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88-704: The Tandroy may also be called the Antandroy , but it is technically redundant: roy means thorn ; the prefix an means place of ; and the additional t means from . While the Tandroy share many common cultural features with other ethnic groups in Madagascar, such as respect for the ancestors, a common language and complex funeral rites, certain practices set them apart. They are particularly known for their distinctive dances, cotton woven clothing, elaborately decorated tombs, and unique use of plank architecture in

176-488: A traditional diet of maize, sweet potato, manioc, and zebu milk and curd. Other staples include yams, taro root, and millet , generally boiled in water and occasionally served in whole milk or flavored with crushed peanuts. Whereas most dwellings in Madagascar are traditionally constructed from pliable plant materials, the Tandroy are one of the few ethnic groups to use wood plank to build their homes . Tandroy homes are traditionally square (not rectangular, as elsewhere on

264-564: A verb–object–subject (VOS) word order : Mamaky reads boky book ny the mpianatra student Mamaky boky ny mpianatra reads book the student "The student reads the book" Nividy bought Christianity in Madagascar Christianity in Madagascar is practiced by 85.3% of Madagascar's population according to the Pew Research Center in 2020. However, other surveys put

352-665: A 70% similarity in lexicon with the Merina dialect. The Eastern dialects are: The Western dialects are: Additionally, the Bushi dialect (41,700 speakers) is spoken on the French overseas territory of Mayotte , which is part of the Comoro island chain situated northwest of Madagascar. The two main dialects of Malagasy are easily distinguished by several phonological features. Sakalava lost final nasal consonants, whereas Merina added

440-460: A backlash that led Ranavalona to become increasingly wary of the political and cultural effects of Christianity, which she saw as leading the Malagasy to forsake the ancestors and their traditions. In October and November 1831, the queen enacted a ban on Christian marriages, church services, and baptisms for soldiers and members of government studying in the schools. In December 1831, she extended

528-412: A degree of class and ethnic differentiation among practitioners of Christianity, with the association of Protestantism with the upper classes and Merina ethnic group , and Catholicism attracting more adherents among the popular classes and coastal regions. Practitioners of Protestantism slightly outnumber adherents to Catholicism. Portuguese and French began the first Christianization of Madagascar during

616-677: A dialect of the Malagasy language , which is a branch of the Malayo-Polynesian language group derived from the Barito languages , spoken in southern Borneo . Cattle herding is the main economic activity of the Antandroy. They also practice subsistence farming of cassava, millet, rice and maize. Honey is also a major product of the Antandroy. Historically, the Tandroy were known as great ironsmiths; their skill in repairing firearms

704-638: A larger, purpose-built structure on the Rova grounds. Beginning in December 1820, LMS missionaries established workshops in Antananarivo to teach trades and technical skills, and developed a network of public schools . By 1822, LMS missionaries had successfully transcribed the Merina dialect of the Malagasy language using the Latin alphabet . This dialect, spoken in the central highlands around Antananarivo,

792-547: A phonological quality not unlike that of Portuguese . /o/ is marginal in Merina dialect, found in interjections and loan words, though it is also found in place names from other dialectical areas. /ai, au/ are diphthongs [ai̯, au̯] in careful speech, [e, o] or [ɛ, ɔ] in more casual speech. /ai/ , whichever way it is pronounced, affects following /k, ɡ/ as /i/ does. The alveolars /s ts z dz l/ are slightly palatalized . /ts, dz, s, z/ vary between [ts, dz, s, z] and [tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ] , and are especially likely to be

880-475: A relaxation of state control over Christianity. The island's first printing press, which was imported by LMS missionaries at the end of Radama's reign, was only effectively put into operation in 1828. The press was in heaviest use during the first several years of Ranavalona's reign, when thousands of hymnals and other materials were transcribed and printed. Translation of the New Testament was completed in

968-588: A stereotype that characterized the Antandroy as half-clothed savages. The toppling of the Tsiranana presidency and end of the First Republic in 1972 was sparked by the armed protest of Antandroy peasants in Toliara against corruption in tax collection. The Tandroy are a traditionally nomadic ethnic group of Madagascar inhabiting the arid southern part of the island called Androy . The harshness of

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1056-463: A variety of fady (taboos) established by elders and ancestors. Antandroy women are prohibited from milking zebu. There is a general fady in Antandroy society against killing the radiated tortoise , and a particular Tandroy king was forbidden to so much as look at one. It is also fady to mention the name of a deceased king. Upon the death of an Tandroy, family members organize a communal funeral feast. Zebu are sacrificed and their meat given to

1144-535: A voiceless [ə̥] : Final *t became -[tse] in the one but -[ʈʂə̥] in the other: Sakalava retains ancestral *li and *ti, whereas in Merina these become [di] (as in huditra 'skin' above) and [tsi] : However, these last changes started in Borneo before the Malagasy arrived in Madagascar. The language has a written literature going back presumably to the 15th century. When the French established Fort-Dauphin in

1232-417: A word, but they are pronounced /p, t/ . @ is used informally as a short form for amin'ny , which is a preposition followed by the definite form, meaning for instance with the . Diacritics are not obligatory in standard Malagasy, except in the case where its absence leads to an ambiguity: tanàna ("city") must have the diacritic to discriminate itself from tanana ("hand"). They may however be used in

1320-481: Is an official language of Madagascar alongside French . Malagasy is the westernmost Malayo-Polynesian language , brought to Madagascar with the settlement of Austronesian speakers from the Sunda Islands (about 7,300 kilometres or 4,500 miles away) around the 5th century AD or perhaps between the 7th and 13th centuries. The Malagasy language is one of the Barito languages and is most closely related to

1408-506: Is considered the national language of Madagascar. It is one of two official languages alongside French in the 2010 constitution put in place the Fourth Republic. Previously, under the 2007 constitution, Malagasy was one of three official languages alongside French and English. Malagasy is the language of instruction in all public schools through grade five for all subjects, and remains the language of instruction through high school for

1496-462: Is evidence that the predecessors of the Malagasy dialects first arrived in the southern stretch of the east coast of Madagascar. Adelaar (2017) proposes that a distinct Malagasy speech community had already been established in South Borneo before the early Malagasy speakers migrated to East Africa. Malagasy has a tradition of oratory arts and poetic histories and legends. The most well-known

1584-467: Is no doubt that she was right. Maurice Bloch, From Blessing to Violence (1986) In a kabary speech on 26 February 1835, Queen Ranavalona formally forbade the practice of Christianity among her subjects. In her discourse, she was careful to differentiate between her own people, for whom the new religion was forbidden and its practice a capital offense, and foreigners, to whom she permitted freedom of religion and conscience. She furthermore acknowledged

1672-740: Is not clear if they are actually trilled, or are simply non- sibilant affricates [ʈɻ̊˔ ᶯʈɻ̊˔ ɖɻ˔ ᶯɖɻ˔] . However, in another Austronesian language with a claimed trilled affricate, Fijian , trilling occurs but is rare, and the primary distinguishing feature is that it is postalveolar. The Malagasy sounds are frequently transcribed [ ʈʂ ᶯʈʂ ɖʐ ᶯɖʐ ], and that is the convention used in this article. In reduplication, compounding, possessive and verbal constructions, as well as after nasals, fricatives and liquids, 'spirants' become stops, as follows: Here, stressed syllables are indicated by grave diacritics ⟨à⟩ , although these diacritics are normally not used. Words are generally accented on

1760-434: Is pronounced [fə̥ˈnurnə̥] . According to Penelope Howe in 2019, Central Malagasy is undergoing tonogenesis , with syllables containing voiced consonants are "fully devoiced" and acquire a low tone ( /ba/ → [b̥à] ), while those containing unvoiced consonants acquire a high tone ( /pa/ → [pá] ). However, this development appears to not occur in posttonic syllables, and she called it " pitch accent " instead. Malagasy has

1848-456: Is the national epic, Ibonia , about a Malagasy folk hero of the same name. Malagasy is the principal language spoken on the island of Madagascar. It is also spoken by Malagasy communities on neighboring Indian Ocean islands such as Réunion , Mayotte and Mauritius . Expatriate Malagasy communities speaking the language also exist in Europe and North America. The Merina dialect of Malagasy

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1936-835: Is the westernmost member of the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family , a grouping that includes languages from Indonesia , Malaysia , the Philippines and the Pacific Islands . In fact, Malagasy's relation with other Austronesian languages had already been noted by early scholars, such as the Dutch scholar Adriaan Reland in 1708. Among all Austronesian languages, Dahl (1951) demonstrated that Malagasy and Ma'anyan – an East Barito language spoken in Central Kalimantan , Indonesia, on

2024-494: Is then destroyed by fire to complete the funeral rites. Family and community members will not return to visit the tomb. Stringed instruments are common among the Tandroy. They construct marovany (box zithers) from pine planks, using unwound bicycle cables as strings. The mandolina and gitara are the Antandroy names of a popular Southern chordophone similar to the kabosy but with nylon fishing line for strings and five or seven movable frets that facilitate modification of

2112-447: Is unknown. British missionary to Madagascar W.E. Cummins places the number executed at between 60 and 80. Far more were required to undergo the tangena ordeal, condemned to hard labor, or stripped of their land and property, and many of these died. Persecution of Christians intensified; in 1849, 1,900 people were fined, jailed, or otherwise punished for their Christian faith, of whom 18 were executed. Upon Ranavalona's death in 1861, she

2200-516: Is used by the government and media in Madagascar. Standard Malagasy is one of two official languages of Madagascar alongside French, in the 2010 constitution of the Fourth Republic of Madagascar. Malagasy is written in the Latin script introduced by Western missionaries in the early 19th century. Previously, the Sorabe script was used, a local development of the Arabic script . The Malagasy language

2288-544: The andriana (nobles) throughout Imerina . Schools were constructed in larger towns throughout the central highlands and staffed with teachers from the LMS and other missionary organizations. By the end of Radama's reign in 1829, 38 schools were providing basic education to over 4,000 students in addition to the 300 students studying at the Palace School, teaching dual messages of loyalty and obedience to Radama's rule and

2376-552: The Comoros . Most people in Madagascar speak it as a first language, as do some people of Malagasy descent elsewhere. Malagasy is divided across its twelve dialects between two main dialect groups; Eastern and Western. The central plateau of the island, where the capital Antananarivo and the old heartland of the Merina Kingdom is located, speaks the Merina dialect. The Merina dialect is the basis of Standard Malagasy, which

2464-519: The Ma'anyan language , still spoken on Borneo . Malagasy also includes numerous Malay loanwords, from the time of the early Austronesian settlement and trading between Madagascar and the Sunda Islands. After c.  1000 AD , Malagasy incorporated numerous Bantu and Arabic loanwords brought over by traders and new settlers. Malagasy is spoken by around 25 million people in Madagascar and

2552-401: The 17th century, they found an Arabico-Malagasy script in use, known as Sorabe ("large writings"). This Arabic-derived Sorabe alphabet was mainly used for astrological and magical texts. The oldest known manuscript in that script is a short Malagasy-Dutch vocabulary from the early 17th century, which was first published in 1908 by Gabriel Ferrand though the script must have been introduced into

2640-495: The 17th century. They preached in the southeastern parts of the country. The Antanosy prince Andriandramaka is the first known Malagasy receiving baptism. The first formal European-style school was established in 1818 on the east coast of Madagascar at Toamasina by members of the London Missionary Society (LMS). King Radama I, the first sovereign to bring about half the island of Madagascar under his rule,

2728-500: The Bible as the principal Malagasy-language text, departed the island. James Cameron and other key missionaries preferred to leave rather than remain on the island without authorization to proselytize. The last two remaining missionaries chose to continue teaching practical skills in the hope that the restrictions might loosen, but one year later, after receiving indirect information that the government desired their departure, they shuttered

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2816-675: The Crown, and as such were largely nominal, with the majority of converts practicing a syncretic blend of Christian and traditional religions. Rainilaiarivony's biographers conclude that his conversion was also largely a political gesture and most likely did not denote a genuine spiritual shift until late in his life, if ever. Some local officials attempted to force conversions to Protestantism by mandating church attendance and persecuting Catholics, but Rainilaiarivony quickly responded to quell these overzealous practices. The prime minister's criminalization of polygamy and alcohol consumption, as well as

2904-559: The Indian Ocean from Java to Madagascar. It is likely that they went through the Maldives , where evidence of old Indonesian boat design and fishing technology persists until the present. The migrations continued along the first millennium, as confirmed by linguistic researchers who showed the close relationship between the Malagasy language and Old Malay and Old Javanese languages of this period. The Malagasy language originates from

2992-443: The LMS mission and left Madagascar. Pursuant to the 26 February decree, those who possessed a Bible, worshiped in congregation, or continued to profess adherence to Christianity were fined, jailed, manacled, subjected to tangena or another trial by ordeal, or executed. Lurid accounts of the execution and torture of Christians were reported by missionaries with informants on the island who placed emphasis on what they perceived as

3080-510: The Old Testament was completed and the first copies were printed. The freedom allowed to LMS and Malagasy Christians to print religious materials and teach religion in the state schools during the first six years of Ranavalona's reign allowed Christianity to become firmly established among a small but growing group of converts in and around the capital. In 1831, Ranavalona authorized Malagasy attendance at church services, administration of

3168-602: The Protestant London Missionary Society to establish schools and churches. The first book to be printed in Malagasy using Latin characters was the Bible , which was translated into Malagasy in 1835 by British Protestant missionaries working in the highlands area of Madagascar. The current Malagasy alphabet consists of 21 letters: a, b, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, v, y, z. The orthography maps rather straightforwardly to

3256-504: The Southeast Barito languages , and the Ma'anyan language is its closest relative, with numerous Malay and Javanese loanwords. It is known that Ma'anyan people were brought as labourers and slaves by Malay and Javanese people in their trading fleets, which reached Madagascar by c.  50 –500 AD. Later, c.  1000 , the original Austronesian settlers mixed with Bantus and Arabs , amongst others. There

3344-512: The Tandroy features photo exhibitions and displays traditional arts and handicrafts; a model Tandroy house may be visited on the adjacent grounds. Malagasy language Malagasy ( / ˌ m æ l ə ˈ ɡ æ s i / MAL -ə- GASS -ee ; Malagasy pronunciation: [malaˈɡasʲ] ; Sorabe : مَلَغَسِ ) is an Austronesian language and dialect continuum spoken in Madagascar . The standard variety, called Official Malagasy,

3432-495: The ancestors by entering a trance state called bilo . Crocodiles are commonly feared among the Tandroy, and members of the Zafindravoay clan believe they are the descendants of a union between a Tandroy woman and a crocodile. In addition, the kokolampo spirit is believed to be able to exert positive or negative influence over events in the life of a Tandroy. Christianity was introduced in southern Madagascar beginning in

3520-467: The ancestors, the quintessence of good and blessings ... She was the custodian of a holy trust ... Christianity was therefore treason ... in Ranavalona's words it was "the substitution of the respect of her ancestors, Andrianampoinimerina and Radama , for the respect of the ancestor of the whites: Jesus Christ ." She saw the introduction of a new religion as a political act, and there

3608-610: The ancestors; for instance, the Malagasy may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional burial rites or invite a Christian minister to consecrate a famadihana reburial. In 2022, the World Religion Database stated that 58% of the country was Christian; 30.88% of the population were Protestant, 25.28% were Catholic and there were a few followers of other Christian groups. Other surveys suggested that approximately 34% were Catholic and 36.5% were Protestant. The Malagasy Council of Churches comprises

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3696-410: The ban on church service attendance to all Malagasy. From 1832 to 1834, baptisms and church services continued, increasingly in secret. During this time, several Christians each year were charged with witchcraft and exiled or made to undergo the tangena ordeal , and Ranavalona requested the departure of three missionaries, retaining only those whose particular technical skills she viewed as valuable to

3784-411: The community. After laying in state for several days, the deceased's body is placed in a coffin, and more zebu are slaughtered. The mood at this ceremony can be celebratory, and among some Tandroy, community members will pick up the coffin and run into the sea with it. Afterward the coffin is placed in a tomb for the male head of household and his immediate family members. Like the neighboring Mahafaly ,

3872-445: The construction of their houses. Also unlike most Malagasy ethnic groups they rely more heavily on tubers, yams, millet and other crops that are less dependent on water for cultivation than the rice so prevalent elsewhere on the island. The herding of zebu remains the principal economic activity of the Tandroy, and their tombs are commonly decorated with numerous zebu skulls as an indication of wealth. The name Tandroy means "people of

3960-401: The country, established by previous monarchs who were her ancestors. The queen's legitimacy depended entirely on her relation to her predecessors, who had given the kingdom to her. Furthermore ... she was queen because she was the descendant of the royal ancestors, who were in a mystical sense the ancestors of all the Merina. To deny her mystical power was to repudiate not only her but also

4048-438: The customs and rites of our ancestors. Nevertheless, whoever breaks the laws of my kingdom will be put to death—whoever he may be. I welcome all wisdom and all knowledge which are good for this country. It would be a waste of time and effort to grab the customs and rites of my ancestors. Concerning religious practice—baptism or assemblies—it is forbidden for my people who inhabit this land to take part whether on Sunday or during

4136-421: The day of their marriage. In this ceremony the supernatural royal talismans were ordered to be destroyed and replaced by the Bible. The Christianization of the court and the establishment of the independent royal Protestant chapel on the palace grounds prompted the wide-scale conversion of hundreds of thousands of Malagasy. These conversions were commonly motivated by a desire to express political allegiance to

4224-442: The declaration of Sunday as a day of rest , were likewise inspired by the growing Protestant influence in the country. Approximately 4.5% of the population practiced traditional beliefs according to the Pew Research Center in 2010. A survey in 2020 put this figure at 39.22%. This traditional religion attributes all of creation to a single god, called Zanahary or Andriamanitra. In addition, it tends to emphasize links between

4312-588: The environment they inhabit has historically served to largely isolate and protect them from attack by other Malagasy ethnic groups; the French also struggled to exert authority over the Antandroy after colonization. After national independence from France in 1960, the Tandroy (as well as the Merina) became the most common practitioners of interethnic marriage, in large part to the frequent migration of Tandroy men in search of economic opportunity. Tandroy families are patriarchal and women are expected to be subordinate to

4400-535: The fifth largest ethnic group on the island. The inhabitants of the Tandroy region identify with one of two distinct traditions. The oral history of the Karimbola clan inhabiting the western portion of Tandroy does not describe a migration into the area, but rather implies the inhabitants were always present. In the early 18th century, the westernmost portion of Tandroy was conquered by the Menarandra dynasty of

4488-543: The figure at 58%. Malagasy Christianity is generally practised in syncretic form with traditional religious practices . Protestantism was introduced by the first envoys of the London Missionary Society in 1818, who proselytized and taught literacy through a Malagasy language Bible at the public schools they established in the highlands at the request of King Radama I . The number of converts remained low but gradually grew under repression during

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4576-539: The following ways: After a stressed syllable, as at the end of most words and in the final two syllables of some, /a, u, i/ are reduced to [ə, ʷ, ʲ] . ( /i/ is spelled ⟨y⟩ in such cases, though in monosyllabic words like ny and vy , ⟨y⟩ is pronounced as a full [i] .) Final /a/ , and sometimes final syllables, are devoiced at the end of an utterance . /e/ and /o/ are never reduced or devoiced. The large number of reduced vowels, and their effect on neighbouring consonants, give Malagasy

4664-408: The four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations (Catholic, Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar , Lutheran , and Anglican ) and has been an influential force in Malagasy politics. In the disputed 2001 presidential elections, the council rallied behind Protestant candidate Ravalomanana, whose electoral slogan was "Don't be afraid, only believe." The Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar ,

4752-498: The fundamentals of Christian theology. These schools also provided Radama with a ready pool of educated conscripts for his military activities; consequently, some andriana families sent slave children to spare their own offspring from the perils of military life, exposing an educated minority among the lower classes of Merina society to the tenets of Christianity. An additional 600 students received vocational training under Scottish missionary James Cameron . Despite high attendance at

4840-507: The instrument's tuning. The lokanga is a stringed instrument popular with the Tandroy that has a gourd resonator and is played with a bow, much like the jejy voatavo played further north, but with the resonator carved to resemble a three-stringed fiddle . Tandroy vocal music features rich polyharmonic melodies. The unique traditional dances of the Tandroy are performed with spears and accompanied by distinctive music punctuated with shrill whistles and fipple flutes . The Tandroy speak

4928-506: The island of Borneo – were particularly closely related. The language also has apparent influence from early Old Malay . Furthermore, there appears to be a Bantu influence or substratum in Malagasy phonotactics (Dahl 1988). There are some Sanskrit loanwords in Malagasy, which are said to have been borrowed via Malay and Javanese . Adelaar (1995) suggested that the vocabulary of Malagasy also contains many words that are of South Sulawesi origin. Further evidence for this suggestion

5016-477: The island), raised on low stilts, topped with a peaked roof and constructed of vertically-hung planks of wood affixed to a wooden frame. These houses traditionally have no windows and feature three wooden doors: the front door is the women's entrance, the door at the rear of the house is for children, and the third door is used by the men. Fences are often constructed around Antandroy houses using prickly-pear cactus ( raketa ) or lengths of indigenous succulents from

5104-462: The late 19th century, predominantly by Lutheran missionaries; this remains the predominant form of Christianity among the Tandroy, although most continue to adhere to traditional beliefs. Mpisoro soothsayers are a common feature of Tandroy village society and are a respected authority in traditional communities. The Tandroy consume less rice than the average Malagasy because of the extreme aridity of Toliara province. They have rather subsisted on

5192-412: The latter when followed by unstressed /i/ : Thus French malgache [malɡaʃ] 'Malagasy'. The velars /k ɡ ᵑk ᵑɡ h/ are palatalized after /i/ (e.g. alika /alikʲa/ 'dog'). /h/ is frequently elided in casual speech. The reported postalveolar trilled affricates /ʈʳ ᶯʈʳ ɖʳ ᶯɖʳ/ are sometimes simple stops, [ʈ ᶯʈ ɖ ᶯɖ] , but they often have a rhotic release, [ʈɽ̊˔ ᶯʈɽ̊˔ ɖɽ˔ ᶯɖɽ˔] . It

5280-434: The living and the razana (ancestors). The veneration of ancestors has led to the widespread tradition of tomb building, as well as the highlands practice of the famadihana , whereby a deceased family member's remains may be exhumed to be periodically re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds before being replaced in the tomb. In the 2010, many Christians integrated their religious beliefs with traditional ones related to honoring

5368-402: The males in their family. Circumcision is an important ritual for male Tandroy, and among some communities the foreskin is shot from the barrel of a gun in celebration. The Tandroy share the common Malagasy beliefs in a creator god and the eternal life and power of the ancestors, who intervene in the affairs of the living and who must be respected. The Tandroy commune with and can be possessed by

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5456-478: The neighboring Mahafaly people. In the eastern portion of Tandroy, the original population of the Mahandrovato clan was gradually outnumbered by Antanosy and Bara refugees. By the early 18th century a centralized confederation emerged to unite all those living between the Menarandra and Mendare rivers. This confederation was ruled by a dynasty of Zafimanara, a sub-group of the Mahandrovato clan, which gave

5544-528: The penultimate syllable, unless the word ends in ka , tra and often na , in which case they are stressed on the antepenultimate syllable. Secondary stresses exist in even-numbered syllables from the last stressed syllable, when the word has more than four syllables ( fàmantàranàndro [ˌfamˌtarˈnandʐʷ] "watch, clock"). Neither prefixation nor suffixation affect the placement of stress. In many dialects, unstressed vowels (except /e/ ) are devoiced, and in some cases almost completely elided ; thus fanòrona

5632-480: The phonemic inventory. The letters i and y both represent the /i/ sound ( y is used word-finally, and i elsewhere), while o is pronounced /u/ . The affricates /ʈʂ/ and /ɖʐ/ are written tr and dr , respectively, while /ts/ and /dz/ are written ts and j . The letter h is often silent. All other letters have essentially their IPA values. The letters c, q, u, w and x are all not used in native Malagasy words. Mp and occasionally nt may begin

5720-649: The region and its people the name Tandroy. Zafimanara power waned around 1790 when significant flooding and the consequent ecological upheaval prompted them to flee to the Manombo plateau. The Tandroy have never been part of the Merina Kingdom. Throughout French colonization of Madagascar (1897-1960), the Tandroy - alongside the Mahafaly - were viewed as the most uncivilized of the island's ethnic groups. This perception spread among fellow Malagasy, establishing

5808-522: The reign of his successor, Queen Ranavalona I , and the more permissive religious policies of her son, Radama II , and his widow, Queen Rasoherina . The spread of Protestantism among the Merina upper classes by the mid-19th century, including Queen Ranavalona II , coupled with the growing political influence of the British missionaries, led Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony to legislate the conversion of

5896-417: The royal court. This prompted widespread popular conversion to Protestantism throughout the highlands in the late 19th century. Catholicism was introduced principally through French diplomats and missionaries beginning in the mid-19th century but only gained significant converts under French colonization of Madagascar beginning in 1896. The early spread of Protestantism among the Merina elite resulted in

5984-422: The sacrament, and baptism of her subjects. Within a year, the first 100 Malagasy were baptized out of an estimated 200 practicing Christians total; these converts were drawn from all social classes, including slaves, commoners, respected elders, court officials and even sampy guardians, who were considered the bulwarks of traditional culture. The conversion of major religious, political and social leaders sparked

6072-489: The savagery of the queen's actions. For instance, they reported the public execution of fifteen Christian leaders near the queen's palace who were dangled on ropes 150 feet above a rock-filled ravine before the ropes were cut upon their refusal to renounce Christianity. The Andohalo cathedral was constructed on this outcropping to commemorate early Malagasy Christians martyred at the site. The number of Malagasy citizens put to death for religious reasons during Ranavalona's reign

6160-405: The schools, the LMS were initially unsuccessful in converting pupils to Christianity. Near the end of Radama's reign, the king perceived the few Malagasy who had been converted as irreverent toward royal authority. He forbade Malagasy people from being baptized or attending Christian services. Radama died in 1828 and was succeeded by his widow, Ranavalona I . Her succession initially resulted in

6248-433: The second year of her reign, and 3,000 copies were printed and distributed between 1829 and 1830. From the beginning of her reign, Ranavalona forbade the distribution of books within the military to prevent subversion and preserve discipline. She allowed missionaries free rein in operating the printing press, however, and exempted from military service all Malagasy personnel trained to operate the press. In 1835, translation of

6336-472: The southeast area of Madagascar in the 15th century. The first bilingual renderings of religious texts are those by Étienne de Flacourt , who also published the first dictionary of the language. Radama I , the first literate representative of the Merina monarchy , though extensively versed in the Arabico-Malagasy tradition, opted in 1823 for a Latin system derived by David Jones and invited

6424-406: The state. In 1835, the queen attempted to shut down the press without directly targeting the LMS by banning Malagasy personnel from working at the printing house. The LMS missionaries, capitalizing on the absence of legal decrees against their own work at the press, managed to continue independently printing and distributing materials. Christianity involved a repudiation of the ancestral customs of

6512-415: The subjects of history and Malagasy language. There are two principal dialects of Malagasy: Eastern (including Merina ) and Western (including Sakalava ), with the isogloss running down the spine of the island, the south being western, and the central plateau and much of the north (apart from the very tip) being eastern. Ethnologue encodes 12 variants of Malagasy as distinct languages. They have about

6600-420: The surrounding spiny forests. As the southern arid region of Tandroy is hot much of the year, clothing among the Tandroy is often minimal. Traditional clothing is mainly made of hand-carded and spun cotton which is woven to form lamba wrappers and loincloths. Weaving continues to be done uniquely by women, who use a wooden spindle rolled against their thigh to twist the cotton into threads for weaving. Before

6688-401: The thorns" in reference to the spiny thickets of endemic plants that characterize the southwestern region of Madagascar . Their traditional homeland forms the modern Androy Region , which is roughly located between Amboasary and Beloha and between the ocean and Bekily ; the population is most concentrated around Ambovombe . There are around 600,000 Tandroy as of 2013. They constitute

6776-403: The thread is dipped in a stiffening solution it is called fole velo ("living yarn") and is believed to be imbued with spiritual power. For this reason, fole velo is used in numerous Antandroy rituals such as the circumcision ceremony, and is tied around others' wrists by an ambiasa (healer) to offer protection. Raw silk ( landy ) is also sometimes used to make clothing. The Tandroy adhere to

6864-420: The tomb to indicate the deceased's wealth. Transfer of the coffin to the tomb may take as long as several months while the building is completed. During this period of construction another two-day mourning ceremony takes place; zebu sacrifice and ritual wailing may again take place upon placing the coffin in the tomb. Once the coffin has been placed, stones are heaped over it to fill the tomb. The deceased's house

6952-420: The tombs of the Tandroy are called fanesy ("your eternal place"). These are large and rectangular - the larger the tomb, the more wealthy the man - and are decorated with colorful paintings. Tall stones are traditionally placed on each side to represent male and female; in recent years, towers are often constructed in lieu of the stones. The skulls of the zebu slaughtered for the funeral feast are placed on top of

7040-497: The valuable intellectual and technological contributions that European missionaries had made to the advancement of her country and invited them to continue working to that end on the condition that their proselytizing would cease: "To the English or French strangers: I thank you for the good that you have done in my land and my kingdom, where you have made known European wisdom and knowledge. Do not worry yourselves—I will not change

7128-465: The week. Concerning you, foreigners, you can practice according to your own manners and customs. Nevertheless, if skilled handiwork and other practical skills exist, which can profit our people, exercise these skills that good will come. These are my instructions which I make known to you." The majority of the London Missionary Society missionaries, whose primary activity was teaching Christian theology and literacy at their newly established schools using

7216-413: Was a pupil of Protestant missionaries and had converted to Christianity. Rainilaiarivony recognized the growing power of Christianity on the island and identified the need to bring it under his influence in order to avert destabilizing cultural and political power struggles. The prime minister encouraged the new queen to Christianize the court through a public baptism ceremony at Andohalo on 21 February 1869,

7304-495: Was declared the official version of the Malagasy language that year – a status that the highlands dialect has retained ever since. The Bible, which was incrementally translated into this dialect and printed on a press, was the first book printed in the Malagasy language and became the standard text used to teach literacy. Convinced that Western schooling was vital to developing Madagascar's political and economic strength, in 1825 Radama declared primary schooling to be compulsory for

7392-596: Was interested in strengthening ties with European powers; to this end, he invited LMS missionaries to open a school in his capital at Antananarivo within the Rova palace compound to instruct the royal family in literacy, numeracy and basic education. This first school, known as the Palace School, was established by LMS missionary David Jones on 8 December 1820 within Besakana, a Rova building of great historic and cultural significance. Within months, classes were transferred to

7480-517: Was particularly reputed in the imperial period prior to French colonization in 1897. Today, many Antandroy men travel seasonally to neighboring areas to search for paid work. A museum dedicated to Tandroy culture and history operates within the Berenty Reserve , approximately two hours north of Taolagnaro . Described as "undoubtedly the best ethnographic museum in Madagascar", the Museum of

7568-478: Was presented by Blench (2018). Malagasy is the demonym of Madagascar , from which it is taken to refer to the people of Madagascar in addition to their language. Madagascar was first settled by Austronesian peoples from Maritime Southeast Asia from the Sunda Islands ( Malay archipelago ). As for their route, one possibility is that the Indonesian Austronesian came directly across

7656-456: Was presumably killed and power effectively transferred to Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony . He was succeeded by Rainilaiarivony , who wed Radama's widow Rasoherina and governed from 1864 until his exile in 1895 following French capture of the capital in September 1894. Rainilaiarivony's second royal wife, Ranavalona II (crowned on 3 September 1868 following Rasoherina's death),

7744-411: Was succeeded by her reformist son, Radama II , who rapidly repealed many of his mother's policies. Freedom of religion was declared, persecution of Christians ceased, missionaries returned to the island, and their schools were authorized to be reopened. However, Radama's disregard for the counsel of his advisers' warning against too abrupt a process of modernization produced a coup d'état, in which Radama

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