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64-542: Menarandra is a river in the regions of Androy and Atsimo-Andrefana in southern Madagascar . It flows into the Indian Ocean near Bevoalavo Est . Its annual discharge is low, approx. 2-3 L/s/km at Tranoroa where it also crossed the National road 10 . Between Tranoroa and its mouth in the Indian Ocean it forms the border between the regions of Androy and Atsimo-Andrefana . This article related to

128-575: A "composite ethnicity" of many clans of diverse origins (including the Sakalava, Bara, Mahafaly and Antanosy) who arrived in migration "waves," settling in Androy only several centuries ago. There is also evidence of "pre-Tandroy" inhabitants from as far back as the 11th and 12th centuries. For a timeline of the history of Androy, see below. Amboasary-Sud ( Anosy ) is established by Établissements Gallois. Henri de Heaulme established his sisal plantation and

192-598: A French protectorate. The French then launched the second Madagascar expedition in 1894. Again, the invaders concentrated themselves mainly on the Imerina strongholds, and conquered north and central Madagascar in 1895. In Anosy, the Antandroy overran a number of European trading stations, forcing the foreigners out and plundering their stores. Madagascar officially became a French colony on 6 August 1896, and French troops took control of Fort Dauphin. Europeans reported

256-464: A dynasty that lasted 200 years. The Zafiraminia established a stratified society with elaborate rituals, aided by their literacy, which was viewed as a kind of magic. Their settlements were further inland, 2 to 7.5 ha (5 to 19 acres) in size, and may have been fortified with ditches and wooden palisades. While the Zafiraminia moved into Anosy from the north, Europeans began arriving from

320-764: A few to two dozen square kilometres. The Coastal Sands can be further subdivided into the Andriambe, Ebakika, Efaho, Fanjahira, Lakandava, Lanirano, Manampanihy, Mandromodromotra, Vatomena, Vatomirindry and Vatorendrika basins. There are three major rivers in Anosy: the Mandrare River along the southwestern border, the Efaho (formerly called the Fanjahira) just west of Fort-Dauphin, and the Manampanihy which drains

384-798: A great deal of insecurity elsewhere in southern Madagascar. The interior of Anosy was ruled by Antanosy king Rabefagnatrika, who was a rival of pro-French Manambaro king Rabefially. Southern Madagascar was conquered by the French in 1898, using counter-insurgency methods developed in Indochina. In 1897, the French governor reintroduced the Imerina labour tax, requiring every able-bodied male to provide 50 days of unpaid labour per year. Head taxes were also imposed, under penalty of forced labour, in efforts to increase agricultural production and tax revenues. Roads were built and plantations established for European companies and settlers. Many villages were relocated along

448-634: A joint venture to mine ilmenite. Politically weakened by the dissolution of the Soviet Union , the socialist regime transitioned to the Third Republic of Madagascar in 1992. Ecotourism in Anosy grew rapidly in the early and mid-1990s, but temporarily collapsed during 2007–2009 due to the complete booking of Fort-Dauphin hotels for QMM employees and contractors. Fort-Dauphin suffered a cholera outbreak in 2000–2001 and syphilis outbreak in 2007,

512-536: A peasant uprising in Toliara Province (which included the Anosy Region). Sisal production in Anosy peaked in 1964 but rapidly declined thereafter. Periwinkle plantations began, as did exports of seaweed to Japan and live lobsters to Europe. Student protests joined by a general strike and rioting led to a state of emergency, a military government fraught with ethnic coups, and the 1975 establishment of

576-491: A redoubt built across the peninsula was defensible from sea and land. The French found Dian Ramaka to be friendly; their settlement sites were at the edge of the Zafiraminia's world and did not cause an affront. Sieur Jacques de Pronis, the first governor of the French East India Company, married a Zafindraminia noblewoman. However, Pronis angered the colonists who put him in chains; following his rescue,

640-640: A river in Madagascar is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Androy Androy (literally "the land of roy (Mimosa delicatula) but more commonly translated as "spiny land") is the deep south of Madagascar. It is located south of the Tropic of Capricorn and conventionally delimited between the Mandrare and Menarandra rivers. It is 19,540 km and is bordered by the Mahafaly people to

704-544: A slaving base and operated a rum distillery. An army of the I merina Kingdom of central Madagascar, numbering 3,000–4,000 soldiers, moved down the coast of Anosy and took Fort Dauphin on 14 March 1825, at which point the Imerina Kingdom controlled the entire eastern coast of Madagascar. The fort was garrisoned by 800 Imerina troops armed with muskets which, along with garrisons at other coastal towns, controlled shipping & trade. Most of Anosy, however, resisted

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768-430: A supply base in 1768. He found that there were 35 rulers in Anosy, many of whom were at war with one another, and none of whom governed more than 3,000 people. He signed 30 treaties with local kings, making alliances by supplying them with muskets (over 10,000 muskets and 50 tons of gunpowder were sold). However, the French government abolished the French East India Company the following year, and Maudave's trading settlement

832-402: Is a windy town, with Force 6 winds (39–49 km/h [24–30 mph]) for 6 to 13 days per month, August through November. The region is occasionally damaged by cyclones, such as Cyclone Deborah in 1975, Cyclone Daisy in 1994, and Cyclone Gretelle in 1997. In 1996, Anosy was recognized as one of the most ecologically diverse regions of Madagascar. In 2014, Fort-Dauphin coast

896-544: Is highest on the eastern side of the mountains. In general, Anosy is very wet and humid in the northeast and becomes increasingly arid as one moves southwest. Fort-Dauphin receives 1,800 millimetres (71 in) of annual rainfall. Monthly precipitation is about 150 mm (5.9 in) in November through March, 190 mm (7.5 in)) in April, and less than 100 mm (3.9 in) for September and October. Fort-Dauphin

960-499: Is one of the poorest regions in Madagascar. Most people are subsistence farmers (it is estimated that less than 5% of the land is farmed) growing cassava, maize, sweet potatoes, legumes, cowpeas, groundnuts, lentils, millet, sorghum and mangos (rice is not possible due to arid climate). Cash crops include sisal (grown only in the lower Mandrare river region) and groundnuts (cotton production has declined). There also pastoralists who raise cattle, sheep, goats and chickens. Zebu are central to

1024-610: Is semi- to sub-arid with an average rainfall of just 400 mm (15.7 in) (350 mm (13.8 in) along the southwestern coast to 700 mm (27.6 in) towards the north), which is unevenly distributed during the year (though there's generally more rain December through February). Other than the Mandrare river, most riverbeds are dry for much of the year and it has frequent droughts (generally every eight to ten years) which often lead to Kere (famine). Coupled with this are almost constant strong, drying winds, especially along

1088-464: Is still practiced, but blacksmiths and those who dye cotton cloth, weave silk and make pottery have declined. Stores are mostly quite small, located in urban centers and are mostly owned by Indo-Pakistanis, Chinese and Malagasy from the highlands. There are also weekly markets where homegrown produce is sold and things like soap, cooking pots and other things can be purchased. Some argue the Tandroy are

1152-577: The Berenty Reserve . 24°48′0″S 45°18′0″E  /  24.80000°S 45.30000°E  / -24.80000; 45.30000 Anosy Anosy is one of the 23 regions of Madagascar . It is located in the southeast of the country, on the eastern side of what was once the Toliara Province . The name Anosy means "island(s)" in Malagasy . Due to a strategic sea route running along its coast, Anosy had been an important crossroads for

1216-608: The London Missionary Society later took leadership of the church. France invaded Madagascar in 1883, to counter the growing British influence in the Indian Ocean. This first Madagascar expedition concentrated mainly on the north of Madagascar, where Imerina power was centered. This created an opportunity for the Antanosy to revolt and seize Fort Dauphin, though the Imerina reclaimed it in 1884. In 1885,

1280-422: The "'Antandroy'", but "'Tandroy'" is preferable. (With "'roy'" meaning thorn, and the prefix "'an'" meaning "'place of'", the additional "'t'" means "'from'". Thus, adding another "'an'" to make '"Antandroy'" is redundant.) There are another estimated 150,000 Tandroy living in other parts of the island, many of them having moved due to recurring famine in the Androy region. In 2013 some 349,675 people - almost half of

1344-498: The 1980s to promote environmental conservation and tourism in the region. The region suffers from poverty; 80% of inhabitants lack access to clean water , 16% suffer from serious respiratory illnesses, and literacy is less than 20%. The early history of Anosy is based primarily on archeological digs in the Efaho valley, just west of Fort-Dauphin. These 11th–13th century sites on the coastal dunes were small (0.5 ha [1.2 acres] in size) and seasonal or temporary, based on

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1408-603: The Amboasary Atsimo District, and 14/km (36/sq mi) in the Betroka District. The people who have historically lived in Anosy are known as the Antanosy people . They may be more accurately described as "those from Anosy" given the region's history. The Antanosy live primarily in the east, along the coast and coastal rivers. There are also Antandroy living in the southwest, especially in

1472-655: The Anosy region are the Roman Catholic and the Malagasy Lutheran Church , both established in Fort Dauphin (also called: Tolagnaro) in the 1890s. The Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar (FJKM) has several congregations in the Anosy region as do several other Protestant denominations. There is also a small Muslim community. Anosy Region is divided into three districts, which are sub-divided into 64 communes. As of 1997–98, literacy at

1536-574: The Antanosy. In the following years, additional churches were established at Evatraha, Mandromondromotry, and Mahatalaky. In 1891, natural rubber was discovered in western Anosy, and within a year 1,680 tons were exported. The strategic importance of Madagascar had declined following the opening of the Suez Canal. Britain and France redefined their spheres of influence in Africa; Britain gained control of Zanzibar in return for recognizing Madagascar as

1600-664: The Democratic Republic of Madagascar. This second republic pursued socialist reforms with the aims of achieving rapid economic and cultural development. In the 1980s, the rapid growth of Fort-Dauphin created deforestation in Anosy, which became a high-priority area for international conservation efforts. The World Wildlife Fund began working in Andohahela National Park . Meanwhile, QIT-Fer et Titane established an office in Fort-Dauphin and began

1664-529: The Efaho valley after being defeated by the Antambahoaka people to the north. The Zafiraminia had lived in Madagascar from about the 13th century and had assimilated into the Malagasy population; they did not have Islamic institutions though they retained Arabic script and several socio-religious practices. The Zafiraminia introduced the use of wooden huts, owning cattle as a sign of wealth, and established

1728-548: The French evacuation. When shipwrecked pirates took shelter at Fort Dauphin in 1697, their leader, Abraham Samuel , a mulatto from Martinique, was installed as a king. Until his death in 1705, Samuel led pirate–Anosy forces in constant warfare with Antanosy king Diamarang Diamera. The Zafiraminia also attempted to regain control, without success; they faced a number of revolts. The number and size of settlements shrank, and moved further inland. Frenchman Louis Laurent de Maudave  [ fr ] arrived to rebuild Fort Dauphin as

1792-541: The French occupation of Madagascar, most had left by the mid-1970s. Most of the people who live in Anosy are very poor, with an estimated GDP per capita in 2004 of just $ 180, when the national average was $ 210. Eighty percent of its inhabitants don't have access to clean water , one in six suffer from serious respiratory illness, literacy is less than 20%, and 65% of the watershed slopes are highly degraded. The majority of those living in Anosy practice traditional folk religions . The two largest Christian denominations in

1856-827: The Malagasy, Muslims, and Europeans. In the mid-1600s, it was the location of the first French colonial settlement in the Indian Ocean . The region was part of the I merina Kingdom for much of the 1800s and part of the French colony of Madagascar from the late 1800s to 1960. Its exports have included human slaves (shipped to the Mascarene Islands and the United States in the 1700s), live cattle (exported to Réunion for almost 300 years), sisal , natural rubber , rosy periwinkle , graphite , uranothorianite , lobster , sapphires , and ilmenite . Due to its biodiversity and unique wildlife , efforts commenced in

1920-665: The Mountain Zone, the Bedrock Plain, and the Coastal Sands. The Mountain Zone covers 30% of the total catchment area and is distinguished by steep slopes, rapid runoff , and clearly defined rivers. The Bedrock Plain has rolling hills with low relief and several large rivers. The Coastal Sands are dunes at the ocean's edge cut with meandering rivers, ribbon lakes, and a series of lagoons and bays which vary in size from

1984-519: The Portuguese survivors built the fort Tranovato (English: house of stone), a 10-metre-square (33 ft) stone blockhouse located on a hill 9 km (5.6 mi) west of present-day Fort-Dauphin. Others believe it was erected a generation later, but it is likely the first European building on Madagascar, and sheltered shipwrecked sailors awaiting rescue. Other shipwrecked sailors were able to assimilate, possibly aided by being light-skinned like

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2048-766: The Ranomafana valley, emptying into the ocean at Manantenina . Other rivers in the Anosy region include the Isoanala, Manambolo, Mangoky, Menarandra and Isoanala. The average temperature in Fort-Dauphin ranges from 26 °C (79 °F) in January–February to 20 °C (68 °F) in July, with ocean temperatures ranging from 25 °C (77 °F) in January–February to 19 °C (66 °F) in June–July. The humidity of Fort-Dauphin ranges from 77 to 84 percent. Rainfall

2112-615: The Tolagnaro District and in the Amboasary-Sud District, along with other Malagasy people from other parts of Madagascar. The rural interior Betroka District is chiefly inhabited by Bara people . There are also Asians who own many shops in urban centres and Europeans working in conservation, mining, tourism or for the Catholic Church. While there had been many French nationals living in Anosy during

2176-566: The Vohimana mountains. This mountain range dominates the area, terminating just outside Fort-Dauphin at Mount Bezavona (Pic St. Louis), which stands at 529 metres (1,736 ft). The interior bedrock is granite , with cordierite gneiss exposed where erosion had occurred along the coast. The sand dunes along the coast, which average 18 m (59 ft) in depth, have mineral deposits of ilmenite, zircon , rutile and monazite . There are three primary hydrologic drainage areas in Anosy:

2240-401: The brutal treatment by the Imerina and was effectively self-ruled. The Imerina pursued a policy of isolationism and dismantled treaties with England and France. Successive Imerina monarchs were alternately influenced by the French and English. In 1869, Imerina Queen Ranavalona II converted to Christianity. A church was built at Fort Dauphin and attendance made mandatory. Evangelists from

2304-417: The coast, known as "Tiokatimo." Water is in such short supply that it is delivered by truck to some people and sold by those who sell it from oxcarts to others. The periodic famines have caused somewhere between 15 and 30% of the Antandroy to have left Androy, having moved west to Toliary or to northern Madagascar. Due to inadequate water and a large population, Androy is a region of chronic food insecurity and

2368-464: The east and south is the Indian Ocean . The region is approximately 150 kilometres (93 mi) wide along its coastline and extends roughly 250 km (160 mi) inland. Anosy's capital and most-populous city is Tolagnaro (formerly Fort Dauphin), located about halfway along the region's coast and 1,122 km (697 mi) south of the national capital of Antananarivo . Anosy means "island" or "islands" in Malagasy . It may have been named for

2432-400: The estimated total population of Androy Region was 733,933 inhabitants, with a population growth rate of 2.7% (means population will double in 25 years if not reduced). The population is almost entirely Tandroy ("people of the thorny bush") or Karembola (in the southwest), with small numbers of Antanosy , Mahafaly , Merina and Betsileo who also live there. The Tandroy may also be called

2496-448: The first French East India Company . A French settlement was established at Manafiafy in Anosy. There were many deaths in the first months, likely due to malaria and dysentery in the swampy area, and the settlement was moved 40 km (25 mi) southwest to the peninsula of Taolanara where they built what was later named Fort Dauphin, France's first colony in the Indian Ocean. The site was 46 metres (150 ft) above sea level, and with

2560-630: The flood plains and coastal lagoons, with cultivation of sweet potatoes and further development of iron working. In the early 14th century, a Gujarat ship wrecked off the Anosy coast; it has been theorized that the stranded Gujarati went north to found the Zarabehava dynasty of Antesaka , though some scholars disagree. In the 16th century, the Zafiraminia (descendants of the Muslim Ramini) arrived in present-day Anosy and moved into

2624-672: The folk religion instead of embracing Catholicism. Suffering in isolation and having baptized only one Malagasy person over a year, the Jesuits left Anosy in 1617. Beginning in 1604, French King Henry IV began sending ships to Madagascar to compete with the Dutch colonies at the Gold Coast of Africa. In 1642, Cardinal Richelieu sought possession of Madagascar for France, granting trading rights to Captain Rigault and associates who created

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2688-458: The fort was bombarded by a French warship and evacuated. In 1887–88, Norwegian missionary Nielsen-Lund described the Antanosy population as "very scattered" and ruled by 30 feudal kings, and that northern Anosy was a lawless place. A Lutheran church and school was established outside Fort Dauphin, but the support given by the Queen of Imerina caused the missionaries to be viewed as collaborators by

2752-416: The geography section: Vincelette et al. (2008) and is primarily about the immediate Fort-Dauphin region. Anosy is a region in southeastern Madagascar , which covers 25,731 km (9,935 sq mi). It borders Androy region to the southwest, across the Mandrare River . To the west is Atsimo-Andrefana , to the north is Ihorombe region, and to the northeast is Atsimo-Atsinanana region. To

2816-472: The island in the Fanjahira river (now Efaho river) where the Zafiraminia first settled when they arrived in the 16th century. Another theory is that the name means "land of the islands" because of the many temporary islands created when the Efaho valley floods during the rainy season. Along the ocean are coastal lagoons and about 50 km (31 mi) of sandy, rolling coastal hills that butt up against

2880-407: The later resulting in a state of emergency. The World Bank named the town as one of three sites for its Integrated Growth Poles project. Port d'Ehola is completed in 2009, enabling QMM to export Ilmenite to Canada. In 2011, QMM takes over electricity production for Fort-Dauphin. Vigilantism rises in Anosy in response to banditry, with over 100 extralegal executions in 2012. General references for

2944-560: The need to move to find food. Activities focused on fishing, cultivation of tubers and hunting. Iron working was also present. Trade was limited to the northeast, along the coast, and formed a very simple economic and social system. Evidence suggests that between the 13th and 15th centuries, those living in Anosy were working chlorite schist which was exchanged through the trade network for Chinese greenware pottery. A Chinese nautical map from 1315 shows Madagascar's coastline, winds and currents. Settlements grew slightly, primarily located on

3008-536: The new highways. Activities of Roman Catholic and Lutheran missionaries increased. The harsh regime and disregard for Malagasy culture were met by a number of small revolts and raids, which culminated in a general uprising in 1904–1905 . While the uprising was sparked in the north, the southeast had become fertile ground for revolution. Antanosy king king Befanatrika led rebels south into Anosy, and in December 1904 captured Esira , Fort Dauphin, and Manambaro , with widespread looting. While Protestants generally supported

3072-680: The northwest ( Atsimo-Andrefana ), the Antanosy to the east ( Anosy ) and the Bara land to the north (starting at about Isoanala ). Androy Region is divided into four districts, which are sub-divided into 56 municipalities, which cover 881 villages (fokontany). A request for the division of the Ambovombe District was made in February 2023 that would create also the Antanimora Atsimo district with 9 municipalities. In 2013

3136-645: The primary level in Anosy was 22% for boys and 23% for girls. Literacy was below 20% in some rural areas. There are 511 public primary schools in the Anosy (2007–2008). 179 are in Amboasary Sud, 171 in Betroka and 161 in Taolagnaro (Fort Dauphin). Not all of the villages dispose of a school. There are 25 CEGs (college of general education) and 3 lycées , furthermore 1 technical lycée in Betroka . Next to

3200-523: The rebels – both French and Malagasy – were banished to Réunion Island. Étienne de Flacourt took over as governor, and sought to establish several colonies in Madagascar to resupply European ships travelling to the Indies, obtaining food from the Malagasy through trade or by force, and selling indigo, tobacco and sugarcane to fund colonial expansion. By this time, rice and cattle had become the primary food sources. According to historian R. K. Kent, Anosy

3264-415: The religious and social life of the Antandroy. While they supply milk, meat and leather, they are also a very important determinant of the status and wealth of the Tandroy people. While Androy borders the ocean, there is minimal fishing, most for local consumption. Of the almost 20,000 km2, only 344 km2 are forested. Trades include silversmiths (generally part-time), tailors, cobblers and carpenters. Basketry

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3328-671: The return of men forced into conscription, the continuation of forced labour, and the absence of reforms promised by Charles de Gaulle . When the French government refused to support a democratic process toward Madagascar independence, militant independence leaders gained ground and initiated the Malagasy Uprising (1947–1949). The uprising began in the east and was immediately followed by the south where it enjoyed particularly strong support and attracted as many as one million peasants to fight. The southern rebels were led by Betsileo former-teacher Michel Radaoroson. His leadership

3392-459: The ruling Zafiraminia who claimed to be descended from Arabs. On 4 August 1508, Diogo Lopes de Sequeira arrived on a Portuguese trade mission, recovering two shipwreck survivors who served as a Malagasy translators for contact and resupply. Trading colonies were attempted by the Portuguese and the French, but initial efforts were short-lived and abandoned. Shipwrecks continued and conditions at Anosy led cartographer Jean Parmentier to describe

3456-578: The sailors seized the boy by force and their ship was briefly attacked before sailing to Goa. In April 1616 the Jesuits returned to Anosy to exchange Drian-Ramaka for Chambanga's other sons, which the king refused; following accusations, and realizing their missionary work was in jeopardy, the Jesuits settled for a distant relation of the king. Chambanga became further distrustful when the Portuguese began prospecting for gold and silver; he suspended trade, attempting to starve them out of Anosy. This continued when Drian-Ramaka succeeded his father, and respected

3520-591: The same period, missionary work was conducted by the Lazarist Congregation of the Mission . In 1674, after the French East India Company had twice been reorganized due to poor profits, the rebuilt Fort Dauphin was evacuated and the colony abandoned. The colonial failure was a bitter experience for the French, who left behind as many as 4,000 French casualties, and was a source of political embarrassment for 200 years. Conflict continued in Anosy following

3584-468: The south. On 10 August 1500, a Portuguese crew – whose ship had been separated from the 2nd Portuguese India Armada during a storm – became the first Europeans to see Madagascar, at the southern coast near present-day Fort-Dauphin. They named it Ilha de São Lourenço ("Saint-Laurent" in French). There were at least five shipwrecks on this coast between 1504 and 1507, and historian Mike Pearson believes some of

3648-571: The total population of Androy - lived in the Ambovombe-Androy District, which has a population density of 60/km2. The strip along the southeast coast (which has been described by some as "the Tandroy Cradle"), is the most densely populated. Bekily District had about 164,751 inhabitants (32/km2), Beloha District has about 109,361 (23/km2) and Tsihombe District has about 110,147 (50/km2) inhabitants. The Androy region

3712-613: The uprising, Catholics opposed it and a number of Catholic churches were burned by the rebels. Following the revolt, the French closed the Lutheran schools and churches, believing them complicit. The region also suffered from smallpox and locusts during this time. In 1926–27, the head tax was almost doubled and a three-year conscription system instituted to provide more labour for colony construction projects. The government also continued to seize lands for these projects, plantations, and French settlers. During World War II , Madagascar

3776-422: The waters as "the ocean without reason". In 1613, a Portuguese expedition to Madagascar visited the stone fort at Travovato, which was occupied by a local king, Chambanga. A treaty of friendship was agreed, trade was opened, and a church was built for Jesuit missionaries to begin evangelism. A dispute broke out when the king apparently refused an offer to send his son Drian-Ramaka to Goa for Catholic education;

3840-484: Was abandoned. At about the time of the French departure, the Zafiriminia kingdom also fell, having been ravaged by warfare since the mid-1600s. In 1819, the French again reopened Fort Dauphin, after negotiating with the Zafiraminia chief Rabefania. The chief sought French protection from the I merina Kingdom which was seeking to conquer the whole of Madagascar. Fort Dauphin continued to export cattle, and also became

3904-423: Was identified as seriously threatened due to rising sea levels, landslides, and coastal erosion". The region had a population of 809,313 in 2018. At its present growth rate, it is expected to double its population in 15 years. The region is administratively divided into three districts; population densities are 52 inhabitants per square kilometre (130/sq mi) in the Tolagnaro District, 21/km (54/sq mi) in

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3968-609: Was one of the most-densely populated parts of Madagascar with considerable agricultural surpluses. The Malagasy traded for ceramics from China, England, France and Portugal. Successive governors of Fort Dauphin in the mid-17th century sought to conquer Anosy by wresting control from the Zafiraminia kings, who had united under Dian Ramack (and later, his son Andriampanolahy). Several military campaigns pillaged and burned villages, killed and enslaved Malagasy, and stole tens of thousands of cattle. The Malagasy made reprisals with massacres, poisonings, and captured and burned Fort Dauphin. During

4032-526: Was the site of a 1942 campaign between Allied and Vichy French forces. The fighting was concentrated in the north and central regions; the Vichy governor-general had retreated steadily southward, and surrendered rather than enter Anosy. These incidents and the British occupation further tarnished the prestige of the French colonial government. Nationalist and pro-independence sentiments strengthened following

4096-455: Was usurped in August 1947 by Lehoaha, whose insurgents were better armed. The intensity and cruelty of the French response was unprecedented in French colonial history, and military records of the conflict were classified. Madagascar gained independence by referendum in 1958. Political power of the new government was consolidated amongst the Imerina middle-class, and was challenged in 1971 by

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