influenza , scarlet fever and others to which
276-480: A low potassium level and a low sodium level in the blood. Urinalysis may reveal the presence of protein , white blood cells , and microscopic haematuria . Because the bacteria settle in the kidneys, urine cultures will be positive for leptospirosis starting after the second week of illness until 30 days of infection. For those with liver involvement, transaminases and direct bilirubin are elevated in liver function tests . The Icterohaemorrhagiae serogroup
414-780: A 1988 study, intravenous (IV) benzylpenicillin (also known as penicillin G) is recommended for the treatment of severe leptospirosis. Intravenous benzylpenicillin (30 mg/kg up to 1.2 g every six hours) is used for five to seven days. Amoxicillin, ampicillin, and erythromycin may also be used for severe cases. Ceftriaxone (1 g IV every 24 hours for seven days) is also effective for severe leptospirosis. Cefotaxime (1 g IV every six hours for seven days) and doxycycline (200 mg initially followed by 100 mg IV every 12 hours for seven days) are equally effective as benzylpenicillin (1.5 million units IV every six hours for seven days). Therefore, there
552-477: A Christian-style church, but the services were conducted in Massachusett with Indian preachers and the parishioners were called by Native drumming. The Praying Indians maintained many aspects of Indigenous culture, such their customary cuisine and foraging and hunting, but melded them with the European culture and Christian religion they were forced to adopt. The mix of religious, cultural, and political control over
690-664: A few Natick descendants merged into the Nipmuc people and also writes, "There are some others, who claim to be of the Natick Tribe, but the claim appears to have no foundation other than that one of their ancestors formerly resided in Natick, but it is believed that he never was supposed to belong to the tribe." In the 105 years between the Massachusetts Enfranchisement Act of 1869 and the creation of
828-411: A high risk of occupational exposure can prevent leptospirosis infections in most cases. There is no human vaccine suitable for worldwide use. Only a few countries such as Cuba, Japan, France, and China have approved the use of inactivated vaccines with limited protective effects. Side effects such as nausea, injection site redness and swelling have been reported after the vaccine was injected. Since
966-458: A leptospirosis infection are found to have the HLA-DQ6 genotype , possibly due to superantigen activation, which damages bodily organs. Leptospira LPS only activates toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) in monocytes in humans. The lipid A molecule of the bacteria is not recognised by human TLR4 receptors. Therefore, the lack of Leptospira recognition by TLR4 receptors probably contributes to
1104-520: A major inland transportation route. Archaeological and documentary evidence both testify to the fact that the Pocumtuc were skilled at maize horticulture. The fertile open meadows around present-day Deerfield were cleared and planted with corn, and dozens of short-term food storage pits pocked the surface of the glacial outcropping called Pine Hill. The Pocumtuck were decimated by smallpox epidemics after European contact. They had no immunity to
1242-411: A numerical majority when all the different groups of New England were taken together and were dependent on them for survival and trade and the colonists were unable to expand. The Native populations continued to fall, with diseases such as scarlet fever , typhus , measles , mumps , influenza , tuberculosis , whooping cough taking large tolls. However, a smallpox epidemic in 1633 and 1634 also took
1380-449: A range of symptoms , though some infected persons may have none. The disease begins suddenly with fever accompanied by chills, intense headache, severe muscle aches and abdominal pain. A headache brought on by leptospirosis causes throbbing pain and is characteristically located at the head's bilateral temporal or frontal regions. The person could also have pain behind the eyes and a sensitivity to light . Muscle pain usually involves
1518-494: A rash over their shinbones . This disease was later known to be caused by leptospirosis. By the 1950s, the number of serovars that infected various mammals had expanded significantly. In the 1980s, leptospirosis was recognised as a veterinary disease of major economic importance. Pocomtuc The Pocomtuc (also Pocomtuck , Pocumtuc , Pocumtuck , or Deerfield Indians ) were a Native American tribe historically inhabiting western areas of Massachusetts . Their territory
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#17327650175121656-582: A series of virgin soil epidemics that devastated populations. Up to an estimated 90 percent of the Native population of the Massachusetts Bay Colony may have been killed by infectious diseases, known as the "Great Dying," in the early 17th century. The deadly epidemic of 1616 through 1619 may have been caused by leptospirosis , a lethal blood infection, likely spread by invasive black rats . This epidemic killed between 33 and 90 percent of
1794-737: A variety of brands, squashes, and pumpkins. They planted corn in mounds, then planted beans that grew up the cornstalks, and finally the cucurbits , which protected roots and discouraged weeds. This companion planting method is called the Three Sisters . Other regional plant foods included grapes, strawberries, blackberries, currants, cherries, plums, raspberries, acorns, hickory nuts, chestnuts, butternuts , and leafy greens and pseudocereals such as chenopods . Massachusett people lived in conditional sedentary villages built along rivers. Families lived in domed houses, called wétu in Massachusett. The base structure of curved wooden support beams
1932-532: A very heavy toll, afflicting not only peoples of the coast still recovering from the losses of 1617-1619 but far inland. The Massachusett population dwindled to fewer than two thousand individuals. Other epidemics occurred in 1648 and 1666, although not as devastating, outbreaks of disease continued to inflict heavy tolls well into the 19th century. With so many areas depopulated, the Pilgrims believed that God had cleared New England for their colonization efforts. By
2070-610: Is a high risk of death. Other factors that increase the risk of death include reduced urine output, age more than 36 years, and respiratory failure. With proper care, most of those infected will recover completely. Those with acute kidney failure may develop persistent mild kidney impairment after they recover. In those with severe lung involvement, the risk of death is 50–70%. Thirty percent of people with acute leptospirosis complained of long-lasting symptoms characterised by weakness, muscle pain, and headaches. Eye problems can occur in 10% of those who recovered from leptospirosis in
2208-464: Is a risk to pest controllers, sewage workers and those involved in outdoor activities in warm and wet areas. Diagnosis is typically by testing for antibodies against the bacteria or finding bacterial DNA in the blood. Efforts to prevent the disease include protective equipment to block contact when working with potentially infected animals, washing after contact, and reducing rodents in areas where people live and work. The antibiotic doxycycline
2346-465: Is associated with elevated pancreatic enzymes. For those with severe headache who show signs of meningitis, a lumbar puncture can be attempted. If infected, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) examination shows lymphocytic predominance with a cell count of about 500/mm , protein between 50 and 100 mg/mL and normal glucose levels. These findings are consistent with aseptic meningitis . Rapid detection of Leptospira can be done by quantifying
2484-494: Is associated with jaundice and elevated bilirubin levels. Hemolytic anemia contributes to jaundice. A feature of leptospirosis is acute haemolytic anaemia and conjugated hyperbilirubinemia, especially in patients with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency . Abnormal serum amylase and lipase levels (associated with pancreatitis) are found in those who are admitted to hospital due to leptospirosis. Impaired kidney function with creatinine clearance less than 50 ml/min
2622-489: Is associated with reduced or absent urine output. The classic form of severe leptospirosis, known as Weil's disease, is characterised by liver damage (causing jaundice), kidney failure , and bleeding, which happens in 5–10% of those infected. Lung and brain damage can also occur. For those with signs of inflammation of membranes covering the brain and the brain itself , altered level of consciousness can happen. A variety of neurological problems such as paralysis of half of
2760-502: Is caused by spirochaete bacteria that belong to the genus Leptospira , which are aerobic , right-handed helical , and 6–20 micrometers long. Like Gram-negative bacteria, Leptospira have an outer membrane studded with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on the surface, an inner membrane and a layer of peptidoglycan cell wall. However, unlike Gram-negative bacteria, the peptidoglycan layer in Leptospira lies closer to
2898-511: Is effective in preventing leptospirosis infection. Human vaccines are of limited usefulness; vaccines for other animals are more widely available. Treatment when infected is with antibiotics such as doxycycline, penicillin , or ceftriaxone . The overall risk of death is 5–10%. However, when the lungs are involved, the risk of death increases to the range of 50–70%. It is estimated that one million severe cases of leptospirosis in humans occur every year, causing about 58,900 deaths. The disease
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#17327650175123036-548: Is found in both urban and rural areas in tropical , subtropical , and temperate regions. The global health burden for leptospirosis can be measured by disability-adjusted life year (DALY). The score is 42 per 100,000 people per year, which is more than other diseases such as rabies and filariasis . The disease is observed persistently in parts of Asia, Oceania, the Caribbean, Latin America and Africa. Antarctica
3174-464: Is known that other Massachusett aided the colonial militias in Lancaster, Brookfield and Mount Hope battles of the war. Metacomet was ultimately killed. Instead of being absorbed into the general affairs of the now predominantly European region, the colony appointed a commissioner to oversee the Natick in 1743, but commissioners were later appointed for all the extant tribes in the colony. Originally,
3312-511: Is mixed with bokashi mudballs for the infected waterways & sewers. Most leptospiral cases resolve spontaneously. Early initiation of antibiotics may prevent the progression to severe disease. Therefore, in resource-limited settings, antibiotics can be started once leptospirosis is suspected after history taking and examination. For mild leptospirosis, antibiotic recommendations such as doxycycline, azithromycin , ampicillin and amoxicillin were based solely on in vitro testing. In 2001,
3450-535: Is most common in tropical areas of the world but may occur anywhere. Outbreaks may arise after heavy rainfall. The disease was first described by physician Adolf Weil in 1886 in Germany. Infected animals may have no, mild or severe symptoms. These may vary by the type of animal. In some animals Leptospira live in the reproductive tract, leading to transmission during mating. The symptoms of leptospirosis usually appear one to two weeks after infection, but
3588-413: Is no evidence on differences in death reduction when benzylpenicillin is compared with ceftriaxone or cefotaxime. Another study conducted in 2007 also showed no difference in efficacy between doxycycline (200 mg initially followed by 100 mg orally every 12 hours for seven days) or azithromycin (2 g on day one followed by 1 g daily for two more days) for suspected leptospirosis. There
3726-470: Is not associated with severe bleeding. Pulmonary haemorrhage is alveolar haemorrhage (bleeding into the alveoli of the lungs) leading to massive coughing up of blood , and causing acute respiratory distress syndrome , where the risk of death is more than 50%. Rarely, inflammation of the heart muscles , inflammation of membranes covering the heart , abnormalities in the heart's natural pacemaker and abnormal heart rhythms may occur. Leptospirosis
3864-403: Is observed in 20–57% of people with leptospirosis. Thus, this clinical feature can mislead a doctor to diagnose the disease as a respiratory illness. Additionally, gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea , vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhoea frequently occur. Vomiting and diarrhea may contribute to dehydration . The abdominal pain can be due to acalculous cholecystitis or inflammation of
4002-530: Is the only place not affected by leptospirosis. In the United States, there were 100 to 150 leptospirosis cases annually. In 1994, leptospirosis ceased to be a notifiable disease in the United States except in 36 states/territories where it is prevalent such as Hawaii, Texas, California, and Puerto Rico. About 50% of the reported cases occurred in Puerto Rico. In January 2013, leptospirosis
4140-515: Is the reference test for the diagnosis of leptospirosis. MAT is a test where serial dilutions of patient sera are mixed with different serovars of Leptospira . The mixture is then examined under a dark field microscope to look for agglutination . The highest dilution where 50% agglutination occurs is the result. MAT titres of 1:100 to 1:800 are diagnostic of leptospirosis. A fourfold or greater rise in titre of two sera taken at symptoms' onset and three to 10 days of disease onset confirms
4278-631: The Boston Harbor Islands and anchored off Shawmut to conduct trade. Champlain was accompanied by an Algonquin guide and his "Massachusett-speaking"—wife who helped translate. Despite mapping the region to promote French interest, colonization support was deterred by the dense population and resistance to contact by some of the Massachusett leaders The region was later mapped as "New England" by John Smith who followed in many of Champlain's footsteps, but also made landfall at Wessagusset and Conohasset where he conducted trade and met with
Massachusett - Misplaced Pages Continue
4416-667: The Charles River and the Neponset River . The Pennacook and Pawtucket lived north of the Massachusett tribe, the Nipmuc to the west, Narragansett and Pequot to the southwest in Rhode Island and Connecticut , and Pokanoket , now known as Wampanoag to the south. Anthropologist John R. Swanton wrote that their territory extended as far north as what is now Salem, Massachusetts , and south to Marshfield and Brockton . He wrote later they claimed lands in
4554-655: The Plymouth Colony by Pilgrims in 1620 near the site of the former Wampanoag village of Patuxet, just a short distance south of the historic boundary with the Massachusett. In 1621, the Pilgrims, led by Myles Standish , met Obbatinewat (Wampanoag), a local sachem loyal to Massasoit. The colonists signed a peace treaty with Obbatinewat, who in turn, introduced the Pilgrims to the Squaw Sachem of Mistick (Massachusett, c. 1590–1650), another leader. The Wampanoag chief Massasoit (c. 1581–1661) decided to ally with
4692-459: The calf muscle and the lower back. The most characteristic feature of leptospirosis is the conjunctival suffusion ( conjunctivitis without exudate ) which is rarely found in other febrile illnesses. Other characteristic findings on the eye include subconjunctival bleeding and jaundice . A rash is rarely found in leptospirosis. When one is found alternative diagnoses such as dengue fever and chikungunya fever should be considered. Dry cough
4830-401: The cytoplasmic matrix after being ingested by macrophages. Those with severe leptospirosis can experience a high level of cytokines such as interleukin 6 , tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin 10 . The high level of cytokines causes sepsis -like symptoms which is life-threatening instead of helping to fight against the infection. Those who have a high risk of sepsis during
4968-579: The incubation period can be as long as a month. The illness is biphasic in a majority of symptomatic cases. Symptoms of the first phase (acute or leptospiremic phase) last five to seven days. In the second phase (immune phase), the symptoms resolve as antibodies against the bacteria are produced. Additional symptoms develop in the second phase. The phases of illness may not be distinct, especially in patients with severe illness. 90% of those infected experience mild symptoms while 10% experience severe leptospirosis. Leptospiral infection in humans causes
5106-438: The innate immune system , endothelial cells of the capillaries in the human body are activated by the presence of these bacteria. The endothelial cells produce cytokines and antimicrobial peptides against the bacteria. These products regulate the coagulation cascade and movements of white blood cells. Macrophages presented in humans are able to engulf Leptospira . However, Leptospira are able to reside and proliferate in
5244-521: The lumens of the renal tubules and colonise the brush border and proximal convoluted tubule . This causes the continuous shedding of bacteria in the urine without the animal experiencing significant ill effects. This relationship between the animal and the bacteria is known as a commensal relationship , and the animal is known as a reservoir host . Humans are the accidental host of Leptospira . The pathogenesis of leptospirosis remains poorly understood despite research efforts. The bacteria enter
5382-445: The placenta during pregnancy is also possible. It can cause miscarriage and infection in infants . Leptospirosis transmission through eating raw meat of wildlife animals have also been reported (e.g. psychiatric patients with allotriophagy). When animals ingest the bacteria, they circulate in the bloodstream, then lodge themselves into the kidneys through the glomerular or peritubular capillaries . The bacteria then pass into
5520-543: The " Great Migration ." By the end of 1640, the colonial population, more than doubled to almost twenty thousand due to the continued arrival of ships bearing Puritan settlers fleeing the increasing levels of religious persecution during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and natural increase, as settlers often arrived as family units and raised large numbers of children. The Pilgrims feared the Native presence, as they were
5658-581: The 1630s, the Indians of New England were already a minority in their own lands. The Massachusett put up little armed resistance to colonial settlement, but other Native peoples of New England who did were subjugated during and after Pequot War in 1638. The colonists aided local Indian tribes in subduing the Pequot, resulting in massacres of Pequot non-combatants, such as in the Mystic Massacre , and
Massachusett - Misplaced Pages Continue
5796-487: The American state of Massachusetts . John Smith first published the term Massachusett in 1616. Narragansett people called the tribe Massachêuck. The historic territory of the Massachusett people consisted mainly of the hilly, heavily forested and comparatively fertile coastal plain along the southern side of Massachusetts Bay in what is now eastern Massachusetts . Major watersheds in Massachusett territory included
5934-535: The Faine's criteria for the diagnosis of leptospirosis. It consists of three parts: A (clinical findings), B (epidemiological factors), and C (lab findings and bacteriological data). Since the original Faine's criteria only included culture and MAT in part C, which is difficult and complex to perform, the modified Faine's criteria were proposed in 2004 to include ELISA and slide agglutination tests which are easier to perform. In 2012, modified Faine's criteria (with amendment)
6072-639: The General Court to set aside grants of lands for the Indians "in perpetuity." Natick was established in 1651, with Ponkapoag following shortly thereafter in 1654. An additional 13 settlements were created, mostly in Nipmuc areas. These communities, settled by Praying Indians, came to be known as "Praying towns" or in Massachusett, Peantamwe Otanash ( Puyôhtamwee 8tânash ) /pəjãhtamwiː uːtaːnaʃ/ . Ponkapoag, also spelled Punkapog, had 60 residents including Massachusett people in 1674. The establishment of
6210-618: The Great Cedar Swamp (near present-day Lakeville ), previously controlled by Wampanoag. In contrast, contemporary source Daniel Gookin lumps present day Salem ( Naumkeag ) with the Pawtucket, but extends the authority of the Massachusett sachem as far north as Lancaster, Massachusetts ( Nashaway ) and as far west as present day Deerfield, Massachusetts ( Pocumtuc ). By the 1660s the Massachusett moved into praying towns , such as Natick and Ponkapoag (Canton). Swanton lists
6348-703: The IgM antibodies using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) . Typically, L. biflexa antigen is used to detect the IgM antibodies. This test can quickly determine the diagnosis and help in early treatment. However, the test specificity depends upon the type of antigen used and the presence of antibodies from previous infections. The presence of other diseases such as Epstein–Barr virus infection, viral hepatitis , and cytomegalovirus infection can cause false-positive results. Other rapid screening tests have been developed such as dipsticks, latex and slide agglutination tests. The microscopic agglutination test (MAT)
6486-660: The Indians from the non-Indians especially as rates of intermarriage had increased. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts ordered reports on the condition of the Indians, including the Briggs Report (1849), also known as the Bird Report. These did not mention the Massachusett or the Praying Town of Natick , where Massachusett people had joined in the 17th century. John Milton Earle launched a far more detailed report in 1859 and published in 1861. Earle writes, "Of all
6624-487: The Indians loyal to Metacomet, leading to further conflict. The Massachusett, all of whom had become Praying Indians confined to praying towns , remained neutral during the war but suffered heavy casualties. The Praying Indians were attacked in their fields and harassed by neighboring colonists who had become overwhelmed with panic, hysteria, and anti-Indian sentiment. The Praying towns were also targets of Metacomet's forces, raided for supplies, and persuaded or forced to join
6762-617: The Indians was in many ways a precursor to the Indian Reservations that later developed. The truce that had existed between the English colonists of the Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth colonies and the local Native peoples was tested. The submission of the local chiefs to the respective colonial governments and adoption of Christianity allowed the Indians to seek redress in the colonial legal system and removed one of
6900-401: The Indians were restricted from voting in local elections or seeking redress through the courts on their own. Some of the Indians were supported by annuities established from the funds generated by land sales or initiated by the guardians for their support. The guardians, however, no longer had to maintain the rigorous lists of people associated with the land, which long had been used to segregate
7038-584: The Massachusett to halt trade with the Pilgrims for many years. The Massachusett were unable to isolate themselves from the English settlers. Despite cutting off relations with the Pilgrim settlers, dissenting English settlers, mostly Puritans who wished to reform the Church of England to conform with their view of the Protestant Reformation as opposed to separate from it, began arriving, with
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#17327650175127176-559: The Massachusetts Commission on Indian Affairs by legislative act in 1974, records on the Massachusett people are very few. In 1928, anthropologist Frank G. Speck published Territorial subdivisions and boundaries of the Wampanoag, Massachusett, and Nauset Indians which included 17th-century Massachusett history. At Ponkapoag, Speck met Mrs. Chapelle (died 1919) who identified as a Massachusett Indian and whose husband
7314-466: The Native American population of New England. The Massachusetts smallpox epidemic of 1633 further decimated Native populations, as did subsequent smallpox outbreaks, occurring almost every decade. Devastation by disease and European encroachment upset political balances among New England tribes. English settlers established their first permanent foothold in New England with the founding of
7452-425: The Native peoples had been alienated, leaving a messy patchwork of a few remaining common lands, individual allotments, leased lands, and numerous colonial proprietors in between Indian households. The end of tribal land did not remove the restrictions of the guardians even if it was the original purpose to have stewards of the land on the Native peoples' "behalf." As wards of the colonial and later state government,
7590-583: The Natives of Country, to the Knowledg and Obedience of the onlie true God and Savior of Mankinde, and the Chriſtian Fayth, which ... is the principall Ende of this Plantation." The colonists were more occupied with their survival and propagation of a Puritan refuge. Although not the first to attempt to Christianize the Natives, it was not until the missionary John Eliot , "Apostle to the Indians", arrived in
7728-573: The Neponset tribe led by Cutshamekin in 1646 but was rebuffed. Later, after resuming more language studies, Eliot preached to the Nonantum tribe led by Waban and had better success, bringing Waban and most of the tribe into Christianity. The reaction to Christianity was mixed, with many Native leaders continuing to be wary of the Pilgrims and urging their people to remain traditionalists whereas many wholeheartedly embraced it. Those that did embrace
7866-484: The Nipmuc John Wampas, who betrayed the Nipmuc and Massachusett people by selling land to the settlers to which he had no claim, but these sales were upheld in later court challenges. The Pawtucket sachem Wenepoykin , son of Nanepashemet and Squaw Sachem of Mistick , through kinship and family ties laid claim to much of Massachusett territory, and tried several times to petition the courts for lands lost in
8004-635: The P1 subclade include the 8 species that can cause severe disease in humans: L. alexanderi , L. borgpetersenii , L. interrogans , L. kirschneri , L. mayottensis , L. noguchii , L. santarosai , and L. weilii . The P2 clade comprises 21 species that may cause mild disease in humans. The remaining 26 species comprise the S1 and S2 subclades, which include "saprophytes" known to consume decaying matter ( saprotrophic nutrition ). Pathogenic Leptospira do not multiply in
8142-491: The Pilgrims. The Pilgrims also met with Chickatawbut (Massachusett, d. 1633), the most powerful Massachusett leader of the time. Unlike Massasoit, who favored increasing ties with the new English settlers to help assist against increasing power struggles with the Pequot and the Narragansett, Chickatawbut and other Massachusett leaders were wary of the Pilgrims and their intentions. Chickatawbut's fears were confirmed when
8280-517: The Pilgrims. The colonists also did not understand the Indian concept of leasing land from the sachem, and instead thought of their arrangements as permanent land sales. As a result of the rapid loss of land, the Massachusett and other local tribes sent their leaders to Boston for the 1644 Acts of Submission, bringing the Indians under the control of the colonial government and subject to both its laws and conversion attempts from Christian missionaries. By
8418-503: The Plymouth Colony expanded to Wessagusset , in Massachusett territory, with the arrival of a new ship of colonists. The new settlers were ill-prepared, even more so than the first Pilgrims, and quickly resorted to trading supplies with the Massachusett. As their situation worsened, the Pilgrims began raiding Massachusett villages for food and supplies. To prevent an attack, Standish ordered a preemptive strike in 1624, which led to
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#17327650175128556-737: The Plymouth Colony's jurisdiction. In defiance, Metacomet murdered his interpreter to the colonial government, the Massachusett John Sassamon, before fleeing and seeking the support of the disgruntled tribes, culminating in the raid of Swansea in June 1675. Metacomet was able to bring the Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Podunk, Tunxi peoples into his forces, organizing attacks on numerous outposts such as Sudbury , Lancaster , Turner's Falls and other colonial settlements, leading many settlers to flee their lands for fortified towns. The settlers quickly responded by organizing units to attack
8694-719: The Praying towns accomplished several goals. It helped facilitate the goals of Christianization and acculturation as it allowed for easier distribution of the Massachusett-language translations of Eliot's Bible and other works. The inhabitants were forced to observe the eight tenements of the "Leaf of Rules" distributed in the Bibles which forbid Indian cultural norms such as consenting pre-marital sex, cracking lice between teeth, avoidance of agriculture by men and re-enforced adoption of Puritan-style modesty and hairstyles. For
8832-438: The Praying towns established safe zones away from the constant encroachment, requests for sales of land and harassment. The Massachusett also were able to revive their prestige, which they long held prior to English colonial settlement. Many of the Praying towns were established by Native missionaries drawn from Natick's old powerful families, affording them much respect in their adopted communities. The Massachusett began to replace
8970-531: The WHO recommended oral doxycycline (2 mg/kg up to 100 mg every 12 hours) for five to seven days for those with mild leptospirosis. Tetracycline , ampicillin, and amoxicillin can also be used in such cases. However, in areas where both rickettsia and leptospirosis are endemic, azithromycin and doxycycline are the drugs of choice. Doxycycline is not used in cases where the patient suffers from liver damage as it has been linked to hepatotoxicity. Based on
9108-435: The activation of membrane attack complex on its surface. It also secretes proteases to degrade complement proteins such as C3 . It can bind to thrombin that decreases the fibrin formation. Reduced fibrin formation increases the risk of bleeding. Leptospira also secretes sphingomyelinase and haemolysin that target red blood cells. Leptospira spreads rapidly to all organs through the bloodstream. They mainly affect
9246-402: The bacteria resembled a question mark. In 1908, a Japanese research group led by Ryukichi Inada and Yutaka Ito first identified this bacterium as the causative agent of leptospirosis and noted its presence in rats in 1916. Japanese coal mine workers frequently contracted leptospirosis. In Japan, the organism was named Spirocheta icterohaemorrhagiae . The Japanese group also experimented with
9384-478: The belief that they were punished for their wickedness. Other Indians likely joined because they thought they had to. The colonial government had forced the tribal leaders of Indians as far west as Quabaug ( Brookfield, Massachusetts ) to sign the 1644 Acts of Submission which forced upon the Indians acceptance of the authority of the colonial government and its protection as well opening their people to missionary activity, with many Indian leaders likely still fearful of
9522-407: The body (e.g. mouth, nose, and eyes). Occupations at risk of contracting leptospirosis include farmers, fishermen, garbage collectors and sewage workers. The disease is also related to adventure tourism and recreational activities. It is common among water-sports enthusiasts in specific areas, including triathlons , water rafting , canoeing and swimming, as prolonged immersion in water promotes
9660-458: The body , complete inflammation of a whole horizontal section of spinal cord , and Guillain-Barré syndrome are the complications. Signs of bleeding such as petechiae , ecchymoses , nose bleeding , blackish stools due to bleeding in the stomach , vomiting blood and bleeding from the lungs can also be found. Prolongation of prothrombin time in coagulation testing is associated with severe bleeding manifestation. However, low platelet count
9798-500: The chiefs, and helped promote further English colonial settlement in the region. With increasing levels of contact with European fishermen and explorers, the Massachusett and neighboring tribes were increasingly affected by infectious diseases. With minimal livestock, Indigenous peoples of the Americas lacked immunity to many zoonotic diseases carried by Europeans and the animals they brought. These introduced diseases quickly became
9936-491: The claim of the Plymouth Colony. The Massachusett sachems gave many land deeds to the Pilgrims since they served to rebuff attacks from other tribes. In most cases, it was because the land had already been opened to English colonial settlement, often because the Indians living there had already died off from disease. The sachems began selling land at a price, often with stipulations allowing the Indians to collect, gather, fish or forage, but these arrangements were seldom honored by
10074-746: The close of the war, many Pocumtuck, Nipmuc, and other tribes fled to Schaghticoke , a village on the Hudson River . They remained there until the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in 1754, when most joined and merged into the Abenaki tribes at Saint-François-du-Lac, Quebec or moved further west. Among the members of the Pocumtuck tribe was Chief Wawanotewat (1670–ca. 1750), better known as Gray Lock . A famous warrior, he led Abenaki bands into Massachusetts after most of his followers had left
10212-550: The colonial authorities and thus often chosen to spread official messages, restoring the old power dynamic vis-à-vis other tribes. Life in the Praying towns became a mix of European and Indian customs. The Indians were forced to adopt Puritan habits of modesty, hairstyle, dress, and other cultural norms. They were encouraged to learn European methods of woodworking, carpentry, animal husbandry, and agriculture and Eliot arranged for many Indians to apprentice under settlers to learn these skills. Natick had an independent congregation with
10350-592: The colonial government, it brought the Indians fully under the control of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, with the Praying towns occupying a status similar to autonomous English colonial settlements. The traditional power structures remained somewhat intact, as Native peoples recognized both the traditional power systems, but the chiefs and the tribal élite maintained it by adopting the roles of administrators, clerks, translators, teachers, constables, jurors and tax collectors. The confinement benefitted both
10488-489: The colonial laws and assimilate to European culture, yet they were allowed to use their language. Through intermediaries, Eliot learned the Massachusett language and even published a translation of the Bible . The language, related to other Eastern Algonquian languages of southern New England, slowly faded, ceasing to serve as the primary language of the Massachusett communities by the 1750s. The language likely went extinct by
10626-414: The colony and attained considerable success before colonial authorities truly began to invest in the project. Eliot began to learn the language, employing the help of two Indian indentured servants fluent in English, including Cockenoe , a Montaukett originally from Long Island that also spoke Massachusett, and John Sassamon from a Neponset family. Once confident in his abilities, Eliot tried to preach to
10764-492: The commissioner was charged to manage the timber resources, as most of the forests of New England had been felled to make way for farm and pasture, making the timber on Indian lands a valuable commodity. Very quickly, the guardian of Natick came to control the exchange of land, once the domain of the sachems , and any funds set up by the sale of Indian products, but mainly land. As the guardians assumed more power and were rarely supervised, many instances of questionable land sales by
10902-716: The communal language into the 1770s and went extinct with the death of the last Wampanoag dialect — and last speakers of any Massachusett dialect — in the 1890s. Efforts to revitalize the language include the Wopanaak Language Reclamation Project led by Jessie Little Doe Baird ( Mashpee Wampanoag ). The Massachusett occupied fertile flatlands. Men and women cleared fields first by burning trees, then by removing stumps. Women grew food crops, but men were involved in tobacco cultivation. Women used clamshell hoes. Women cultivated crops such as northern flint corn , called weachimineash in Massachusett,
11040-488: The dawn of the 19th century. The last of Massachusett common lands were sold in the early 19th century, loosening the community and social bonds that held the Massachusett families together, and most of the Massachusett were forced to settle amongst neighboring European Americans , but mainly settled the poorer sections of towns where they were segregated with Black Americans , recent immigrants and other Native Americans. Surviving Massachusett assimilated and integrated into
11178-426: The deaths of Pecksuot , Wituwamat, and other Massachusett warriors who were lured under the pretense of peace and negotiation to meet with the colonists. Standish further angered the Massachusett when he led his men deep into their territory to suppress the nascent colony of Merrymount , which had been established by Thomas Morton and which had friendly relations with neighboring Indian tribes. These activities caused
11316-676: The desires of Eliot and the colony, and Eliot was often accompanied by Daniel Gookin , the Superintendent to the Indians appointed to ensure cordial relations with the Indians and their adherence to the colonial laws, during his tours of the Praying towns. Similar settlements were established in the Plymouth Colony, such as the Massachusett Praying towns of Titicut and Mattakeeset. The Massachusett benefited from clear titles of common land where they could plant, hunt and forage, and this likely attracted even more converts since
11454-470: The diagnosis. During the acute phase of the disease, MAT is not specific in detecting a serotype of Leptospira because of cross-reactivity between the serovars. In the convalescent phase, MAT is more specific in detecting the serovar types. MAT requires a panel of live antigens and requires laborious work. Leptospiral DNA can be amplified by using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from serum, urine, aqueous humour , CSF, and autopsy specimens. It detects
11592-602: The disease was known as "rice field jaundice " in ancient Chinese text, "autumn fever", "seven-day fever", and " nanukayami fever" in Japan; in Europe and Australia, the disease was associated with certain occupations and given names such as "cane-cutter's disease", "swine-herd's disease", and " Schlammfieber " (mud fever). It has been known historically as "black jaundice", or "dairy farm fever" in New Zealand. Leptospirosis
11730-442: The disease, most commonly rodents. The bacteria are spread to humans through animal urine or feces , or water or soil contaminated with animal urine and feces, coming into contact with the eyes, mouth, nose or breaks in the skin. In developing countries, the disease occurs most commonly in pest control, farmers and low-income people who live in areas with poor sanitation. In developed countries, it occurs during heavy downpours and
11868-409: The entry of the bacteria. However, Leptospira are unlikely to penetrate intact skin. The disease is not known to spread between humans, and bacterial dissemination in recovery period is extremely rare in humans. Once humans are infected, bacterial shedding from the kidneys usually persists for up to 60 days. Rarely, leptospirosis can be transmitted through an organ transplant. Infection through
12006-428: The environment. Leptospira require high humidity for survival but can remain alive in environments such as stagnant water or contaminated soil. The bacterium can be killed by temperatures of 50 °C (122 °F) and can be inactivated by 70% ethanol , 1% sodium hypochlorite , formaldehyde , detergents and acids. Leptospira are also classified based on their serovar . The diverse sugar composition of
12144-402: The eye). The uveitis is more commonly happen in young to middle-aged males and those working in agricultural farming. In up to 80% of those infected, Leptospira DNA can be found in the aqueous humour of the eye. Eye problems usually have a good prognosis following treatment or they are self-limiting. In anterior uveitis, only topical steroids and mydriatics (an agent that causes dilation of
12282-538: The fighting. To appease the settlers, the Praying Indians accepted confinement to the Praying towns, curfews, increased supervision, and voluntarily surrendered their weapons. As the war progressed, the settlers decided to recruit some of the Praying Indians as scouts, guides and to fill the ranks of the colonial militia, with a regiment of Praying Indians, including many Massachusett, recruited by Daniel Gookin sent to face Metacomet's warriors at Swansea, but it
12420-890: The first few hours after antibiotic administration. However, according to a meta-analysis done in 2012, the benefit of antibiotics in the treatment of leptospirosis was unclear although the use of antibiotics may reduce the duration of illness by two to four days. Another meta-analysis done in 2013 reached a similar conclusion. For those with severe leptospirosis, including potassium wasting with high kidney output dysfunction, intravenous hydration and potassium supplements can prevent dehydration and hypokalemia . When acute kidney failure occurs, early initiation of haemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis can help to improve survival. For those with respiratory failure, tracheal intubation with low tidal volume improves survival rates. Corticosteroids have been proposed to suppress inflammation in leptospirosis because Leptospira infection can induce
12558-626: The first leptospiral immunisation studies in guinea pigs. They demonstrated that by injecting the infected guinea pigs with sera from convalescent humans or goats, passive immunity could be provided to the guinea pigs. In 1917, the Japanese group discovered rats as the carriers of leptospirosis. Unaware of the Japanese group's work, two German groups independently and almost simultaneously published their first demonstration of transmitting leptospiral infection in guinea pigs in October 1915. They named
12696-479: The first settling in Wonnisquam in 1623 and later expanding to Naumkeag in Pawtucket territory. In 1628, the Massachusetts Bay Colony was legally established, with a claim over the lands north of the Plymouth Colony. The boundary between the two colonies mirrored the traditional boundary between the Massachusett and Wampanoag, although many Massachusett, such as those at Titicut and Mattakeesett , were under
12834-551: The following: Massachusett settlements. Massachusett people settled in villages; however, these were organized into larger bands. Swanton writes about six major bands named for their sachems or leaders. The appointment of guardians to administer the assets of the Praying Indians and represent them before the colony in 1743 ended the authority of local chiefs and the last vestiges of traditional tribal organization. The Massachusett language, Massachusee unontꝏwaok ( Muhsachuweesee unôtuwôâôk ) /məhsatʃəwiːsiː ənãtəwaːãk/ ),
12972-435: The guardians and embezzlement of funds have been recorded. The appointment of the guardians reduced the Indians to colonial wards, as they were no longer able to directly address the courts, vote in town elections and removed the power of the Indian chiefs. Loss of land continued. As forest lands were lost, the Indians could no longer resort to seasonal movements on their land or eke out a living, forcing many into poverty. Land
13110-590: The heart muscles, coronary arteries, and aorta are found. For those who are infected, a complete blood count may show a high white cell count and a low platelet count. When a low haemoglobin count is present together with a low white cell count and thrombocytopenia , bone marrow suppression should be considered. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein may also be elevated. The kidneys are commonly involved in leptospirosis. Blood urea and creatinine levels will be elevated. Leptospirosis increases potassium excretion in urine, which leads to
13248-705: The human body through either breaches in the skin or the mucous membrane, then into the bloodstream. The bacteria later attach to the endothelial cells of the blood vessels and extracellular matrix (complex network of proteins and carbohydrates present between cells). The bacteria use their flagella for moving between cell layers. They bind to cells such as fibroblasts , macrophages , endothelial cells, and kidney epithelial cells. They also bind to several human proteins such as complement proteins, thrombin , fibrinogen , and plasminogen using surface leptospiral immunoglobulin-like (Lig) proteins such as LigB and LipL32, whose genes are found in all pathogenic species. Through
13386-464: The immunity induced by one Leptospira serovar is only protective against that specific one, trivalent vaccines have been developed. However, they do not confer long-lasting immunity to humans or animals. Vaccines for other animals are more widely available. Doxycycline is given once a week as a prophylaxis and is effective in reducing the rate of leptospirosis infections amongst high-risk individuals in flood-prone areas. In one study, it reduced
13524-442: The indigenous people lacked natural immunity. Their territories, on the more fertile and flat coastlines, with access to coastal resources, were mostly taken over by English colonists, as the Massachusett were too few in number to put up any effective resistance. Missionary John Eliot converted the majority of the Massachusett to Christianity and founded praying towns , where the converted Native Americans were expected to submit to
13662-501: The infection. Whether there are reservoirs of human infection is unknown. Rats, mice, and moles are important primary hosts , but other mammals including dogs, deer, rabbits, hedgehogs, cows, sheep, swine, raccoons, opossums, and skunks can also carry the disease. In Africa, a number of wildlife hosts have been identified as carriers, including the banded mongoose , Egyptian fox , Rusa deer , and shrews . There are various mechanisms whereby animals can infect each other. Dogs may lick
13800-627: The inner than the outer membrane. This results in a fluid outer membrane loosely associated with the cell wall. In addition, Leptospira have a flagellum located in the periplasm , associated with corkscrew style movement. Chemoreceptors at the poles of the bacteria sense various substrates and change the direction of its movement. The bacteria are traditionally visualised using dark-field microscopy without staining. A total of 66 species of Leptospira has been identified. Based on their genomic sequence, they are divided into two clades and four subclades: P1, P2, S1, and S2. The 19 members of
13938-540: The language at Natick. Factors that led to the decline of the spoken language include the rapid rates of intermarriage with non-Indian spouses outside the speech community in the mid-18th century, the need for English for employment and participation in general society, the lack of prestige regarding the Indian language, and the dissolution of Indian communities and outmigration of people leading to greater isolation of speakers. The Wampanoag on Noepe , with its more secure land base and larger population, held onto Massachusett as
14076-481: The language of the Nipmuc and greatly leveled dialectal differences across the Massachusett-speaking area, due to the spread of Indian missionaries, but also because Massachusett became the language of literacy, prayer and administration, likely facilitated by its historic use as a regional second language and backed by its use in the translation of the Bible. The Massachusett leaders were also closer to
14214-568: The leptospirosis disease process in humans. Although there are various mechanisms in the human body to fight against the bacteria, Leptospira is well adapted to such an inflammatory condition created by it. In the bloodstream, it can activate host plasminogen to become plasmin that breaks down extracellular matrix, degrades fibrin clots and complemental proteins ( C3b and C5 ) to avoid opsonisation . It can also recruit complement regulators such as Factor H , C4b -binding protein, factor H-like binding protein, and vitronectin to prevent
14352-597: The lipopolysaccharide on the surface of the bacteria is responsible for the antigenic difference between serovars. About 300 pathogenic serovars of Leptospira are recognised. Antigenically related serovars (belonging to the same serogroup) may belong to different species because of horizontal gene transfer of LPS biosynthetic genes between different species. Currently, the cross agglutination absorption test and DNA-DNA hybridisation are used to classify Leptospira species, but are time-consuming. Therefore, total genomic sequencing could potentially replace these two methods as
14490-643: The liver. They invade spaces between hepatocytes , causing apoptosis. The damaged hepatocytes and hepatocyte intercellular junctions cause leakage of bile into the bloodstream, causing elevated levels of bilirubin , resulting in jaundice. Congested liver sinusoids and perisinusoidal spaces have been reported. Meanwhile, in the lungs, petechiae or frank bleeding can be found at the alveolar septum and spaces between alveoli. Leptospira secretes toxins that cause mild to severe kidney failure or interstitial nephritis . The kidney failure can recover completely or lead to atrophy and fibrosis . Rarely, inflammation of
14628-473: The lungs or meningitis ). Weil's disease ( / ˈ v aɪ l z / VILES ), the acute, severe form of leptospirosis, causes the infected individual to become jaundiced (skin and eyes become yellow), develop kidney failure , and bleed. Bleeding from the lungs associated with leptospirosis is known as severe pulmonary haemorrhage syndrome . More than ten genetic types of Leptospira cause disease in humans. Both wild and domestic animals can spread
14766-782: The new disease and suffered high fatalities. In addition, they lost tribal members due to taking part in wars among the Dutch, English, French, and their respective Native American allies. The Pocumtuck were originally allied with the Tunxis and Narragansett against Chief Uncas of the Mohegan and the Pequot . All these tribes united against the English colonists with the Wampanoag Confederacy in King Philip's War . At
14904-503: The new gold standard of classifying Leptospira species. The bacteria can be found in ponds, rivers, puddles, sewers, agricultural fields and moist soil. Pathogenic Leptospira have been found in the form of aquatic biofilms , which may aid survival in the environment. The number of cases of leptospirosis is directly related to the amount of rainfall, making the disease seasonal in temperate climates and year-round in tropical climates. The risk of contracting leptospirosis depends upon
15042-401: The new religion often did so because the traditional medicines and rituals conducted by healers known as powwow ( pawâwak ) /pawaːwak/ failed to protect them from settler encroachment of their lands or the novel pathogens to which they lacked resistance. These Indians hoped that the new God of the settlers would protect them the way that it had protected the settlers and often bought into
15180-418: The number of leptospirosis cases in military personnel undergoing exercises in the jungles. In another study, it reduced the number of symptomatic cases after exposure to leptospirosis under heavy rainfall in endemic areas. The prevention of leptospirosis from the environmental sources like contaminated waterways, soil, sewers, and agricultural fields, is disinfection used by effective microorganisms , which
15318-512: The organism Spirochaeta nodosa and Spirochaeta Icterogenes respectively. Leptospirosis was subsequently recognised as a disease of all mammalian species. In 1933, Dutch workers reported the isolation of Leptospira canicola which specifically infects dogs. In 1940, the strain that specifically infects cattle was first reported in Russia. In 1942, soldiers at Fort Bragg , North Carolina , were recorded to have an infectious disease which caused
15456-504: The other newly converted Massachusett to settle along a bend of the Quinobequin River but were immediately sued as squatters by the residents of Dorchester . By the time Eliot began to establish the Indian mission, the Massachusett had lost access to the shellfishing beds along the coast and were soon to lose most of their remaining hunting and foraging lands due to the opening of all unfenced, "unimproved" lands. Eliot petitioned
15594-472: The pancreas . Rarely, the lymph nodes , liver , and spleen may be enlarged and palpable. There will be a resolution of symptoms for one to three days. The immune phase starts after this and can last from four to 30 days and can be anything from brain to kidney complications. The hallmark of the second phase is inflammation of the membranes covering the brain . Signs and symptoms of meningitis include severe headache and neck stiffness. Kidney involvement
15732-418: The prejudices against them. The Praying Indians of Natick were brought to court several times by colonists living in settlement of Dedham who claimed some of the surrounding land, but with Eliot's assistance, most of these attempts failed. Most of the time, however, the Indians failed, as some of the Indian interpreters and chiefs ceded lands to curry favor from the settlers to maintain special privileges, such as
15870-486: The presence of bacteria faster than MAT during the first few days of infection without waiting for the appearance of antibodies. As PCR detects the presence of leptospiral DNA in the blood it is useful even when the bacteria is killed by antibiotics. In those who have lung involvement, a chest X-ray may demonstrate diffuse alveolar opacities. In 1982, the World Health Organization (WHO) proposed
16008-421: The pupil) are needed while in panuveitis, it requires periocular corticosteroids. Leptospiral uveitis is characterised by hypopyon , rapidly maturing cataract , free floating vitreous membranes, disc hyperemia and retinal vasculitis . It is estimated that one million severe cases of leptospirosis occur annually, with 58,900 deaths. Severe cases account for 5–15% of all leptospirosis cases. Leptospirosis
16146-403: The range from two weeks to a few years post-infection. Most commonly, eye complications can occur at six months after the infection. This is due to the immune privilege of the eye which protects it from immunological damage during the initial phase of leptospiral infection. These complications can range from mild anterior uveitis to severe panuveitis (which involves all three vascular layers of
16284-424: The rebellion was started by the Wampanoag sachem ( sôtyum ) Metacomet , son of Massasoit who had welcomed and befriended Edward Winslow and the Pilgrims. Metacomet maintained the peace of his father but turned after the never-ending requests for land, but especially the execution of his brother Wamsutta for selling land to Roger Williams , seen by the Wampanoag as a very harsh measure for something outside
16422-404: The release of chemical signals which promote inflammation of blood vessels in the lungs. However, there is insufficient evidence to determine whether the use of corticosteroids is beneficial. The overall risk of death for leptospirosis is 5–10%. For those with jaundice, the case fatality can increase up to 15%. For those infected who present with confusion and neurological signs, there
16560-528: The risk of disease carriage in the community and the frequency of exposure. In rural areas, farming and animal husbandry are the major risk factors for contracting leptospirosis. Poor housing and inadequate sanitation also increase the risk of infection. In tropical and semi-tropical areas, the disease often becomes widespread after heavy rains or after flooding. Leptospira are found mostly in mammals. However, reptiles and cold-blooded animals such as frogs, snakes, turtles, and toads have been shown to have
16698-532: The selling of many of the Indians into slavery in Bermuda . The war resulted in the complete destruction of the Pequot as a tribal entity, opening up further land in New England to colonial settlement. As stated in the royal charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony of 1628, "according to the Courſe of other Corporations in this our Realme of England ... whereby our ſaid People, Inhabitants thee ... maie wynn and incite
16836-638: The settlers due memories of the Pequot War and the fate of the Pequot. Others converted in hopes of removing the stigma of heathenism to improve relations with the settlers, but due to synchretism and cryto-traditional practices conducted in secret by some, the Puritans continued to mistreat the Indians and cast suspicions on the sincerity of the new believers who came to be referred to as " Praying Indians " or peantamwe Indiansog ( puyôhtamwee Indiansak ) /pəjãhtamwiː əntʃansak/ . Eliot urged Waban and
16974-538: The surrounding communities. The native name is written Massachuseuck ( Muhsachuweeseeak ) /məhsat͡ʃəwiːsiːak/ —singular Massachusee ( Muhsachuweesee ). It translates as "at the great hill," referring to the Great Blue Hill , located in Ponkapoag . English settlers adopted the term Massachusett for the name for the people, language, and ultimately as the name of their colony which became
17112-462: The time of the submission, the Massachusett, a coastal people, had lost access to the sea and their shellfish collection sites. The Native peoples of New England faced increasing pressures with the increasing levels of colonists in New England. In 1630, the Massachusetts Bay Colony greatly expanded with the arrival of the Winthrop Fleet of 11 ships and almost one thousand colonists beginning
17250-596: The tribes which held reservations, and were placed under guardianship by the States, the Natick Tribe is nearest extinct. ... [O]nly two families remain, and one of these is descended equally from the Naticks and the Hassanamiscoes . Their whole number is twelve. ..." He continues, "This tribe has no common lands," and recommends their remain funds be divided equally among the two surviving families. Earle observes that
17388-419: The turbulence of the 1633 epidemic that took both of his brothers to no avail, with most cases simply dismissed. The outbreak of King Philip's War from 1675 until 1676 was disastrous for both the Indians and colonists of New England. By the early 1670s, Waban and Cutshamekin had begun to address Daniel Gookin and warn of the increasing discontent of the interior Indians such as the Nipmuc people. However,
17526-666: The urine of an infected animal off the grass or soil , or drink from an infected puddle. House-bound domestic dogs have contracted leptospirosis, apparently from licking the urine of infected mice in the house. Leptospirosis can also be transmitted via the semen of infected animals. The duration of bacteria being consistently present in animal urine may persist for years. Humans are the accidental host of Leptospira . Humans become infected through contact with water or moist soil that contains urine & feces from infected animals. The bacteria enter through cuts, abrasions, ingestion of contaminated food, or contact with mucous membrane of
17664-468: The world's population is closely tied to malnutrition; subsequent lack of micronutrients may lead to increased risk of infection and death due to leptospirosis infection. Micronutrients such as iron , calcium , and magnesium represent important areas for future research. The disease was first described by Adolf Weil in 1886 when he reported an "acute infectious disease with enlargement of spleen, jaundice, and nephritis ." Before Weil's description,
17802-518: Was Mi'kmaq . Speck estimated that in 1921 a dozen Massachusett and Narragansett descendants of the Ponkapoag praying town lived in what is now Canton. Leptospirosis Leptospirosis is a blood infection caused by the bacteria Leptospira that can infect humans, dogs, rodents and many other wild and domesticated animals. Signs and symptoms can range from none to mild ( headaches , muscle pains , and fevers ) to severe ( bleeding in
17940-718: Was an R-dialect of the Algonquian language family, most likely related to the Wappinger and nearby Mahican tribes of the Hudson River Valley . The Pocumtuc people likely led lifestyles similar to neighboring tribes in New England . They would have engaged in semi-sedentary agriculture of maize , beans , and squash . They also hunted game and fished in the Connecticut River, which served as
18078-464: Was an important language of New England as it was also the native language of the Wampanoag, Nauset , Cowesset , and Pawtucket people. Due to its similarity with other closely related languages of the region, a simplified pidgin of it was also used as a regional language of trade and intertribal communication. By the 1750s, Massachusett was no longer the predominant language of the community, and by 1798 only one Massachusett elder of advanced age spoke
18216-535: Was concentrated around the confluence of the Deerfield and Connecticut Rivers in today's Franklin County . Their homelands also included much of current-day Hampden and Hampshire Counties, plus areas now in northern Connecticut and southern Vermont . Their principal village, also known as Pocumtuck, was in the vicinity of the present day village of Deerfield, Massachusetts . Their language, now extinct,
18354-539: Was covered with woven mats in the winter or chestnut bark in the summer. Inside, possessions were stored in hemp dogbane bags and baskets of all sizes. Men carved wooden bowls and spoons as dining utensils. Water transport was by both either carved dugout canoes and birchbark canoes. The first known European encounter may have been in 1605 when French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in Boston Harbor . Champlain met with Massachusett leaders on several of
18492-421: Was no difference in the resolution of fever and azithromycin is better tolerated than doxycycline. Outpatients are given doxycycline or azithromycin. Doxycycline can shorten the duration of leptospirosis by two days, improve symptoms, and prevent the shedding of organisms in their urine. Azithromycin and amoxicillin are given to pregnant women and children. Rarely, a Jarisch–Herxheimer reaction can develop in
18630-457: Was postulated as the cause of an epidemic among Native Americans along the coast of what is now New England during 1616–1619. The disease was most likely brought to the New World by Europeans. Leptospira was first observed in 1907 in a post mortem kidney tissue slice by Arthur Stimson using silver deposition staining technique. He called the organism Spirocheta interrogans because
18768-434: Was proposed to include shortness of breath and coughing up blood in the diagnosis. In 2013, India recommended modified Faine's criteria in the diagnosis of leptospirosis. Rates of leptospirosis can be reduced by improving housing, infrastructure, and sanitation standards. Rodent abatement efforts and flood mitigation projects can also help to prevent it. Proper use of personal protective equipment (PPE) by people who have
18906-538: Was reinstated as a nationally notifiable disease in the United States. Research on epidemiology of leptospirosis in high-risk groups and risk factors is limited in India. The global rates of leptospirosis have been underestimated because most affected countries lack notification or notification is not mandatory. Distinguishing clinical signs of leptospirosis from other diseases and lack of laboratory diagnostic services are other problems. The socioeconomic status of many of
19044-443: Was their only commodity and was often sold by the guardians to pay for treatments for the sick, care of orphans, and debts incurred by Indians, but Indians were also the victims of unfair credit schemes that often forced the land out of their hands. Without land to farm or forage, Indians were forced to seek employment and settle in the de facto segregated sections of cities. Most of the remaining lands set aside "in perpetuity" for
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