168-615: The Tariff Act of 1890 , commonly called the McKinley Tariff , was an act of the United States Congress, framed by then Representative William McKinley , that became law on October 1, 1890. The tariff raised the average duty on imports to almost 50%, an increase designed to protect domestic industries and workers from foreign competition, as promised in the Republican platform. It represented protectionism ,
336-465: A Cleveland businessman. Taking the case pro bono , McKinley was successful in getting all but one of the miners acquitted. The case raised McKinley's standing among laborers, a crucial part of the Stark County electorate, and also introduced him to Hanna, who would become his strongest backer in years to come. McKinley's good standing with labor became useful that year as he campaigned for
504-447: A United States territory . McKinley defeated Bryan again in the 1900 presidential election in a campaign focused on imperialism , protectionism , and free silver. His second term ended early when he was shot on September 6, 1901, by Leon Czolgosz , an anarchist . McKinley died eight days later and was succeeded by Vice President Theodore Roosevelt . As an innovator of American interventionism and pro-business sentiment, McKinley
672-505: A protective tariff , defeated the Democratic nominee, Levi L. Lamborn , by 3,300 votes. Hayes won a hotly disputed election to reach the presidency. McKinley's victory came at a personal cost: his income as a congressman would be half of what he earned as a lawyer. Under free trade the trader is the master and the producer the slave. Protection is but the law of nature, the law of self-preservation, of self-development, of securing
840-513: A 2016 study found that these tariffs had no impact on employment and wages in the US tire industry. In 2018, EU Trade Commissioner Cecilia Malmström stated that the US was "playing a dangerous game" in applying tariffs on steel and aluminum imports from most countries and stated that she saw the Trump administration's decision to do so as both "pure protectionist" and "illegal". The tariffs imposed by
1008-470: A Confederate assault at Berryville , where McKinley had a horse shot out from under him, and advanced to Opequon Creek , where they broke the enemy lines and pursued them farther south. They followed up the victory with another at Fisher's Hill on September 22 and were engaged once more at Cedar Creek on October 19. After initially falling back from the Confederate advance, McKinley helped to rally
1176-471: A choice actually made, by most accounts, by Hanna. Hobart, a wealthy lawyer, businessman, and former state legislator, was not widely known, but as Hanna biographer Herbert Croly pointed out, "if he did little to strengthen the ticket he did nothing to weaken it". Before the Republican convention, McKinley had been a "straddle bug" on the currency question, favoring moderate positions on silver such as accomplishing bimetallism by international agreement. In
1344-530: A daughter of a prominent Canton family. They were married on January 25, 1871, in the newly built First Presbyterian Church of Canton. Ida soon joined her husband's Methodist church. Their first child, Katherine, was born on Christmas Day 1871. A second daughter, Ida, followed in 1873 but died the same year. McKinley's wife descended into a deep depression at her baby's death and her health, never robust, declined. Two years later, Katherine died of typhoid fever . Ida never recovered from their daughters' deaths, and
1512-562: A deep depression; rejected the inflationary monetary policy of free silver , keeping the nation on the gold standard ; and raised protective tariffs . McKinley was the last president to have served in the American Civil War ; he was the only one to begin his service as an enlisted man and ended it as a brevet major. After the war, he settled in Canton, Ohio , where he practiced law and married Ida Saxton . In 1876, McKinley
1680-412: A free market, where there is no such total loss. Economist Stephen P. Magee claims the benefits of free trade outweigh the losses by as much as 100 to 1. Protectionism has been accused of being one of the major causes of war. Proponents of this theory point to the constant warfare in the 17th and 18th centuries among European countries whose governments were predominantly mercantilist and protectionist,
1848-480: A higher rate. Through a multitude of complicated tariff schedule revisions, the Act made almost all woolen goods subject to the maximum duty rate. The Act also increased the tariff on carpet wool, a wool of very low quality not produced in the US. The government wanted to ensure that importers were not declaring higher-quality wool as carpet wool to evade the tariff. The tariff was not well received by Americans who suffered
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#17327647589072016-517: A legend in American political history." McKinley made himself available to the public every day except Sunday, receiving delegations from the front porch of his home. The railroads subsidized the visitors with low excursion rates—the pro-silver Cleveland Plain Dealer disgustedly stated that going to Canton had been made "cheaper than staying at home". Delegations marched through the streets from
2184-455: A limited set of circumstances and that trade policy will rarely be the best response to the problems [of globalization]". According to economic historians Findlay and O'Rourke, there is a consensus in the economics literature that protectionist policies in the interwar period "hurt the world economy overall, although there is a debate about whether the effect was large or small." Economic historian Paul Bairoch argued that economic protection
2352-496: A major import for the United States. Tens of millions of dollars in these goods entered the country each year. In the preceding 20 years, tariff rates had been raised and dropped multiple times on tin-plates with no change in import levels, and domestic production had remained inconsequential. In a last attempt to stimulate the infant domestic tin-plate industry, the Act raised the duty level from 30% to 70%. It also included
2520-515: A maxim that is a thousand times better than that, and it is the protection maxim: "Buy where you can pay the easiest." And that spot of earth is where labor wins its highest rewards. William McKinley, speech made October 4, 1892, Boston, Massachusetts McKinley took his congressional seat in October 1877, when President Hayes summoned Congress into special session. With the Republicans in
2688-502: A meteoric rise in Ohio politics early in the decade. Hanna, once he entered public affairs as a political manager and generous contributor, supported Sherman's ambitions, as well as those of Foraker. The latter relationship broke off at the 1888 Republican National Convention , where McKinley, Foraker, and Hanna were all delegates supporting Sherman. Convinced Sherman could not win, Foraker threw his support to Maine Senator James G. Blaine ,
2856-620: A place in the peacetime army, but he declined and returned to Ohio the following month. McKinley, along with Samuel M. Taylor and James C. Howe, co-authored and published a twelve-volume work, Official Roster of the Soldiers of the State of Ohio in the War of the Rebellion, 1861–1866 , published in 1886. After the war ended in 1865, McKinley decided on a career in the law and began studying in
3024-609: A policy supported by Republicans and denounced by Democrats. It was a major topic of fierce debate in the 1890 Congressional elections , which gave a Democratic landslide. Democrats replaced the McKinley Tariff with the Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act in 1894, which lowered tariff rates. After 450 amendments, the Tariff Act of 1890 was passed and increased average duties across all imports from 38% to 49.5%. McKinley
3192-452: A presidential bid through 1895 and early 1896. When other contenders such as Speaker Reed and Iowa Senator William B. Allison sent agents outside their states to organize Republicans in support of their candidacies, they found that Hanna's agents had preceded them. According to historian Stanley Jones in his study of the 1896 election: Another feature common to the Reed and Allison campaigns
3360-548: A reduction, rather than an increase, in tariffs would have reduced both revenue and the federal surplus. This finding supported the Democrats’ hypothesis and refuted the Republicans’. Irwin further analyzed tariff revenue data and observed that total revenue decreased by about 4%, from $ 225 million to $ 215 million, after the 1890 Tariff increased rates. He attributed this drop largely to the provision that moved raw sugar to
3528-480: A representative. This was done as the candidate feared an offhand comment by another that might rebound on him, as had happened to Blaine in 1884 . Protectionism Protectionism , sometimes referred to as trade protectionism , is the economic policy of restricting imports from other countries through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, import quotas , and a variety of other government regulations. Proponents argue that protectionist policies shield
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#17327647589073696-663: A significantly positive effect on economic growth . Some scholars, such as Douglas Irwin , have implicated protectionism as the cause of some economic crises, most notably the Great Depression . On the contrary, Paul Krugman , winner of the Nobel Prize for Economics, argues that tariffs had no negative impact during the Great Depression. Although trade liberalization can sometimes result in large and unequally distributed losses and gains, and can, in
3864-711: A speed Harrison privately found unseemly. Morton operatives who journeyed to Indiana sent word back that they had found the state alive for McKinley. Wyoming Senator Francis Warren wrote, "The politicians are making a hard fight against him, but if the masses could speak, McKinley is the choice of at least 75% of the entire [body of] Republican voters in the Union". By the time the national convention began in St. Louis on June 16, 1896, McKinley had an ample majority of delegates. The former governor, who remained in Canton, followed events at
4032-512: A steep increase in prices. In the 1890 election , Republicans lost their majority in the House with the number of seats they won reduced by nearly half, from 171 to 88. In the 1892 presidential election , Harrison was soundly defeated by Grover Cleveland, and the Senate, House, and Presidency were all under Democratic control. Lawmakers immediately started drafting new tariff legislation, and in 1894,
4200-585: A temporary waiver to enable more widespread production of the vaccines, since suppressing the virus as quickly as possible benefits the entire world. The waivers would be in addition to the existing, but cumbersome, flexibilities in TRIPS allowing countries to impose compulsory licenses. Over 100 developing nations supported the waiver but it was blocked by the G7 members. This blocking was condemned by 400 organizations including Doctors Without Borders and 115 members of
4368-422: A third term as governor in 1875, and campaigned again for his old friend in the election that fall. The next year, McKinley undertook a high-profile case defending a group of striking coal miners , who were arrested for rioting after a clash with strikebreakers . Lynch, McKinley's opponent in the 1871 election, and his partner, William R. Day , were the opposing counsel, and the mine owners included Mark Hanna ,
4536-411: A trapeze on my front lawn and compete with some professional athlete as go out speaking against Bryan. I have to think when I speak." Instead of going to the people, McKinley would remain at home in Canton and allow the people to come to him; according to historian R. Hal Williams in his book on the 1896 election, "it was, as it turned out, a brilliant strategy. McKinley's ' Front Porch Campaign ' became
4704-489: A true party matter. In the 1888 election, the Republicans were victorious with the election of Benjamin Harrison and majorities in both the Senate and the House. For the sake of holding the party line, the Republicans felt obligated to pass stronger tariff legislation. William McKinley of Ohio was defeated by Thomas Brackett Reed to be Speaker of the House after the 1888 elections. McKinley instead became chairman of
4872-408: A unique provision that stated tin-plates should be admitted free of any duty after 1897 unless domestic production in any year reached one-third of the imports in that year. The goal was for the duty to be protective or not to exist at all. The new tariff provisions for wool and woolen goods were exceedingly protectionist. Wool was previously taxed based on a schedule: more valuable wool was taxed at
5040-568: A vacancy on the House Ways and Means Committee ; McKinley was selected to fill it, gaining a spot on the most powerful committee after only two terms. McKinley increasingly became a significant figure in national politics. In 1880, he served a brief term as Ohio's representative on the Republican National Committee . In 1884, he was elected a delegate to that year's Republican convention , where he served as chair of
5208-468: A vacation home in southern Georgia where McKinley visited and met with Republican politicians from the region. McKinley needed 453½ delegate votes to gain the nomination; he gained nearly half that number from the South and border states . Platt lamented in his memoirs, "[Hanna] had the South practically solid before some of us awakened." Quay and Platt still hoped to deny McKinley a first-ballot majority at
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5376-553: Is generally ranked as an above-average president . However, his take-over of the Philippines is often criticized as an act of imperialism. His popularity was soon overshadowed by Roosevelt's. William McKinley Jr. was born in 1843 in Niles, Ohio , the seventh of nine children of William McKinley Sr. and Nancy (née Allison) McKinley. The McKinleys were of English and Scots-Irish descent and had settled in western Pennsylvania in
5544-430: Is a broad consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare, while free trade and the reduction of trade barriers has a positive effect on economic growth. However, protectionism can be used to raise government revenue and enable access to intellectual property, including essential medicines. Protectionism is frequently criticized by economists as harming
5712-427: Is not causation... there is no reason for necessarily thinking that import protection was a good policy just because the economic outcome was good: the outcome could have been driven by factors completely unrelated to the tariff, or perhaps could have been even better in the absence of protection." Irwin furthermore writes that "few observers have argued outright that the high tariffs caused such growth." One study by
5880-765: Is the exception and protectionism the rule". According to economic historians Douglas Irwin and Kevin O'Rourke, "shocks that emanate from brief financial crises tend to be transitory and have a little long-run effect on trade policy, whereas those that play out over longer periods (the early 1890s, early 1930s) may give rise to protectionism that is difficult to reverse. Regional wars also produce transitory shocks that have little impact on long-run trade policy, while global wars give rise to extensive government trade restrictions that can be difficult to reverse." One study shows that sudden shifts in comparative advantage for specific countries have led some countries to become protectionist: "The shift in comparative advantage associated with
6048-426: Is the most distorted exchange rate policy any great nation has ever followed”. He notes that an undervalued renminbi is tantamount to imposing high tariffs or providing export subsidies. A cheaper currency improves employment and competitiveness because it makes imports more expensive while making domestic products more attractive. He expects Chinese surpluses to destroy 1.4 million American jobs by 2011. There
6216-455: The 1896 Democratic National Convention and chose William Jennings Bryan for president; he had electrified the delegates with his Cross of Gold speech . Bryan's financial radicalism shocked bankers—they thought his inflationary program would bankrupt the railroads and ruin the economy. Hanna approached them for support for his strategy to win the election, and they gave $ 3.5 million for speakers and over 200 million pamphlets advocating
6384-543: The American Revolution , which came about ostensibly due to British tariffs and taxes. According to a slogan of Frédéric Bastiat (1801–1850), "When goods cannot cross borders, armies will." On the other hand, archaeologist Lawrence H. Keeley argues in his book War Before Civilization that disputes between trading partners escalate to war more frequently than disputes between nations that don't trade much with each other. The Opium Wars were fought between
6552-675: The Battle of Antietam , one of the bloodiest battles of the war. The 23rd was in the thick of the fighting at Antietam, and McKinley came under heavy fire when bringing rations to the men on the line. McKinley's regiment suffered many casualties, but the Army of the Potomac was victorious, and the Confederates retreated into Virginia. McKinley's regiment was detached from the Army of the Potomac and returned by train to western Virginia. While
6720-648: The Bland–Allison Act of 1878, which mandated large government purchases of silver for striking into money, and also joined the large majorities in each house that overrode Hayes's veto of the legislation. In so doing, McKinley voted against the position of the House Republican leader, James Garfield , a fellow Ohioan and his friend. From his first term in Congress, McKinley was a strong advocate of protective tariffs. The primary intention of such imposts
6888-635: The Doha Declaration , was issued in November 2001, which indicated that TRIPS should not prevent states from dealing with public health crises and allowed for compulsory licenses . After Doha, PhRMA , the United States and to a lesser extent other developed nations began working to minimize the effect of the declaration. In 2020, conflicts re-emerged over patents, copyrights and trade secrets related to COVID-19 vaccines , diagnostics and treatments. South Africa and India proposed that WTO grant
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7056-742: The European Parliament . In June 2022, after extensive involvement of the European Union , the WTO instead adopted a watered-down agreement that focuses only on vaccine patents, excludes high-income countries and China, and contains few provisions that are not covered by existing flexibilities. Proponents of protectionism argue that tariffs raise government revenue via customs . Developing countries , including least developed countries (LDCs), often do not collect income taxes because personal incomes are often too low to tax and they lack
7224-445: The House Ways and Means Committee and was responsible for framing a new tariff bill. He believed that a protectionist tariff had been mandated by the people through the election and that it was necessary for America's wealth and prosperity. In addition to the protectionist debate, politicians were concerned about the high revenue accruing from tariffs. After the American Civil War , tariffs remained elevated to raise revenue and to cover
7392-777: The Trump administration during the China–United States trade war led to a reduction in the United States trade deficit with China. Defunct Great Britain , and England in particular, became one of the most prosperous economic regions in the world between the late 1600s and early 1800s as a result of being the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution that began in the mid-eighteenth century. The government protected its merchants—and kept others out—by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to
7560-514: The UK and China over the right of British merchants to engage in the free trade of opium . For many opium users, what started as recreation soon became a punishing addiction: many people who stopped ingesting opium suffered chills, nausea, and cramps, and sometimes died from withdrawal. Once addicted, people would often do almost anything to continue to get access to the drug. Barbara Tuchman says both European intellectuals and leaders overestimated
7728-544: The United Kingdom between 1815 and 1846, and enhanced the profits and political power associated with land ownership . The laws raised food prices and the costs of living for the British public, and hampered the growth of other British economic sectors, such as manufacturing, by reducing the disposable income of the British public. The Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel , a Conservative , achieved repeal in 1846 with
7896-802: The University of Mount Union , in Alliance, Ohio , where he later served as a member of the board of trustees. Although his health recovered, family finances declined, and McKinley was unable to return to Allegheny. He began working as a postal clerk and later took a job teaching at a school near Poland, Ohio. When the Confederate states seceded and the American Civil War began in 1861, thousands of men in Ohio volunteered for service. Among them were McKinley and his cousin William McKinley Osbourne, who enlisted as privates in
8064-503: The WTO benefited US consumers, as the price of Chinese goods were substantially reduced. Harvard economist Dani Rodrik argues that while globalization and free trade does contribute to social problems, "a serious retreat into protectionism would hurt the many groups that benefit from trade and would result in the same kind of social conflicts that globalization itself generates. We have to recognize that erecting trade barriers will help in only
8232-518: The gold standard by the Coinage Act of 1873 ; when silver prices dropped significantly, many sought to make silver again a legal tender, equally with gold. Such a course would be inflationary, but advocates argued that the economic benefits of the increased money supply would be worth the inflation; opponents warned that " free silver " would not bring the promised benefits and would harm the United States in international trade. McKinley voted for
8400-547: The short run , cause significant economic dislocation of workers in import-competing sectors, free trade often lowers the costs of goods and services for both producers and consumers. A variety of policies have been used to achieve protectionist goals. These include: In the modern trade arena, many other initiatives besides tariffs have been called protectionist. For example, some commentators, such as Jagdish Bhagwati , see developed countries' efforts in imposing their own labor or environmental standards as protectionism. Also,
8568-474: The "reciprocity period", the average tariff declined substantially until it leveled off at 5 percent. Economist Paul Bairoch documented that the United States imposed among the highest rates in the world from around the founding of the country until the World War II period, describing the United States as "the mother country and bastion of modern protectionism" since the end of the 18th century and until
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#17327647589078736-490: The 1846 Corn Laws debate, arguing that it destroyed what had been "some of the finest manufacturers of the world" in 1812. The countries of Western Europe began to steadily liberalize their economies after World War II and the protectionism of the interwar period, but John Tsang , then Hong Kong 's Secretary for Commerce, Industry and Technology and chair of the Sixth Ministerial Conference of
8904-500: The 1891 election by some 20,000 votes; the following January, Sherman, with considerable assistance from Hanna, turned back a challenge by Foraker to win the legislature's vote for another term in the US Senate. Ohio's governor had relatively little power—for example, he could recommend legislation, but not veto it—but with Ohio a key swing state , its governor was a major figure in national politics. Although McKinley believed that
9072-448: The 1891 state Republican convention, which chose McKinley by acclamation. The former congressman spent much of the second half of 1891 campaigning against Campbell, beginning in his birthplace of Niles. Hanna, however, was little seen in the campaign; he spent much of his time raising funds for the election of legislators pledged to vote for Sherman in the 1892 senatorial election. (State legislators still elected US Senators.) McKinley won
9240-418: The 1894 midterm congressional elections; many party candidates in districts where he spoke were successful. His political efforts in Ohio were rewarded with the election in November 1895 of a Republican successor as governor, Asa Bushnell , and a Republican legislature that elected Foraker to the Senate. McKinley supported Foraker for the Senate and Bushnell (who was of Foraker's faction) for governor; in return,
9408-543: The 18th century, Adam Smith famously warned against the "interested sophistry" of industry, seeking to gain an advantage at the cost of the consumers. Friedrich List saw Adam Smith's views on free trade as disingenuous, believing that Smith advocated for free trade so that British industry could lock out underdeveloped foreign competition. Some have argued that no major country has ever successfully industrialized without some form of economic protection. Economic historian Paul Bairoch wrote that "historically, free trade
9576-729: The 18th century. Their immigrant ancestor was David McKinley, born in Dervock , County Antrim, in present-day Northern Ireland . William McKinley Sr. was born in Pennsylvania, in Pine Township, Mercer County . The family moved to Ohio when the senior McKinley was a boy, settling in New Lisbon (now Lisbon). He met Nancy Allison there, and they married later. The Allison family was of mostly English descent and among Pennsylvania's earliest settlers. The family trade on both sides
9744-482: The 1950s, steel in the 1960s, automobiles in the 1970s, and electronics in the 1980s. In each case, the rapid expansion in Japan's exports created difficulties for its trading partners and the use of protectionism as a shock absorber." According to economic historian Douglas Irwin, a common myth about US trade policy is that low tariffs harmed American manufacturers in the early 19th century and then that high tariffs made
9912-609: The 19th century, such as the Russian Empire and Austro-Hungarian Empire which remained highly protectionist. The Ottoman Empire also became increasingly protectionist. In the Ottoman Empire's case, however, it previously had liberal free trade policies during the 18th to early 19th centuries, which British prime minister Benjamin Disraeli cited as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in
10080-494: The 23rd Ohio did not arrive in time for the battle but joined the Army of the Potomac as it hurried north to cut off Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia as it advanced into Maryland. The 23rd was the first regiment to encounter the Confederates at the Battle of South Mountain on September 14. After severe losses, Union forces drove back the Confederates and continued to Sharpsburg , Maryland, where they engaged Lee's army at
10248-557: The Cobden Chevalier treaty and three decades after British Repeal, Germany "had virtually become a free trade country" (Bairoch, 41). Average duties on manufactured products had declined to 9–12% on the Continent, a far cry from the 50% British tariffs, and numerous prohibitions elsewhere, of the immediate post-Waterloo era (Bairoch, table 3, p. 6, and table 5, p. 42)." Some European powers did not liberalize during
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#173276475890710416-540: The Committee on Resolutions and won plaudits for his handling of the convention when called upon to preside. By 1886, McKinley, Senator John Sherman , and Governor Joseph B. Foraker were considered the leaders of the Republican party in Ohio. Sherman, who had helped to found the Republican Party, ran three times for the Republican nomination for president in the 1880s, each time failing, while Foraker began
10584-594: The Democratic position, they might benefit from deeper consideration of the broader political and economic ideologies influencing the period’s tariff debates. His study’s assumptions, which lean towards supporting free trade, may limit a more balanced view of the complex motivations and potential benefits associated with protectionist policies of the era. Irwin’s analysis is limited to revenue and industry-specific effects. By focusing mainly on these outcomes, his study may overlook broader economic indicators, such as employment or inflation, which could reveal additional impacts of
10752-746: The Depression, Britain passed the Import Duties Act of 1932 , which imposed a general tariff of 10% on most imports and created the Import Duties Advisory Committee (IDAC), which could recommend even higher duties. Britain's protectionism in the early 1930s was shown by Lloyd and Solomou to have been productivity-enhancing. The possessions of the East India Company in India, known as British India ,
10920-508: The First World War on motorcars; clocks and watches; musical instruments; and cinematographic film were retained. Under commodities that were early to receive protection included matches, chemicals, scientific equipment, silk, rayon, embroidery, lace, cutlery, gloves, incandescent mantles, paper, pottery, enamelled holloware, and buttons. The duties on motorcars and rayon have been determined to have expanded output considerably. Amid
11088-472: The Great Tariff Debate of 1888. Douglas Irwin 's 1998 paper examines the validity of the opposing tariff hypotheses posed by Republicans and Democrats in 1890. Irwin analyzed historical data to estimate import demand elasticities and export supply elasticities for the United States in the years before 1888. He calculated that tariffs had not yet reached the maximum revenue rate, suggesting that
11256-475: The McKinleys had no more children. Ida McKinley developed epilepsy around the same time and depended strongly on her husband's presence. He remained a devoted husband and tended to his wife's medical and emotional needs for the rest of his life. Ida insisted that her husband continue his increasingly successful career in law and politics. He attended the state Republican convention that nominated Hayes for
11424-715: The Netherlands, Denmark, Portugal and Switzerland, and arguably Sweden and Belgium, had fully moved towards free trade prior to 1860. Economic historians see the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 as the decisive shift toward free trade in Britain. A 1990 study by the Harvard economic historian Jeffrey Williamson showed that the Corn Laws (which imposed restrictions and tariffs on imported grain ) substantially increased
11592-560: The November election . In the wake of Cleveland's victory, McKinley was seen by some as the likely Republican candidate in 1896. Soon after Cleveland's return to office, hard times struck the nation with the Panic of 1893 . A businessman in Youngstown , Robert Walker, had lent money to McKinley in their younger days; in gratitude, McKinley had often guaranteed Walker's borrowings for his business. The governor had never kept track of what he
11760-436: The Ohio legislature, sought to gerrymander or redistrict him out of office. In 1878, McKinley was redistricted to the 16th congressional district ; he won anyway, causing Hayes to exult, "Oh, the good luck of McKinley! He was gerrymandered out and then beat the gerrymander! We enjoyed it as much as he did." After the 1882 election, McKinley was unseated on an election contest by a near party-line House vote. Out of office, he
11928-452: The Republican nomination for Ohio's 17th congressional district . Delegates to the county conventions thought he could attract blue-collar voters, and in August 1876, McKinley was nominated. By that time, Hayes had been nominated for president, and McKinley campaigned for him while running his own congressional campaign. Both were successful. McKinley, campaigning mostly on his support for
12096-400: The Republican nomination for president in 1896 amid a deep economic depression and defeated his Democratic rival William Jennings Bryan after a front porch campaign in which he advocated " sound money " (the gold standard unless altered by international agreement) and promised that high tariffs would restore prosperity. Historians regard McKinley's victory as a realigning election in which
12264-505: The Republican position on the money and tariff questions. Bryan's campaign had at most an estimated $ 500,000. With his eloquence and youthful energy his major assets in the race, Bryan decided on a whistle-stop political tour by train on an unprecedented scale. Hanna urged McKinley to match Bryan's tour with one of his own; the candidate declined on the grounds that the Democrat was a better stump speaker : "I might just as well set up
12432-647: The Spanish-American War of 1898, in which the United States saw a quick and decisive victory. As part of the peace settlement , Spain turned over to the United States its main overseas colonies of Puerto Rico , Guam and the Philippines , while Cuba was promised independence but remained under the control of the United States Army until May 20, 1902. The United States annexed the independent Republic of Hawaii in 1898, and it became
12600-536: The US. The Act removed tariffs on sugar, molasses, tea, coffee, and hides but authorized the President to reinstate the tariffs if the items were exported from countries that treated U.S. exports in a "reciprocally unequal and unreasonable" fashion. The idea was "to secure reciprocal trade" by allowing the executive branch to use the threat of reimposing tariffs as a means to get other countries to lower their tariffs on U.S. exports. Although this delegation of power had
12768-577: The United Kingdom as "a decisive shift toward European free trade." This treaty was followed by numerous free trade agreements: "France and Belgium signed a treaty in 1861; a Franco-Prussian treaty was signed in 1862; Italy entered the "network of Cobden-Chevalier treaties" in 1863 (Bairoch 1989, 40); Switzerland in 1864; Sweden, Norway, Spain, the Netherlands, and the Hanseatic towns in 1865; and Austria in 1866. By 1877, less than two decades after
12936-499: The United Kingdom. Europe became increasingly protectionist during the eighteenth century. Economic historians Findlay and O'Rourke write that in "the immediate aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, European trade policies were almost universally protectionist", with the exceptions being smaller countries such as the Netherlands and Denmark. Europe increasingly liberalized its trade during the 19th century. Countries such as
13104-425: The United States into a great industrial power in the late 19th century. A review by The Economist of Irwin's 2017 book Clashing over Commerce: A History of US Trade Policy states: Political dynamics would lead people to see a link between tariffs and the economic cycle that was not there. A boom would generate enough revenue for tariffs to fall, and when the bust came pressure would build to raise them again. By
13272-481: The United States occurred under protectionist policies 1816–1848 and under moderate protectionism 1846–1861, and continued under strict protectionist policies 1861–1945. In the late 19th century, higher tariffs were introduced on the grounds that they were needed to protect American wages and to protect American farmers. Between 1824 and the 1940s, the U.S. imposed much higher average tariff rates on manufactured products than did Britain or any other European country, with
13440-562: The United States. In 2010, Paul Krugman write that China pursues a mercantilist and predatory policy, i.e., it keeps its currency undervalued to accumulate trade surpluses by using capital flow controls. The Chinese government sells renminbi and buys foreign currency to keep the renminbi low, giving the Chinese manufacturing sector a cost advantage over its competitors. China's surpluses drain US demand and slow economic recovery in other countries with which China trades. Krugman writes: “This
13608-538: The Wilson-Gorman Tariff passed, which lowered US tariff averages. The 1890 tariff was also poorly received abroad. Protectionists in the British Empire used it to argue for tariff retaliation and imperial trade preference. Tariffs (taxes on foreign goods entering a country) served two purposes for the United States in the late 19th century. One was to raise revenue for the federal government, and
13776-539: The World Bank indicate that TRIPS has not led to a demonstrable acceleration of investment to low-income countries, though it may have done so for middle-income countries. Critics argue that TRIPS limits the ability of governments to introduce competition for generic producers. The TRIPS agreement allows the grant of compulsory licenses at a nation's discretion. TRIPS-plus conditions in the United States' FTAs with Australia, Jordan, Singapore and Vietnam have restricted
13944-607: The World Trade Organization , MC6, commented in 2005 that the EU spent around €70 billion per year on "trade-distorting support". Since 1971 Canada has protected producers of eggs, milk, cheese, chicken, and turkey with a system of supply management . Though prices for these foods in Canada exceed global prices, the farmers and processors have had the security of a stable market to finance their operations. Doubts about
14112-589: The achievement of their independence, most of the Latin American countries adopted protectionism. They both feared that any foreign competition would stomp out their newly created state and believed that lack of outside resources would drive domestic production. The protectionist behavior continued up until and during the World Wars. During World War 2, Latin America had, on average, the highest tariffs in
14280-479: The admittedly high tariffs of the time came with a cost, estimated at around 0.5% of GDP in the mid-1870s. In some industries, they might have sped up development by a few years. But American growth during its protectionist period was more to do with its abundant resources and openness to people and ideas. According to Irwin, tariffs have served three primary purposes in the United States: "to raise revenue for
14448-635: The age of sixteen. He was a lifelong pious Methodist. In 1852, the family moved from Niles to Poland, Ohio, so that their children could attend its better schools. Graduating from Poland Seminary in 1859, McKinley enrolled the following year at Allegheny College in Meadville, Pennsylvania . He was an honorary member of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity. He remained at Allegheny for one year, returning home in 1860 after becoming ill and depressed. He also studied at Mount Union College, now
14616-610: The appearance of being an unconstitutional violation of the nondelegation doctrine , it was upheld by the Supreme Court in Field v. Clark in 1892, as authorizing the executive to act merely as an "agent" of Congress, rather than as a lawmaker itself. The President did not use the delegated power to re-impose tariffs on the five types of imported goods, but he used the threat of doing so to pass 10 treaties in which other countries reduced their tariffs on U.S. goods. Tin-plates were
14784-465: The application of compulsory licenses to emergency situations, antitrust remedies, and cases of public non-commercial use. One of the most visible conflicts over TRIPS has been AIDS drugs in Africa . Despite the role that patents have played in maintaining higher drug costs for public health programs across Africa, this controversy has not led to a revision of TRIPS. Instead, an interpretive statement,
14952-419: The army was reorganized for the spring campaign, and McKinley served on the staffs of four different generals over the next fifteen days—Crook, John D. Stevenson , Samuel S. Carroll , and Winfield S. Hancock . Finally assigned to Carroll's staff again, McKinley acted as the general's first and only adjutant . Lee and his army surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant a few days later, effectively ending
15120-538: The beginning, McKinley's preparations had the participation of Hanna, whose biographer William T. Horner noted, "What is certainly true is that in 1888 the two men began to develop a close working relationship that helped put McKinley in the White House." Sherman did not run for president again after 1888, and so Hanna could support McKinley's ambitions for that office wholeheartedly. Backed by Hanna's money and organizational skills, McKinley quietly built support for
15288-400: The benefit to this industry was outweighed by the overall cost to consumers. Several critiques can be raised regarding Irwin’s analysis. Irwin’s conclusions rely on historical elasticity estimates, which may oversimplify consumer behavior and economic conditions in the 19th century. Given limited historical data, assumptions about import demand and export supply elasticities may not capture all
15456-404: The capability to collect such taxes from individuals. Tariffs were the greatest source of United States federal revenue (up to 95% at times) until the federal income tax began after 1913. For well over a century the federal government was largely financed by tariffs averaging about 20% on foreign imports. At the end of the American Civil War in 1865 about 63% of Federal income was generated by
15624-506: The commander of the regiment, and the men began training on the outskirts of Columbus. McKinley quickly took to the soldier's life: he wrote a series of letters to his hometown newspaper extolling the army and the Union cause . Delays in issuance of uniforms and weapons again brought the men into conflict with their officers, but Major Rutherford B. Hayes convinced them to accept what the government had issued them; his style in dealing with
15792-407: The convention by boosting support for local favorite son candidates such as Quay himself, New York Governor (and former vice president) Levi P. Morton , and Illinois Senator Shelby Cullom . Delegate-rich Illinois proved a crucial battleground, as McKinley supporters, such as Chicago businessman (and future vice president) Charles G. Dawes , sought to elect delegates pledged to vote for McKinley at
15960-611: The convention closely by telephone, and was able to hear part of Foraker's speech nominating him over the line. When Ohio was reached in the roll call of states, its votes gave McKinley the nomination, which he celebrated by hugging his wife and mother as his friends fled the house, anticipating the first of many crowds that gathered at the Republican candidate's home. Thousands of partisans came from Canton and surrounding towns that evening to hear McKinley speak from his front porch. The convention nominated Republican National Committee vice chairman Garret Hobart of New Jersey for vice president,
16128-410: The convention hall, though no active effort was made to convert delegates to McKinley's cause. McKinley objected to delegate votes being cast for him; nevertheless he finished second, behind the renominated Harrison, but ahead of Blaine, who had sent word he did not want to be considered. Although McKinley campaigned loyally for the Republican ticket, Harrison was defeated by former President Cleveland in
16296-443: The cost of living for British workers, and hampered the British manufacturing sector by reducing the disposable incomes that British workers could have spent on manufactured goods. The shift towards liberalization in Britain occurred in part due to "the influence of economists like David Ricardo", but also due to "the growing power of urban interests". Findlay and O'Rourke characterize 1860 Cobden Chevalier treaty between France and
16464-430: The countries against which the protections are implemented. Protectionism has been advocated mainly by parties that hold economic nationalist positions, while economically liberal political parties generally support free trade . There is a consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare, while free trade and the reduction of trade barriers have
16632-506: The division skirmished with John Hunt Morgan 's cavalry at the Battle of Buffington Island . Early in 1864, the Army command structure in West Virginia was reorganized, and the division was assigned to George Crook 's Army of West Virginia . They soon resumed the offensive, marching into southwestern Virginia to destroy salt and lead mines used by the enemy. On May 9, the army engaged Confederate troops at Cloyd's Mountain , where
16800-416: The duty-free list. Since sugar was the top revenue-generating import at the time, making it duty-free caused a significant revenue reduction. Irwin also calculated that if sugar were excluded from import calculations, tariff revenue actually increased by 7.8%, from $ 170 million to $ 183 million. He concluded that the tariff hastened the development of domestic tinplate production by about a decade but argued that
16968-418: The eastern Republican political bosses , such as Senators Thomas Platt of New York and Matthew Quay of Pennsylvania, who were willing to guarantee McKinley's nomination in exchange for promises regarding patronage and offices. McKinley, however, was determined to obtain the nomination without making deals, and Hanna accepted that decision. Many of their early efforts were focused on the South; Hanna obtained
17136-436: The effect of removing one product from the duty list. Irwin’s claim that the tariff accelerated domestic tinplate production by a decade lacks a thorough examination of long-term economic effects. While domestic industry benefitted in the short term, the analysis might have better explored whether consumer costs, wage impacts, and industry health long-term outweighed this accelerated development. Although Irwin’s findings favor
17304-503: The exception for a period of time of Spain and Russia. Up until the end of World War II, the United States had the most protectionist economy on Earth. The Bush administration implemented tariffs on Chinese steel in 2002 ; according to a 2005 review of existing research on the tariff, all studies found that the tariffs caused more harm than gains to the US economy and employment. The Obama administration implemented tariffs on Chinese tires between 2009 and 2012 as an anti-dumping measure ;
17472-429: The excise taxes, which exceeded the 25.4% generated by tariffs. In 1915 during World War I tariffs generated only 30.1% of revenues. Since 1935 tariff income has continued to be a declining percentage of Federal tax income. A 2016 study found that "trade typically favors the poor", as they spend a greater share of their earnings on goods, as free trade reduces the costs of goods. Other research found that China's entry to
17640-484: The final days before the convention, McKinley decided, after hearing from politicians and businessmen, that the platform should endorse the gold standard, though it should allow for bimetallism through coordination with other nations. Adoption of the platform caused some western delegates, led by Colorado Senator Henry M. Teller , to walk out of the convention. However, compared with the Democrats, Republican divisions on
17808-486: The government, to restrict imports and protect domestic producers from foreign competition, and to reach reciprocity agreements that reduce trade barriers." From 1790 to 1860, average tariffs increased from 20 percent to 60 percent before declining again to 20 percent. From 1861 to 1933, which Irwin characterizes as the "restriction period", the average tariffs increased to 50 percent and remained at that level for several decades. From 1934 onwards, which Irwin characterizes as
17976-533: The health of the nation depended on that of business, he was evenhanded in dealing with labor. He procured legislation that set up an arbitration board to settle work disputes and obtained passage of a law that fined employers who fired workers for belonging to a union. President Harrison had proven unpopular; there were divisions even within the Republican party as the year 1892 began and Harrison began his re-election drive. Although no declared Republican candidate opposed Harrison, many Republicans were ready to dump
18144-498: The high costs of the war. By the early 1880s, the federal government was running a large surplus. Both parties agreed that the surplus needed to lessen but disagreed about whether to raise or lower tariffs to accomplish the same goal. The Democrats' hypothesis stated that tariff revenue could be reduced by reducing the tariff rate. Conversely, the Republicans' belief was that by increasing the tariff, imports would be lessened, and total tariff revenue would drop. The debate would be known as
18312-481: The highest and best destiny of the race of man. [It is said] that protection is immoral ... Why, if protection builds up and elevates 63,000,000 [the U.S. population] of people, the influence of those 63,000,000 of people elevates the rest of the world. We cannot take a step in the pathway of progress without benefiting mankind everywhere. Well, they say, "Buy where you can buy the cheapest" ... Of course, that applies to labor as to everything else. Let me give you
18480-465: The imposition of restrictive certification procedures on imports is seen in this light. Further, others point out that free trade agreements often have protectionist provisions such as intellectual property, copyright , and patent restrictions that benefit large corporations. These provisions restrict trade in music, movies, pharmaceuticals, software, and other manufactured items to high-cost producers with quotas from low-cost producers set to zero. In
18648-486: The issue were small, especially as McKinley promised future concessions to silver advocates. The bad economic times had continued and strengthened the hand of forces for free silver . The issue bitterly divided the Democratic Party; President Cleveland firmly supported the gold standard, but an increasing number of rural Democrats wanted silver, especially in the South and West. The silverites took control of
18816-521: The late 1940s, it stifled agricultural production, exports and business sentiment, in general. Despite these shortcomings, protectionism and government credits did allow an exponential growth of the internal market: radio sales increased 600% and fridge sales grew 218%, among others. During this period Argentina's economy continued to grow, on average, but more slowly than the world as a whole or than its neighbors, Brazil and Chile. By 1950, Argentina's GDP per capita accounted fell to less than half of that of
18984-403: The liberal era of low tariffs and free trade. One study found that tariffs imposed on manufactured goods increase economic growth in developing countries, and this growth impact remains even after the tariffs are repealed. According to Dartmouth economist Douglas Irwin , "that there is a correlation between high tariffs and growth in the late nineteenth century cannot be denied. But correlation
19152-625: The member nations of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It establishes minimum standards for the regulation by national governments of different forms of intellectual property (IP) as applied to nationals of other WTO member nations. TRIPS was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) between 1989 and 1990 and is administered by the WTO. Statements by
19320-494: The men charged the enemy entrenchments and drove the rebels from the field. McKinley later said the combat there was "as desperate as any witnessed during the war". Following the rout, the Union forces destroyed Confederate supplies and skirmished with the enemy again successfully. McKinley and his regiment moved to the Shenandoah Valley as the armies broke from winter quarters to resume hostilities . Crook's corps
19488-551: The men impressed McKinley, beginning an association and friendship that would last until Hayes's death in 1893. After a month of training, McKinley and the 23rd Ohio, now led by Colonel Eliakim P. Scammon , set out for western Virginia (today part of West Virginia) in July 1861 as a part of the Kanawha Division . McKinley initially thought Scammon was a martinet , but when the regiment entered battle, he came to appreciate
19656-406: The minority, McKinley was given unimportant committee assignments, which he undertook conscientiously. McKinley's friendship with Hayes did McKinley little good on Capitol Hill , as the president was not well regarded by many leaders there. The young congressman broke with Hayes on the question of the currency, but it did not affect their friendship. The United States had effectively been placed on
19824-406: The money as an attorney. Instead, McKinley's wealthy supporters, including Hanna and Chicago publisher H. H. Kohlsaat , became trustees of a fund from which the notes would be paid. Both William and Ida McKinley placed their property in the hands of the fund's trustees (who included Hanna and Kohlsaat), and the supporters raised and contributed a substantial sum of money. All of the couple's property
19992-548: The national convention in St. Louis. Cullom proved unable to stand against McKinley despite the support of local Republican machines; at the state convention at the end of April, McKinley completed a near-sweep of Illinois' delegates. Former president Harrison had been deemed a possible contender if he entered the race; when Harrison made it known he would not seek a third nomination, the McKinley organization took control of Indiana with
20160-695: The new boundaries should produce a Democratic majority of 2,000 to 3,000. The Republicans could not reverse the gerrymander, as legislative elections would not be held until 1891, but they could throw all their energies into the district. The McKinley Tariff was a main theme of the Democratic campaign nationwide, and there was considerable attention paid to McKinley's race. The Republican Party sent its leading orators to Canton, including Blaine (then Secretary of State ), Speaker Reed, and President Harrison. The Democrats countered with their best spokesmen on tariff issues. McKinley tirelessly stumped his new district, reaching out to its 40,000 voters to explain that his tariff:
20328-470: The new senator-elect agreed to back McKinley's presidential ambitions. With party peace in Ohio assured, McKinley turned to the national arena. It is unclear when William McKinley began to seriously prepare a run for president. As McKinley biographer Kevin Phillips notes, "No documents, no diaries, no confidential letters to Mark Hanna (or anyone else) contain his secret hopes or veiled stratagems." From
20496-462: The newly formed Poland Guards in June 1861. The men left for Columbus where they were consolidated with other small units to form the 23rd Ohio Infantry . The men were unhappy to learn that, unlike Ohio's earlier volunteer regiments, they would not be permitted to elect their officers; these would be designated by Ohio's governor, William Dennison . Dennison appointed Colonel William Rosecrans as
20664-453: The north. Early's army surprised them at Kernstown on July 24, where McKinley came under heavy fire and the army was defeated. Retreating into Maryland, the army was reorganized again: Major General Philip Sheridan replaced Hunter, and McKinley, who had been promoted to captain after the battle, was transferred to General Crook's staff. By August, Early was retreating south in the valley, with Sheridan's army in pursuit. They fended off
20832-461: The nuances affecting trade and revenue at the time, potentially weakening the reliability of his findings. While Irwin’s focus on duty-free sugar provides insights, his emphasis on this single commodity could narrow the scope too much. Other factors, like global commodity price fluctuations or broader economic policies, may also have impacted revenue changes, but these receive limited attention. The alternative calculation excluding sugar might overstate
21000-401: The office of prosecuting attorney of Stark County, an office that had historically been held by Democrats, and was unexpectedly elected. When McKinley ran for re-election in 1871, the Democrats nominated William A. Lynch , a prominent local lawyer, and McKinley was defeated by 143 votes. As McKinley's professional career progressed, so too did his social life blossom: he wooed Ida Saxton ,
21168-698: The office of an attorney in Poland, Ohio . The following year, he continued his studies by attending Albany Law School in New York state. After studying there for less than a year, McKinley returned home and in March 1867 was admitted to the bar in Warren, Ohio . That same year, he moved to Canton, the county seat of Stark County, Ohio , and set up a small office. He soon formed a partnership with George W. Belden, an experienced lawyer and former judge. His practice
21336-478: The opening up of New World frontiers, and the subsequent "grain invasion" of Europe, led to higher agricultural tariffs from the late 1870s onwards, which as we have seen reversed the move toward freer trade that had characterized mid-nineteenth-century Europe. In the decades after World War II, Japan's rapid rise led to trade friction with other countries. Japan's recovery was accompanied by a sharp increase in its exports of certain product categories: cotton textiles in
21504-481: The other was to protect domestic manufacturers and workers from foreign competition, known as protectionism . In December 1887, President Grover Cleveland , a Democrat , devoted his entire State of the Union Address to the issue of the tariff and called emphatically for the reduction of duties and the abolition of duties on raw materials. The speech succeeded in making the tariff and the idea of protectionism
21672-400: The other with Foraker. Hanna came to admire McKinley and became a friend and close adviser to him. Although Hanna remained active in business and in promoting other Republicans, in the years after 1888, he spent an increasing amount of time boosting McKinley's political career. In 1889, with the Republicans in the majority, McKinley sought election as Speaker of the House . He failed to gain
21840-471: The people it is intended to help. Mainstream economists instead support free trade. The principle of comparative advantage shows that the gains from free trade outweigh any losses as free trade creates more jobs than it destroys because it allows countries to specialize in the production of goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage. Protectionism results in deadweight loss ; this loss to overall welfare gives no-one any benefit, unlike in
22008-784: The political stalemate of the post-Civil War era gave way to the Republican-dominated Fourth Party System , beginning with the Progressive Era . McKinley's presidency saw rapid economic growth. He promoted the 1897 Dingley Tariff to protect manufacturers and factory workers from foreign competition and, in 1900, secured the passage of the Gold Standard Act . He hoped to persuade Spain to grant independence to rebellious Cuba without conflict. Still, when negotiation failed, he requested and signed Congress's declaration of war to begin
22176-484: The post, which went to Thomas B. Reed of Maine ; however, Speaker Reed appointed McKinley chairman of the Ways and Means Committee. The Ohioan guided the McKinley Tariff of 1890 through Congress; although McKinley's work was altered through the influence of special interests in the Senate, it imposed a number of protective tariffs on foreign goods. Recognizing McKinley's potential, the Democrats, whenever they controlled
22344-475: The post-World War II period. Alexander Hamilton , the first United States Secretary of the Treasury , was of the view, as articulated most famously in his " Report on Manufactures ", that developing an industrialized economy was impossible without protectionism because import duties are necessary to shelter domestic " infant industries " until they could achieve economies of scale . The industrial takeoff of
22512-482: The power of free trade on the eve of World War I . They believed that the interconnectedness of European nations through trade would stop a continent-wide war from breaking out, as the economic consequences would be too great. However, the assumption proved incorrect. For example, Tuchman noted that Helmuth von Moltke the Younger , when warned of such consequences, refused to even consider them in his plans, arguing he
22680-468: The president from the ticket if an alternative emerged. Among the possible candidates spoken of were McKinley, Reed, and the aging Blaine. Fearing that the Ohio governor would emerge as a candidate, Harrison's managers arranged for McKinley to be permanent chairman of the convention in Minneapolis , requiring him to play a public, neutral role. Hanna established an unofficial McKinley headquarters near
22848-404: The producers, businesses, and workers of the import-competing sector in the country from foreign competitors and raise government revenue . Opponents argue that protectionist policies reduce trade , and adversely affect consumers in general (by raising the cost of imported goods) as well as the producers and workers in export sectors, both in the country implementing protectionist policies and in
23016-448: The railroad station to McKinley's home on North Market Street. Once there, they crowded close to the front porch—from which they surreptitiously whittled souvenirs—as their spokesman addressed McKinley. The candidate then responded, speaking on campaign issues in a speech molded to suit the interest of the delegation. The speeches were carefully scripted to avoid extemporaneous remarks; even the spokesman's remarks were approved by McKinley or
23184-650: The realm. The Navigation Acts of the late 17th century required all trade to be carried in English ships, manned by English crews (this later encompassed all Britons after the Acts of Union 1707 united Scotland with England). Colonists were required to send their produce and raw materials first of all to Britain, where the surplus was then sold-on by British merchants to other colonies in the British empire or bullion-earning external markets. The colonies were forbidden to trade directly with other nations or rival empires. The goal
23352-459: The regiment went into winter quarters near Charleston, Virginia (present-day West Virginia), McKinley was ordered back to Ohio with some other sergeants to recruit fresh troops. When they arrived in Columbus, Governor David Tod surprised McKinley with a commission as second lieutenant in recognition of his service at Antietam. McKinley and his comrades saw little action until July 1863, when
23520-504: The rise in prices was due to the McKinley Tariff. In the end, McKinley lost by 300 votes, but the Republicans won a statewide majority and claimed a moral victory. Even before McKinley completed his term in Congress, he met with a delegation of Ohioans urging him to run for governor. Governor James E. Campbell , a Democrat, who had defeated Foraker in 1889, was to seek re-election in 1891. The Ohio Republican party remained divided, but McKinley quietly arranged for Foraker to nominate him at
23688-457: The safety of bovine growth hormone , sometimes used to boost dairy production, led to hearings before the Senate of Canada , resulting in a ban in Canada. Thus, supply management of milk products is consumer protection of Canadians. Most Latin American countries gained independence in the early 19th century, with notable exceptions including Spanish Cuba and Spanish Puerto Rico . Following
23856-566: The so-called late-Victorian climacteric in the British economy: a decline in the growth rate, i.e. a deceleration. During the interwar era, Britain abandoned free trade. There was a limited erosion of free trade during the 1920s under a patchwork of legislation including the Safeguarding of Industries Act of 1921 , the Safeguarding of Industries Act of 1925 , and the Finance Act of 1925 . The McKenna Duties , which were imposed during
24024-700: The support of the Whigs in Parliament, overcoming the opposition of most of his own party. While the United Kingdom espoused a policy of free trade in the late nineteenth century, it was hardly the case that Britain was unaffected by the tariffs imposed by its trade partners--tariffs that generally increased during the late nineteenth century. According to one study, Britain's exports in 1902 would have been 57% higher, if all of Britain's trade partners also embraced free trade. The decline in overseas demand for British exports, resulting from foreign tariffs, contributed to
24192-418: The tariff policy changes on the U.S. economy. While Irwin’s paper provides valuable insights into the 1890 tariff’s effects, a more comprehensive analysis of elasticity assumptions, economic conditions, and long-term impacts on both industry and consumers could further substantiate or challenge his conclusions. William McKinley William McKinley (January 29, 1843 – September 14, 1901)
24360-408: The time that happened, the economy would be recovering, giving the impression that tariff cuts caused the crash and the reverse generated the recovery. 'Mr. Irwin' also attempts to debunk the idea that protectionism made America a great industrial power, a notion believed by some to offer lessons for developing countries today. As its share of global manufacturing powered from 23% in 1870 to 36% in 1913,
24528-406: The troops and turn the tide of the battle. After Cedar Creek, the army stayed in the vicinity through election day, when McKinley cast his first presidential ballot, for the incumbent Republican, Abraham Lincoln . The next day, they moved north up the valley into winter quarters near Kernstown. In February 1865, Crook was captured by Confederate raiders. Crook's capture added to the confusion as
24696-511: The unsuccessful Republican 1884 presidential nominee. When Blaine said he was not a candidate, Foraker returned to Sherman, but the nomination went to former Indiana senator Benjamin Harrison , who was elected president. In the bitterness that followed the convention, Hanna abandoned Foraker. For the rest of McKinley's life, the Ohio Republican Party was divided into two factions, one aligned with McKinley, Sherman, and Hanna, and
24864-582: The value of their relentless drilling. Their first contact with the enemy came in September when they drove back Confederate troops at Carnifex Ferry in present-day West Virginia. Three days after the battle, McKinley was assigned to duty in the brigade quartermaster office, where he worked both to supply his regiment, and as a clerk. In November, the regiment established winter quarters near Fayetteville (today in West Virginia). McKinley spent
25032-633: The war. McKinley joined a Freemason lodge (later renamed after him) in Winchester, Virginia , before he and Carroll were transferred to Hancock's First Veterans Corps in Washington. Just before the war's end, McKinley received his final promotion, a brevet commission as major. In July, the Veterans Corps was mustered out of service, and McKinley and Carroll were relieved of their duties. Carroll and Hancock encouraged McKinley to apply for
25200-574: The winter substituting for a commissary sergeant who was ill, and in April 1862 he was promoted to that rank. The regiment resumed its advance that spring with Hayes in command (Scammon led the brigade) and fought several minor engagements against the rebel forces. That September, McKinley's regiment was called east to reinforce General John Pope 's Army of Virginia at the Second Battle of Bull Run . Delayed in passing through Washington, D.C.,
25368-414: The world", meaning that its finished goods were produced so efficiently and cheaply that they could often undersell comparable, locally manufactured goods in almost any other market. By the 1840s, the United Kingdom had adopted a free-trade policy, meaning open markets and no tariffs throughout the empire. The Corn Laws were tariffs and other trade restrictions on imported food and corn enforced in
25536-466: The world. Juan Perón erected a system of almost complete protectionism against imports, largely cutting off Argentina from the international market in the 1940s. Protectionism created a domestically oriented industry with high production costs, incapable of competing in international markets. At the same time, output of beef and grain, the country's main export goods, stagnated. The IAPI began shortchanging growers and, when world grain prices dropped in
25704-643: Was a "soldier," not an "economist." The ongoing Russo-Ukraine War began in the aftermath of the Revolution of Dignity and the signing of the European Union–Ukraine Association Agreement in 2014, which included a Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area for Ukraine and the European Union (EU). The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is an international legal agreement between all
25872-548: Was attached to Major General David Hunter 's Army of the Shenandoah and soon back in contact with Confederate forces, capturing Lexington, Virginia , on June 11. They continued south toward Lynchburg , tearing up railroad track as they advanced. Hunter believed the troops at Lynchburg were too powerful, however, and the brigade returned to West Virginia. Before the army could make another attempt, Confederate General Jubal Early 's raid into Maryland forced their recall to
26040-437: Was briefly depressed by the setback, but soon vowed to run again. The Democrats again redistricted Stark County for the 1884 election; McKinley was returned to Congress anyway. For 1890, the Democrats gerrymandered McKinley one final time, placing Stark County in the same district as one of the strongest pro-Democrat counties, Holmes , populated by solidly Democratic Pennsylvania Dutch . Based on past results, Democrats thought
26208-518: Was elected to Congress, where he became the Republican expert on the protective tariff, which he believed would bring prosperity. His 1890 McKinley Tariff was highly controversial and, together with a Democratic redistricting aimed at gerrymandering him out of office, led to his defeat in the Democratic landslide of 1890 . He was elected governor of Ohio in 1891 and 1893, steering a moderate course between capital and labor interests. He secured
26376-625: Was framed for the people ... as a defense to their industries, as a protection to the labor of their hands, as a safeguard to the happy homes of American workingmen, and as a security to their education, their wages, and their investments ... It will bring to this country a prosperity unparalleled in our own history and unrivalled in the history of the world." Democrats ran a strong candidate in former lieutenant governor John G. Warwick . To drive their point home, they hired young partisans to pretend to be peddlers, who went door to door offering 25-cent tinware to housewives for 50 cents, explaining
26544-595: Was iron making. McKinley senior operated foundries throughout Ohio, in New Lisbon, Niles, Poland , and finally Canton . The McKinley household was, like many from Ohio's Western Reserve , steeped in Whiggish and abolitionist sentiment, the latter based on the family's staunch Methodist beliefs. The younger William also followed in the Methodist tradition, becoming active in the local Methodist church at
26712-552: Was known as the "Napoleon of Protection", and rates were raised on some goods and lowered on others, always in an attempt to protect American manufacturing interests. Changes in duties for specific products such as tinplates and wool were the most controversial ones and were emblematic of the spirit of the Tariff of 1890. The Act eliminated tariffs altogether on certain items, with the threat of reinstatement as an enticement to get other countries to lower their tariffs on items imported from
26880-562: Was not to raise revenue, but to allow American manufacturing to develop by giving it a price advantage in the domestic market over foreign competitors. McKinley biographer Margaret Leech noted that Canton had become prosperous as a center for the manufacture of farm equipment because of protection , and that this may have helped form his political views. McKinley introduced and supported bills that raised protective tariffs, and opposed those that lowered them or imposed tariffs simply to raise revenue. Garfield's election as president in 1880 created
27048-467: Was positively correlated with economic and industrial growth during the 19th century. For example, GNP growth during Europe's "liberal period" in the middle of the century (where tariffs were at their lowest), averaged 1.7% per year, while industrial growth averaged 1.8% per year. However, during the protectionist era of the 1870s and 1890s, GNP growth averaged 2.6% per year, while industrial output grew at 3.8% per year, roughly twice as fast as it had during
27216-486: Was returned to them by the end of 1893, and when McKinley, who had promised eventual repayment, asked for the list of contributors, it was refused him. Many people who had suffered in the hard times sympathized with McKinley, whose popularity grew. He was easily re-elected in November 1893, receiving the largest percentage of the vote of any Ohio governor since the Civil War. McKinley campaigned widely for Republicans in
27384-459: Was signing; he believed Walker a sound businessman. In fact, Walker had deceived McKinley, telling him that new notes were actually renewals of matured ones. Walker was ruined by the recession; McKinley was called upon for repayment in February 1893. The total owed was over $ 100,000 (equivalent to $ 3.4 million in 2023) and a despairing McKinley initially proposed to resign as governor and earn
27552-538: Was successful enough for him to buy a block of buildings on Main Street in Canton, which provided him with a small but consistent rental income for decades to come. When his Army friend Rutherford B. Hayes was nominated for governor in 1867, McKinley made speeches on his behalf in Stark County, his first foray into politics. The county was closely divided between Democrats and Republicans , but Hayes carried it that year in his statewide victory. In 1869, McKinley ran for
27720-534: Was the 25th president of the United States , serving from 1897 until his assassination in 1901. A member of the Republican Party , he led a realignment that made Republicans largely dominant in the industrial states and nationwide for decades. He presided over victory in the Spanish–American War of 1898; gained control of Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines; restored prosperity after
27888-460: Was the centrepiece of the British Empire, and because of an efficient taxation system it paid its own administrative expenses as well as the cost of the large British Indian Army . In terms of trade, India turned only a small profit for British business. However, transfers to the British government was massive: in 1801 unrequited (unpaid, or paid from Indian-collected revenue) was about 30% of British domestic savings available for capital formation in
28056-445: Was their failure to make headway against the tide which was running toward McKinley. In fact, both campaigns from the moment they were launched were in retreat. The calm confidence with which each candidate claimed the support of his own section [of the country] soon gave way to ... bitter accusations that Hanna by winning support for McKinley in their sections had violated the rules of the game. Hanna, on McKinley's behalf, met with
28224-512: Was to maintain the North American and Caribbean colonies as dependent agricultural economies geared towards producing raw materials for export to Britain. The growth of native industry was discouraged, in order to keep the colonies dependent on the United Kingdom for their finished goods. From 1815 to 1870, the United Kingdom reaped the benefits of being the world's first modern, industrialised nation. It described itself as "the workshop of
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